LESSON 3: GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS: SCIENCE, HEALTH, AND POLITICS

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

●​ Identify issues on genetically modified organisms (GMOs);

●​ Discuss different implications and impact of GMOs; and
●​ Create a research paper on the impact of GMOs in the Philippine context.

Introduction

In 2001, Rosalie Ellasus, a former overseas Filipino worker in Singapore turned farmer, attended
the Integrated Pest Management — Farmers Field School and was introduced to Bt Corn, a genetically
modified corn that is resistant to the destructive Asian corn borer. Ms. Ellasus volunteered for
demo-testing in her field. Bt Corn yielded 7.2 tons per acre as compared to a regular yield of 4.2 tons per
hectare. No insecticide spraying was needed. This is one of the success stories of genetically modified
organisms (G MOs) (Ongkiko, 2016).

Genetic engineering has been with human society since selective breeding was introduced to
humankind and when animals were domesticated. Yet, the process of genetic alterations is all but
natural.

It was in 1951 that the term genetic engineering was coined by Jack Williamson, author of the
science fiction novel Dragon's Island (Stableford 2004). This was years before actual research findings on
the DNA's role in heredity and its structure, the double-helix of Watson and Crick, was published.
Through the continuous search for development, genetic engineering no longer stayed in a science
fiction novel. It became a reality in science laboratories. The general process of genetics is the deliberate
manipulation of the organism's genes, which it may involve the transfer of genes from another organism.

An antibiotic-resistant E. coli bacteria was created in 1973. To date, there is ongoing research on
GMOs such as using genetically modified male mosquitoes as pest control over female mosquito carriers
of the Zika virus.

However, despite the many possibilities of creating solutions for problems and opening doors for
innovations, genetic engineering faces much opposition. Opponents raise ethical, social, and
environmental issues related to genetic engineering and its GMOs.

This lesson will present the existence of genetic engineering. Specifically GMOs in the different
areas of life, their impact on humankind, and the controversies that surround them.

Genetically Modified Organism

Genetically modified organism (GMO) is the term used for an organism created through genetic
engineering. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2014) defines GMO as an "organism, either plant,
animal, or microorganism, in which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not
occur naturally by mating or natural recombination." Below is a diagram of how bacterial gene is
introduced through genetic engineering to plant cells and tissues to develop and breed a genetically
modified plant.

Figure 8. The Genetic Engineering Process on a Plant

The development of MOs was perceived to help in the advancement of technology for the
benefit of humans in different industries like agriculture and medicine.

GMOs in Food and Agricultural Industries

The Center for Ecogenetics and Environmental Health (CEEH, 2013) identified the following roles
of GMOs in the food and agricultural industries:

1.​ Pest resistance — genetically modified plants to resist certain pests.

An example is Bt Corn. The DNA (genome) of the Bt Corn has been modified with
the gene of Bacillus thuringiensis a soil bacterium that produces proteins which is toxic
to corn borers (worms).
2.​ Virus resistance — genetically modified plants to resist certain viruses.

An example is GM papaya or rainbow papaya. The papaya ringspot virus (PRSV)

is known to be detrimental to papaya plants. The protein of PRSV was introduced to the
papaya plant through plant tissue which turned out to be resistant to the virus itself. The
effect was like the vaccines humans have against measles or influenza virus.

3.​ Herbicide tolerance —genetically modified plants to tolerate herbicide.

 An example is Roundup Ready soybean. Glyphosate, an herbicide for weeds, was
introduced to soybeans making it tolerant to the herbicide itself. Farmers then can spray
the herbicide killing the weeds but not the soybeans.

4.​ Fortification — genetically modified plants fortified with certain minerals.

An example is Golden Rice. Beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, was

introduced through biosynthesis genes to the rice, making the rice grains fortified with
vitamin A.

5.​ Cosmetic preservation — genetically modified plants resist natural discoloration.

An example is Arctic Apple. The apple variety was genetically modified to

suppress the browning of apple due to superficial damage.

6.​ Increase growth rate — a genetically modified organism that has higher yield in growth
than normal species.

An example is AquAdvantage salmon. A gene from an ocean pout, an eel-like fish

was introduced to Pacific Chinook salmon, making the salmon grow faster than its
normal rate.

GMOs in Non-Food Crops and Microorganisms

Genetically modified organisms (G MOs) in non-food crops and some microorganisms involve the
following:

1.​ Flower production — GMOs in flower production are seen in modified color and
extended vase life of flowers.

Examples are Blue Roses. The so-called “blue” roses, which are, in reality, lilac or
purple, contained cyaniding 3,5-diglucoside, together with a large amount of flavonols.
The introduction of the flavonoid 31, 51-hydroxylase gene into pelargonidin- or
cyaniding-producing rose cultivars diverts the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway toward
the production of delphinine glucosides and the flower color to blue (Elomaa & Holton,
1994)
2.​ Paper production — modified characteristics of trees for higher yield of paper
production.

Examples are poplar trees. Lignin is a complex polymer in trees that is removed
from wood to make paper through kraft process, through inserting genes that code for
ferulic acid in young poplar trees, the lignin structure is modified, making lignin easier to
breakdown (Veniza, 2014).
3.​ Pharmaceutical productions — modified plants to produce pharmaceutical products.

Examples are periwinkle plants. Bacterial genes were added to the periwinkle
plant to enhance the production of vinblastine, an alkaloid usually added to drugs for
cancer treatments like Hodgkin's lymphoma (Runguphan, 2010).

4.​ Bioremediation — use of modified plants that can assist in the bioremediation of
polluted sites.

An example is shrub tobacco. Nicotiana glauca, or shrub tobacco genetically

modified with phytochelatin TaPCSII, is used for bioremediation. It shows high level
accumulation of zinc, lead, cadmium, nickel, and boron and produces high biomass.
 Figure 9. Nicotiana glauca

5.​ Enzyme and drug production — use of modified microorganisms that can produce
enzymes for food processing and medicines.

One example of this is CGTase. Cyclomaltodextrin glycosyltransferase (CGTase),

an enzyme used for food flavor enhancer, is produced in higher quantity by bacterium
Bacillus which was genetically modified with the gene of a thermophilic anaerobe,
Thermoanaerobacter, carrying CGTase (Pedersen & Jorgensen, 1995).

Figure 10. Thermoanaerobacter

Another example is artemesin. Artemesinic acid is a compound used as an

anti-malarial drug extracted from the sweet wordwood plant. Through genetic
engineering, it can be synthetically produced by yeast and bacteria with the sweet
wordwood plant gene (Zimmer, 2006).
 6.​ GMOs in the medical field — genetic engineering is playing a significant role in diagnosis
to treatment of human-dreaded diseases. It helps in the production of drugs, gene
therapy, and laboratory research.

One classic example is Humulin, the genetically engineered insulin used by Type
I diabetes patients who are insulin-dependent. In the past, insulin is extracted from the
pancreases

of pigs and cows that have caused allergic reactions to some diabetics using it. In 1978,
researche from the City of Hope National Medical rs Center and Genentech Biotechnology Company
were able to produce human insulin. Thegene for insulin was inserted to bacterial DNA that was able to
produce almost exactly the same human insulin. This was a breakthrough in the mass production of
human insulin. In 1996, modified human insulin was approved, called the Humalog.

Figure 11. Humulin, a sample of genetically engineered insulin.

Benefits of GMOs

Studies show some of the potential benefits of GMOs:

●​ Higher efficiency in farming — with the use of pesticide-resistant/herbicide-tolerant GMO crops,

there will be less use for herbicides/pesticides, and lower cost for labor and cultivation. Increase
in the harvest — GMO crops resistant to pests and diseases means an increase in potential
growth and harvest.
●​ Control in fertility — controlling the purity of the hybrid seeds (GMO seeds) ensures higher
yields.
 ●​ Increase in food processing — altered characteristics of GMO crops help ease food processing.
●​ Improvement of desirable characteristics — GMOs offer longer shelf life, enhanced color and
taste, enhanced production or reduction of enzymes, and other modified characteristics of
plants, animals, and microorganisms, 63.9)
●​ Nutritional and pharmaceutical enhancement — GM. if MO croix like maize fortified with lysine
and Golden Rice fortified with vitamin A and iron. There are now edible vaccines for viral and
diarrheal diseases.
●​ Reduce the use of fertilizer and pesticides

There are over 400 million acres of GMO farmlands all over the world. The top five countries that
operate GMO farmlands are the United States, Brazil, Argentina, India, and Canada. Some of the GMO
agricultural crops that have been approved for public consumption and are already in the market
include: alfalfa, corn, papaya, soya bean, sugar beets, and squash. Most of these GMO crops were made
to be resistant to pests. Some examples of common food with GMOs are Kellogg's Corn Flakes, Quaker
Chewy Granola Bars, Ultra Slim Fast, Quaker Yellow Corn Meal, and Alpo Dry Pet Food.

In the animal industries, there are ongoing researches like studies on Pacific salmon that grows twice
faster than the native salmon and chicken resistant to H5N1 bird flu viruses. However, these G MO
animals are all in research laboratory and not yet approved for public consumption.

Potential Risks of GMOs

Despite the promising claims of GMOs, the opponents of GMOs claim otherwise. For example,
there are studies that show a link between the adaption of pesticide-resistant GMO crops to the
significant growth of super weeds that became pesticide-resistant, too. This caused an additional
problem for more than 12 million acres of farms in the United States. Opponents of GMOs have the
following major concerns:

1.​ Since genetic engineering is still a young branch of science, there are inadequate studies on the
effects of GMOs on humans and the environment.
2.​ Genetic engineering promotes mutation in organisms and the long-term effect is still unknown.
3.​ Human consumption of GMOs might have the following effects:
●​ More allergic reactions —GMO food may trigger more allergic reactions, more so create
new ones, as a side effect of the gene alteration.
●​ Gene mutation — GMO food may develop abnormalities and mutation, more than the
desired product of the gene alteration.
●​ Antibiotic resistance — GMO food contains antibiotic-resistant genes; this may cause
disease-causing bacteria likely to be more antibiotic-resistant too, increasing the
possibility of widespread the disease.
●​ Nutritional value — GMO food may have a change in its nutritional value.

Potential Environmental Risks Caused By GMOs

Karki (2006) summarized the perceived potential environmental risks caused by GMOs. The identified
major risks are the following:

1.​ Risk in gene flow — there is a potential risk of the modified gene being transferred from the
GMO crop to its wild relative or organism in the soil and human intestine (when ingested). For
example, a decaying GMO plant could possibly transfer the modified genes to the bacteria and
fungi in the soil. Bacteria and fungi are capable of using genetic material from their
surroundings. There are no studies yet on the effects of the absorbed modified gene on other
organisms.
2.​ Emergence of new forms of resistance and secondary pests and weed problems — GMO crops
resistant to certain pesticides may trigger a new form of pest resistance while GMO
herbicide-tolerant crops may lead to the overuse of the herbicides which may trigger a new form
of weed resistance.
3.​ Recombination of Virus and Bacteria to Produce New Pathogens — the modified gene can be
transferred and integrated into the viral or bacterial genes which may lead to viral or bacterial
gene modification or mutation. 1 his living modified virus and bacteria may then cause new
diseases that may affect other organisms including human beings.

Other direct and indirect environmental risks caused by GMOs (Molfino & Zucco, 2008):

1.​ Direct environmental risks are:

●​ Introduction of the GMOs in the natural environment may cause disruption of the natural
communities through competition or interference;
●​ The possibility of unexpected behavior of the GMOs in the environment if it escapes its
intended use and may pose threats or become pest;
●​ May cause harmful effects on ecosystem processes if GMOs interfere with the natural
biochemical cycles; and
●​ The persistence of GMO genes after their harvest may cause negative impacts on the
consumer of GMO products.

2.​ Indirect environmental risks are:

●​ alteration of agricultural practices like managing negative impacts of GMOs on the
environment such as the evolution of insects, pests, and weeds that became resistant to
GMO crops;
●​ May have impacts on biodiversity caused by the alteration in agricultural practices; and
●​ May have varied environmental impacts due to GMOs interaction and release in the natural
environment.

Potential Human Health Risks caused by GMOs

A major concern in the use and consumption of GMOs is their effect on human beings, primarily
on human health. Some potential human health risks are identified (Akhter, 2001), such as:
 ●​ consumption of GMOs may have adverse effects since it is not naturally or organically produced;
consumption of GMOs may alter the balance of existing microorganisms in the human digestive
system;
●​ production of toxins may be detrimental to human health; and
●​ production of allergens may have adverse effects on humans.

Worldwide, there are many groups that campaign against GMO food consumption. They
encourage people to boycott GMO products and to be vigilant in checking if the food they buy has GMO
ingredients. In the Philippines, the Supreme Court has ruled against the use of Bt eggplant, another
genetically modified crop (Ongkiko, 2016).

Other potential risks that raise major concerns are:

●​ Human Genome Project (HGP) — Mapping of human genes to provide a framework for research
and studies in the field of medicine. It was feared that the ability to produce human genetic
information would create biases and give much power to people holding the information and to
the disadvantage of those who do not have the genetic information.
●​ Mutation of genetically engineered microorganisms — Genetically modified bacteria and viruses
may mutate to become more resistant or virulent which may cause more dreadful diseases for
human beings.
●​ Cloning — The asexual reproduction of an organism using parent cells through genetic
engineering. On February 24, 1997, the first mammal, Dolly, a sheep from Scotland, was born
through cloning. With its celebrated success came the fear of human cloning. It emerged the
ethical issue of man "playing God."

Scientists and medical practitioners would definitely continue to search for ways to preserve lives.
Genetic engineering is perceived to be a promising of the keys to this venture. Gene therapy and gene
alteration are promising ways to improve human health conditions.

On the other hand, great fears loom in the process of this quest. There are many things to be
considered before a certain medical process using genetic engineering be accepted.

These concerns were affirmed by the reports, of the World Health Organization. WHO reported
three major issues on GMOs that are in international public debates. These are the potential risks of
allergic reactions, gene transfer/flow, and outcrossing (WHO. 2014).

The primary issue on GMOs presented in public debate is their unnatural production or what is
termed to be a violation of nature. The creation of new organisms, like GMOs, poses moral issues in
defiance of natural laws. Another concern is the potential risks to the environment and human health, to
which so much is unknown yet.

Biosafety on GMOs
 There are initiatives for the protection of the general human population regarding the issues and
concerns about GMOs. International organizations developed principles and treaties that somehow
ensure biosafety on GMOs. Some of these initiatives are as follows:

●​ The Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex). The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)
together with the World Health Organization (WHO) created The Codex Alimentarius
Commission (Codex). Codex is an intergovernmental body that develops the Codex
Alimentarius, known as the International Food Code. Codex is responsible for the
development of standards, codes of practices, guidelines, and recommendations on food
safety. With the pressing issues and concerns on GMOs, in 2003, Codex developed principles
for the human health risk analysis of genetically modified (GM) food products. The principles
include pre-market assessments of GM food products and their evaluation of direct and
indirect effects. However, the Codex principles have no binding effect on national legislation
but through the sanitary and phytosanitary measures of the World Trade Organization,
national legislators are encouraged to complement their national standards with the Codex
Principles (WHO, 2014).
●​ Cartagena Protocol on Biosalety. Established in 2003, Cartagena Protocol is an international
environmental treaty that regulates the transboundary movements of Living Modified
Organisms (LM0s). The Cartagena Protocol requires exporters to seek consent from the
importers before its first shipment of LMOs (WHO, 2014).
●​ International Trade Agreement on labeling of GM food and food products. The agreement
requires exporters of GM food and food products to label their products and give rights to
importing parties to reject or accept the GM products. The premise of this policy is that
consumers have the right to know and the freedom to choose GM or non-GM products
(Whitman, 2000).

The World Health Organization (WHO, 2014) claims that all GM products that are available in the
international market have passed safety assessment by national authorities. The safety assessments
basically look at the environmental and health risk factors and food safety usually follows the Codex
Food Code.

GMOs in the Philippine Context

The introduction of GMOs in our country created issues and controversies similar to other
countries with GMOs. There are, of course, proponents and opponents of these issues.

The GMO concern started in the 1990s with the creation of the National Committee on Biosafety
of the Philippines (NCBP) through Executive Order No. 430 of 1990. The NCBP developed the guidelines
on the planned release of genetically manipulated organisms (GMOs) and potentially harmful exotic
species in 1998. In 2002, the Department of Agriculture released Administrative Order No. 8, the
guideline for the importation and release into the environment of GM plants and plant products. In that
same year, the entry of GMO importation started (Baumuller 2003). The Philippines was marked to be
the first country in Asia to approve commercial cultivation of GMOs when GM corn planting was
approved in 2002 (Serapio & cific Issues in Dela Cruz, 2016).
 From December 2002 to present, there are 70 GMO applications approved by the Department of
Agriculture for the release to the environment, 62 GMOs of which are approved for food feed and
processing and the remaining 8 were approved for propagation (Aruelo, 2016).

In 2004, the Philippines was classified by International Service for the acquisition of agri-biotech
applications as one of the fourteen biotech-mega countries which grow 50,000 hectares or more of GMO
crops annually (James, 2004). In that same year, Senator Juan Flavier authored a bill on the mandatory
labeling of food and food products with GMOs. The Senate did not pass the bill.

In 2006, the Philippines became part of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. In the same year,
Executive Order No. 514 was issued to address the biosafety requirements of the Cartagena Protocol and
the establishment of the National Biosafety Framework (N BF).

In 2010, the Organic Agriculture Act was issued, encouraging organic agriculture than
GMO-related agriculture. Prior to this act, there are several provinces like Negros Occidental and Negros
Oriental which agreed to support organic agriculture. There was the establishment of the Negros Organic
Island through a memorandum of agreement (MOA) between the two provinces in 2005. With this MOA,
the two provinces were able to ban the entry of GMOs and living GMOs into their provinces through
provincial ordinance. Similar to this case, Davao City passed the Organic Agriculture Ordinance in 2010.
This city ordinance helps the prevention of field testing of GM Bt eggplant in the UP Mindanao Campus
(Aruelo, 2016).

In 2012, Representative Teddy Casiiio, together with other congressmen, filed a bill pushing for
the mandatory labeling of GM food and food products. To date, there is no Philippine biosafety law, only
biosafety regulations formed under NBF.

A study on the biosafety regulations of the Philippines concluded that the existing regulation is
weak, which can be fixed through legislation such as a republic act (Richmond, 2006),

In December 2015, the Supreme Court ordered to put an end to the field testing of GMO Bt
eggplant and declared Administrative Order No. 8, series of 2002 of the Department of Agriculture as
null and void. This means that any actions or procedures related to GMO importations and propagation
is temporarily put to stop until a new administrative order is issued in accordance with the law.

In March 7, 2016, five government agencies namely, the Department of Science and Technology,
Department of Agriculture, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Department of Health,
and Department the Interior and Local Government, passed a Department Circular No. 1, series of 2016
on rules and regulations for the research and development, handling and use, transboundary movement,
release in the environment, and management of the genetically modified plant and plant products
derived from the use of modem biotechnology. This joint department circular paves the way to the
issuance of new permits for planting and importing GM crops in the country,

Summary

Genetic engineering is an emerging field of science. Its quests are to preserve and prolong life. In
more than four decades since the first genetically modified bacteria were produced, thousands of
genetically modified organisms have been created and propagated. Some are approved by experts and
government authorities for human use and consumption while others are kept in institutional research
laboratories subject to more experiments.

There are advantages and disadvantages to using genetic engineering in both fields of medicine
and food and agriculture, there are controversies that are still debatable up to the present. The major
concern of the opponents is the long-term effect of GMOs on humans while the proponents' flagship is
the success stories of the GMO recipients. There is still a long way to go for GMOs to prove itself, as
humans seek answers to life's predicaments or as humans play like God.

Think about these questions

1.​ How would you reconcile the advantages and disadvantages that GMOs bring to humans?
2.​ When do you think should the pursuit of GMOs research stop?
3.​ Is genetic engineering a pure scientific process or it is indeed an act of humans playing like God?

ACTIVITIES

1.​ Agree or Disagree. Discuss the topics below according to your opinions. Group yourselves
based on your opinions (If you agree or disagree). Within your group, prepare pointers for
your discussion. After which, face the other group and start a debate. Topics:

a)​ Use of genetically modified milk from animals for human baby consumption
b)​ Economic concerns over moral issues on GM food and food products

2.​ Research Work. Write an individual research paper on the impacts of GMOs on one of the
following topics:

a)​ Golden Rice of the International Rice Research Institute

b)​ Genetically modified organism produced by Philippine researchers
c)​ Issues on Philippine biosafety policies