A project report on

Cancer: Causes and Treatment

Submitted to

Department of Biotechnology
Sharda School of Engineering & Technology

For the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

B Tech in Biotechnology

Submitted by:

Aarav Thakur
Atraesha Kundu
Kashish Bidhuri
Khushboo Choudhary
Nitin Kumar Yadav
Prem Ansh Shah
Swarneema Thapa
Under the Guidance of

Dr. Monika Jain Prof Rajesh R Kannan

Associate Professor Head of the Department
Department of Biotechnology Department of Biotechnology
SSBT SSBT
Sharda University Sharda University
Greater Noida Greater Noida
Declaration

We hereby declare that this submission is our own work and that, to the best of our knowledge
and belief. It does not contains any matter previously published or written by another person nor
material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or
diploma of the university or other institute of higher learning, except where due acknowledgment
has been made in the text.

Name and Signature of student

Aarav Thakur

Atraesha Kundu

Kashish Bidhuri

Khushboo Choudhary

Nitin Kumar Yadav

Prem Ansh Shah

Swarneema Thapa
Certificate

This is to certify that the project report entitled “Cancer: Causes and Treatment” which is
submitted by Aarav Thakur, Atraesha Kundu, Kashish Bidhuri, Khushboo Choudhary, Nitin
Kumar Yadav, Prem Ansh Shah And Swarneema Thapa in partial fulfillment of the requirement
of the award of B.Tech. in Biotechnology degree from Department of Biotechnology, Sharda
School of Engineering & Technology, Sharda University, is a record of the candidate’s own
work carried out under my supervision. The matter embodied in this thesis is original and has not
been submitted for the award of any other degree.

Dr. Monika Jain

Associate Professor

Department of Biotechnology

Sharda School of Engineering & Technology

Date:
Acknowledgement

We would like to express our heartfelt gratitude to Professor Dr. Monika Jain for her invaluable
guidance, unwavering support, and encouragement throughout the course of this report. Her
expertise, insightful feedback, and patience have significantly contributed to the successful
completion of this work.

We deeply appreciate the time and effort she dedicated to helping us refine our ideas and expand
our understanding of the subject. Her constant motivation and constructive criticism have been
instrumental in shaping the direction of this report.

We are truly grateful for her mentorship, which has played a pivotal role in enhancing our
academic and professional growth. It has been an honor to work under her guidance.

Thank you, Professor Dr. Monika Jain, for your continued support and encouragement.
Contents

S.N Topic Name Page Number

1 Overview 1
2 Causes of cancer 1-8
Genetic Variables 1
Elements of the Environment 2
Aspects of the Lifestyle 4
Aspects of the Biology 6
3 Treatment of Cancer 8-14
Surgery 8
Treatment with Radiation 10
Immunotherapy 11
Body’s Defense against Cancer 13
Transplanting Stem Cells 14
OVERVIEW

One of the most deadly and complicated diseases that impact people is cancer. It involves
aberrant cells growing out of control and invading and destroying healthy body tissue. Cancer is
thoroughly examined in this report, including its causes, forms, symptoms, diagnostic methods,
available treatments, and preventative measures. Millions of individuals are impacted by cancer
each year, making it a major global public health concern. It ranks second only to cardiovascular
disorders as a major cause of death. The disease is caused by genetic mutations that cause cells to
proliferate out of control. For efficient management and prevention, it is essential to comprehend
its causes and available treatments.

CAUSES OF CANCER

Genetic mutations that interfere with normal cell control are the cause of cancer. These
mutations are caused by a number of causes, including:

a.Genetic Variables

1.Gene mutations that are inherited (e.g., BRCA1 and BRCA2 for breast cancer)

Numerous factors, such as spontaneous mistakes made during DNA replication, exposure to
hazardous environmental substances, or parental inheritance, can result in gene mutations. Every
cell in the body has inherited mutations, sometimes referred to as germline mutations, which can
greatly raise the risk of getting cancer. For example, the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are in charge
of maintaining genetic stability and fixing damaged DNA. However, these genes' activity is
compromised by mutations, which raises the risk of ovarian and breast malignancies and causes
unchecked cell growth.
In addition to BRCA1 and BRCA2, other genes like TP53, PTEN, and MLH1 have been
connected to colorectal, prostate, and melanoma cancers. These gene mutations increase the risk
of developing cancer by interfering with regular cellular functions like DNA repair and tumor
suppression. As a result, people who have a family history of cancer may be predisposed to the
disease by inheriting faulty genes.

2.Cancer in the family history

A powerful predictor of genetic risk is a family history of cancer. An inherited genetic mutation
is suggested when several family members from different generations are diagnosed with the
same or related cancers. Individuals who inherit a defective gene are more likely to acquire
cancer at an earlier age than those who do not inherit such genetic predispositions, as genetic
differences are passed down through generations. For instance, people who have Lynch
syndrome, which is brought on by mutations in the mismatch repair genes (MLH1, MSH2,
MSH6, PMS2), are more likely to develop endometrial and colorectal malignancies. Similarly,
TP53 gene mutations that cause Li-Fraumeni syndrome are linked to an increased risk of brain
tumors, leukemia, and breast cancer, among other cancers. Using family history to identify these
genetic risks can help prevent it.

b.Elements of the Environment

1.Exposure to carcinogens such as formaldehyde, benzene, and asbestos

The development of cancer is significantly influenced by exposure to carcinogens in addition to

genetic predispositions. Carcinogens are chemicals that change the DNA of cells or encourage
unchecked cell division, which can result in cancer. The most well-known carcinogens include
asbestos, benzene, and formaldehyde.
Formaldehyde, which is frequently present in construction materials, industrial products, and
domestic goods, has been identified as a carcinogen since it has been linked to nasopharyngeal
and leukemia cancer. Leukemia and other blood diseases have been related to benzoene, a
molecule found in gasoline, tobacco smoke, and industrial pollutants. Long-term inhalation of
asbestos, which was once commonly used in building materials, can result in lung cancer and
mesothelioma.
High levels or prolonged exposure to these carcinogens raise the risk of genetic alterations that
could result in the development of cancer. These hazards can be increased by lifestyle choices
like smoking, environmental pollution, and occupational exposure. Minimizing the

occurrence of cancer requires reducing exposure to carcinogens through personal precautions,

workplace safety regulations, and regulatory actions.

2.Exposure to radiation (nuclear, X-ray, and UV radiation from the sun)

Another important environmental element that might cause cancer is radiation exposure.
Radiation can cause mutations in cellular DNA, which could lead to unchecked cell proliferation.
The three main radiation sources that have been connected to cancer are ultraviolet (UV)
radiation from the sun, X-ray radiation, and nuclear radiation.

High-energy particles released by nuclear radiation, which is frequently connected to atomic

bomb explosions, nuclear power plants, and radiation therapy, enter cells and change DNA.
Leukemia, thyroid cancer, and lung cancer are among the cancers that have been connected to
prolonged exposure to nuclear radiation. Workers in radiation-intensive areas and survivors of
nuclear accidents are more likely to get these illnesses.
Ionizing radiation from X-rays, which are frequently employed in medical imaging techniques,
can damage DNA if exposed to it for an extended period of time or in excess. Even if exposure
levels are reduced by current medical procedures, those who get regular X-ray scans without
taking the required measures may be more susceptible to cancer, especially in regions where
cells divide quickly.

One of the most common causes of radiation exposure is the sun's UV rays. Long periods of
unprotected UV exposure harm skin cells, resulting in genetic changes that raise the chance of
developing skin malignancies such as melanoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and basal cell
carcinoma. Concentrated UV radiation from tanning beds is another major hazard.

c.Aspects of Lifestyle
1.Tobacco usage and smoking (which can cause malignancies of the mouth, throat, and
lungs)

One of the main causes of cancer in the globe is tobacco use, especially smoking. Thousands of
dangerous compounds, many of which are carcinogenic, are found in cigarettes. These harmful
chemicals directly reach the cells lining the mouth, throat, and lungs when tobacco smoke is
inhaled, causing a series of cellular damaging events that may result in cancer. Benzopyrene, a
strong carcinogen that binds directly to DNA and causes mutations that impede normal cell
growth and function, is one of the most hazardous substances found in tobacco smoke. These
mutations build up over time, causing unchecked cell division, which is a defining feature of
cancer. The body's natural defenses are weakened by prolonged exposure to carcinogens in the
mouth, throat, and lungs, making healing more challenging.

Smoking also produces reactive oxygen species (ROS), which contribute to oxidative stress and
further genetic changes as well as inflammation. In addition to causing aberrant cell growth,
smoke's long-term irritation of tissues raises the risk of developing squamous cell carcinoma in
the mouth and throat.

Cigarette smoke contains carcinogenic components that damage the cilia and protective
epithelial lining of the lungs, which are in charge of expelling noxious substances. Small-cell and
non-small-cell lung cancers are the most prevalent types brought on by smoking, and this
damage fosters an environment that is favorable to malignant growths. Heavy smokers have a far
higher chance of getting lung cancer than non-smokers, and the risk is increased with prolonged
exposure.
2.Obesity and poor diet (associated with pancreatic, breast, and colon cancer)

Poor eating habits and obesity have been closely associated with a higher chance of developing
breast, colon, and pancreatic cancer, among other cancers. An environment that is favorable to
tumor growth is created by insulin resistance, hormonal abnormalities, and chronic
inflammation, all of which are facilitated by excess body weight.

Pro-inflammatory cytokines secreted by fat tissue, especially visceral fat around internal organs,
have the ability to damage DNA and interfere with regular cellular activity. Persistent
inflammation puts cells under constant stress, which raises the risk of mutations and the
development of cancerous tumors. Furthermore, obesity is linked to higher levels of insulin and
insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), which both encourage cell division and prevent planned cell
death, so permitting unchecked expansion of malignant cells.
A diet heavy in processed foods, refined carbohydrates, and bad fats increases the risk of
developing cancer. Overconsumption of red and processed meats has been associated with
colorectal cancer because cooking produces carcinogenic substances such polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons and heterocyclic amines. Low fiber consumption can also cause digestion to lag,
which exposes the intestinal lining to toxic substances for longer.
In the case of breast cancer, obesity and high-fat diets raise estrogen levels, which promote the
development of tumors that are hormone-receptor-positive. Women who have too much body fat,
especially after menopause, are more vulnerable because adipose tissue continuously produces
estrogen, which promotes the growth of breast cancer. A further cancer linked to obesity and bad
diet is pancreatic cancer. An environment where pancreatic cells are continuously stimulated
increases the likelihood of malignant mutations. Insulin resistance, a typical result of obesity,
leads the pancreas to overproduce insulin.

A balanced diet full of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean proteins is one aspect of a
healthier lifestyle that can dramatically reduce the risk of cancer. In order to avoid obesity-
related cancers, it is essential to maintain a healthy weight, lower inflammation, and control
hormone levels through regular physical activity.

3.Overindulgence in alcohol

An important risk factor for a number of cancers, including colorectal, esophageal, breast, and
liver cancers, is excessive alcohol use. Alcohol's metabolic byproducts, its function in producing
oxidative stress, and its effect on the body's capacity to repair DNA damage are just a few of the
ways it can contribute to the development of cancer. Acetaldehyde is a poisonous and cancer-
causing chemical that is produced when alcohol is broken down in the body. Acetaldehyde has
the ability to attach to proteins and DNA, resulting in mutations that cause unchecked cell
proliferation. Heavy drinkers are more likely to develop liver cancer because the liver, which is
primarily in charge of metabolizing alcohol, is especially susceptible to this damage.
Additionally, drinking alcohol causes oxidative stress, which results in the generation of reactive
oxygen species (ROS) that harm DNA and other biological components. The risk of mutations
and the emergence of cancer is raised by this oxidative damage. Alcohol also hinders the body's
absorption of vital nutrients, including folate, which is involved in DNA synthesis and repair.
The risk of developing cancer is significantly increased by a lack of essential nutrients. Alcohol
affects estrogen levels in breast cancer, which encourages hormone-driven tumor growth.
According to studies, even moderate alcohol use can raise estrogen levels, which puts women at
higher risk of developing hormone-receptor-positive breast tumors. Alcohol can also impair
immunity, making it harder for the body to identify and eliminate malignant cells before they
spread.

The incidence of alcohol-related malignancies can be considerably decreased by cutting back on

alcohol use or abstaining completely. Overall cancer prevention can be achieved by limiting
alcohol use to moderate levels, as advised by health organizations, and by leading a healthy
lifestyle and eating a balanced diet.

d.Aspects of Biology

1.Viral infections (e.g., Hepatitis B and C for liver cancer, Human Papillomavirus (HPV)
for cervical cancer)

There is a considerable correlation between the development of cancer and some viral infections.
By introducing genetic material into host cells, viruses can cause unchecked cell development
and interfere with regular cellular functions. Hepatitis B and C, which are connected to liver
cancer, and Human Papillomavirus (HPV), which is linked to cervical cancer, are among the
most well-established viruses that cause cancer.

The liver is the primary organ affected by the hepatitis B and C viruses (HCV and HBV), which
raise the risk of hepatocellular cancer and liver cirrhosis and cause chronic inflammation. These
viruses are transferred by unprotected sexual contact, sharing of needles, and receiving blood
transfusions. They are spread by blood and bodily fluids. Long-term liver damage, DNA
changes, and the eventual emergence of malignant cells are all consequences of chronic
infection.
Nearly all occurrences of cervical cancer are caused by the sexually transmitted virus known as
the human papillomavirus (HPV). Some high-risk HPV strains, such HPV-16 and HPV-18,
cause mutations that cause unchecked cell division by integrating their genetic material into
human cells. HPV is associated with vaginal, anus, and throat malignancies in addition to
cervical cancer. Regular screenings, such Pap tests, and HPV vaccination can greatly lower the
risk of malignancies linked to HPV.

2.Prolonged inflammation

Cancer has been found to be significantly influenced by chronic inflammation. Although

inflammation is the body's normal reaction to damage or illness, it can cause detrimental cellular
alterations if it persists over an extended period of time. A microenvironment that fosters tumor
genesis, growth, and metastasis is produced by chronic inflammation.

Cytokines and free radicals, which can harm DNA and cause mutations, are released by
inflammatory cells. Chronic hepatitis, inflammatory bowel disease, and recurring infections are
among the conditions that raise the risk of cancer in the affected organs. For instance,
Helicobacter pylori infection-induced chronic gastritis is a recognized risk factor for stomach
cancer. Likewise, chronic colon inflammation brought on by Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis
increases the chance of colorectal cancer.

Prolonged inflammation aids cancer cells in obtaining oxygen and nutrients, which promotes
their growth by encouraging angiogenesis, or the creation of new blood vessels. Furthermore,

inflammatory mediators prevent the immune system from getting rid of aberrant cells, which lets
tumors grow unchecked.

3.Unbalanced hormones

The development of cancer may be significantly influenced by hormonal abnormalities.

Hormones control a number of vital body processes, such as cell division and growth. Hormone-
sensitive malignancies like breast, prostate, and ovarian cancer are more likely to occur when
hormone levels are out of balance, which can happen naturally, as a result of drugs, or as a result
of medical problems.
For instance, endometrial and breast malignancies have been connected to women's high
estrogen levels. Similarly, men's elevated testosterone levels may play a role in the development
of prostate cancer. Obesity, endocrine diseases, and hormonal treatments can all lead to hormone
imbalances, which raises the risk of cancer.

TREATMENT OF CANCER

The kind, stage, and general health of the patient all influence the available treatment options.
Typical techniques consist of:

a.Surgery

1.Tumor and impacted tissue removal

Removing tumors and affected tissues surgically is still one of the best ways to treat cancer.
Surgery seeks to eradicate the main cause of cancer and stop the disease from spreading by
removing malignant cells. Different surgical approaches, such as minimally invasive treatments
and sophisticated resections, may be employed depending on the kind, stage, and location of the
cancer.

To get the best results, surgery is frequently used in conjunction with other forms of treatment
including radiation and chemotherapy. Debulking surgery may be used to shrink the tumor and
increase the effectiveness of further treatments when the entire tumor cannot be removed. Tumor
excision can greatly boost survival rates and enhance quality of life for people who receive an
early diagnosis.

2.The use of chemotherapy

Chemotherapy is a popular cancer treatment that uses potent medications to destroy cancer cells
that divide quickly. These medications, which can be given intravenously or orally, stop tumor
growth and spread by interfering with the process of cell division. To increase its effectiveness,
chemotherapy is frequently combined with other therapies including radiation therapy and
surgery. Chemotherapy is a vital treatment for cancer, but because it affects healthy cells, it can
also have negative consequences like nausea, exhaustion, and hair loss. Targeted medicines that
efficiently battle cancer while minimizing injury to healthy tissues have been made possible by
advancements in chemotherapy procedures.
3.Using medications to kill cancer cells

The unchecked proliferation of aberrant cells is a hallmark of cancer, a potentially fatal illness.
Medication has been a key component of many cancer therapies developed throughout the years
as a result of advances in medical research. These drugs function by either killing malignant
cells, stopping their development, or strengthening the body's immune system. They are mostly
administered as hormone treatment, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, and chemotherapy. In
order to combat cancer, it is essential to comprehend how these drugs work and how they affect
cancer treatment.

Chemotherapy is one of the most well-known cancer therapies. Chemotherapy medications target
cells that divide quickly, a characteristic of malignant development. By developed throughout the
years as a result of advances in medical research. These drugs function by either killing
malignant cells, stopping their development, or strengthening the body's immune system. They
are mostly administered as hormone treatment, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, and
chemotherapy. In order to combat cancer, it is essential to comprehend how these drugs work
and how they affect cancer treatment.

Chemotherapy is one of the most well-known cancer therapies. Chemotherapy medications target
cells that divide quickly, a characteristic of malignant development. By interfering with the cell
cycle, these medications stop cancer cells from proliferating and eventually cause them to die.
Chemotherapy, however, also damages healthy, rapidly proliferating cells, such those in the
digestive tract and hair follicles, resulting in adverse effects like tiredness, nausea, and hair loss.
Despite its side effects, chemotherapy remains an effective tool in reducing tumor size and
eliminating cancer cells.

Targeted therapy has become a ground-breaking method of treating cancer in addition to

chemotherapy. Targeted treatment targets certain molecules involved in the formation and
progression of cancer, in contrast to chemotherapy, which affects both healthy and malignant
cells. These medications are more accurate, efficient, and have fewer adverse effects because
they inhibit the aberrant signals that promote the growth of cancer. To increase the effectiveness
of treatment, drugs such as imatinib, for instance, are made to target certain proteins that promote
the growth of cancer cells.
Immunotherapy is another important development in the treatment of cancer. This technique uses
the immune system of the body to recognise and combat cancer cells.

Immunotherapeutic approaches include cancer vaccines, monoclonal antibodies, and checkpoint

inhibitors. These drugs aid in the immune system's recognition of cancer cells as dangers,
enhancing its ability to eradicate them. For individuals who might not react well to conventional
therapies, immunotherapy has shown promise in the treatment of malignancies such as lung
cancer and melanoma.

Another drug-based cancer treatment option is hormone therapy, which works especially well for
malignancies that are sensitive to hormones, such as prostate and breast cancer. By blocking
hormone receptors or lowering hormone levels, these drugs slow the growth of cancer.
Oestrogen receptor-positive breast cancer is frequently treated with medications like tamoxifen
and anstrozole, which greatly increase survival rates.

Even while these therapies are beneficial, problems still exist. Variable patient responses,
adverse effects, and drug resistance need for ongoing study and development. To increase
treatment effectiveness and reduce adverse effects, combination medicines, personalised
medicine, and nanotechnology developments are being developed. There is hope for improved
treatment results in the future as scientists and medical experts keep looking for innovative
methods to increase the efficacy of cancer drugs.

b. Treatment with Radiation

Another important cancer treatment technique is radiation therapy, which uses high-energy
radiation to kill cancer cells. By causing damage to the cancer cells' DNA, this therapy stops
them from proliferating and ultimately kills them. To increase its efficacy, radiation therapy is
frequently combined with other therapies like chemotherapy or surgery.

External beam radiation and internal radiation (brachytherapy) are the two main forms of
radiation therapy. External beam radiation is frequently used to treat brain, breast, and lung
tumours by delivering precise doses of radiation from outside the body to the afflicted area.
Brachytherapy, on the other hand, uses radioactive sources that are placed inside or close to the
tumour, offering a tailored treatment that reduces harm to nearby healthy tissue.
Radiation therapy can have adverse effects, such as weariness, skin irritation, and localised
discomfort, even if it is a successful treatment. However, improvements in medical technology,
such proton therapy and intensity-modulated radiation treatment (IMRT), have decreased side
effects and increased accuracy.

One of the best ways to find and destroy cancer cells is using high-energy radiation. This
treatment breaks the DNA of cancer cells, preventing them from dividing and growing further,
by administering precise radiation dosages to the afflicted regions. Radiation treatment targets
certain tumour areas, reducing the impact on healthy tissues, in contrast to chemotherapy, which
affects the entire body.

Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT) and Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy

(SBRT), two recent developments in radiation therapy, have greatly increased accuracy and
guarantee that cancer cells receive the highest possible therapeutic dosage while the surrounding
tissues are spared. Another cutting-edge method is proton therapy, which reduces side effects
and increases treatment efficacy by directing very concentrated radiation beams straight to the
tumour.

Radiation therapy has the potential to cause side effects such weariness, skin irritation, and
localised discomfort, despite its great effectiveness. Ongoing studies and technical
developments, however, keep improving these therapies, making them safer and more efficient
for patients.

c. Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy, which uses the body's immune system to identify and eliminate cancer cells, has
become a ground-breaking method of treating cancer. Immunotherapy is a highly focused and
frequently less hazardous therapeutic option since it strengthens the body's own defences against
cancer cells, in contrast to conventional therapies like chemotherapy and radiation that target
cancer cells directly.
Immunotherapy comes in a variety of forms, each with its own mode of action. Pembrolizumab
and nivolumab are examples of checkpoint inhibitors that function by inhibiting proteins that
stop immune cells from fighting tumours. T-cells are better able to identify and eliminate cancer
cells thanks to these inhibitors. Monoclonal antibodies, another type of immunotherapy, are
proteins created in a lab that attach to certain antigens on cancer cells, designating them for
immune system destruction.

Immunotherapy also shows promise in the form of cancer vaccinations. Cancer vaccines
encourage the immune system to identify and combat malignant cells, in contrast to conventional
immunisations that prevent diseases. Furthermore, altering a patient's immune cells to improve
their capacity to recognise and eradicate cancer is a component of adoptive cell treatment, such
as CAR-T cell therapy. Leukaemia and lymphoma are two blood malignancies that immune
system destruction.

Immunotherapy also shows promise in the form of cancer vaccinations. Cancer vaccines
encourage the immune system to identify and combat malignant cells, in contrast to conventional
immunisations that prevent diseases. Furthermore, altering a patient's immune cells to improve
their capacity to recognise and eradicate cancer is a component of adoptive cell treatment, such
as CAR-T cell therapy. Leukaemia and lymphoma are two blood malignancies that have
responded very well to this treatment method.

Immunotherapy has drawbacks even if it has several benefits, including as longer-lasting results
and fewer adverse effects than chemotherapy. Inflammation of healthy tissues is one immune-
related adverse effect that some individuals may encounter. Furthermore, not all tumours respond
well to immunotherapy, and studies are being done to increase its efficacy against additional
cancer types.

d. The body's defenses against cancer

Increasing the body's natural defences to fight cancer more successfully is one of the most
promising therapy approaches. One important tactic is to strengthen the immune system, which
may be accomplished in a number of ways, such as through modern immunotherapies, medicinal
treatments, and lifestyle changes.

When the immune system is operating properly, it can identify and destroy aberrant cells before
they become cancer. A healthy immune system lowers the risk of cancer. This is achieved by
regular exercise, a balanced diet high in antioxidants, getting enough sleep, and managing stress.
Additionally, by preparing the immune system to fight off infections, several vaccinations, such
the hepatitis B and HPV vaccines, can prevent malignancies caused by viruses.

Immunotherapy is essential in the medical sector since it strengthens the body's defences against
cancer.

Enhancing the body's defences through a combination of preventative measures and cutting-edge
medicines gives patients fresh hope as cancer therapy advances. Medical progress keeps pushing
the limits of what is feasible in the battle against cancer by incorporating immune-strengthening
techniques into cancer treatment.

1. Monoclonal antibodies and checkpoint inhibitors

Monoclonal antibodies and checkpoint inhibitors are two of the most effective immunotherapy
strategies for the treatment of cancer. With the use of checkpoint inhibitors, the immune system's
natural "brakes" may be removed, enabling a more powerful assault on cancer cells. These
inhibitors target proteins that cancer cells use to avoid immune detection, including PD-1, PD-
L1, and CTLA-4. Cancers include melanoma, non-small cell lung cancer, and some forms of
lymphoma have responded well to medications like nivolumab and pembrolizumab.
Conversely, monoclonal antibodies are proteins that have been created in a lab to identify and
bind to certain antigens found on cancer cells. These antibodies have the ability to either directly
inhibit the development of cancer cells or flag them for immune system destruction. Certain
monoclonal antibodies, like trastuzumab, inhibit the signals that propel tumour growth by
targeting receptors like HER2 in breast cancer. Some, such as rituximab, attach to B-cell
lymphoma surface proteins and cause immune-mediated destruction.

Monoclonal antibodies and checkpoint inhibitors have both transformed the treatment of cancer
by offering focused strategies with fewer adverse effects than traditional medicines. They are not
without difficulties, though. Immune-related unfavourable consequences, in which the immune
system unintentionally targets healthy organs, can occur in certain people. The goal of ongoing
research is to improve these treatments so that a wider spectrum of cancer patients may access
them and they become more successful.

e.Transplanting stem cells

1.Restoring damaged bone marrow in malignancies involving blood

For blood and bone marrow malignancies such leukaemia, lymphoma, and multiple myeloma,
stem cell transplantation is an essential therapeutic option. Through this process, healthy stem
cells that have the potential to differentiate into new blood cells are used to replace damaged or
destroyed bone marrow. Restoring the body's capacity to generate healthy blood cells following
rigorous therapies like chemotherapy or radiation is the main objective of stem cell
transplantation.

Autologous and allogeneic stem cell transplantation are the two primary varieties. The patient's
own stem cells, which are extracted before to treatment and reinfused following therapy, are
employed in autologous transplantation. This method lowers the possibility of immunological
rejection. In contrast, allogeneic transplantation can help replace damaged bone marrow with
healthy cells by using stem cells from a suitable donor. Graft-versus-host disease, in which the
donor cells target the patient's tissues, is a danger associated with this procedure.

Haematologic cancer treatment has been transformed by stem cell transplantation, which has
greatly increased survival rates. The efficacy of stem cell treatments in the treatment of cancer is
being further increased by new methods like gene editing and immune-modulating tactics as
research progresses.