Qualities of Measurement

Meaning of Measurement:
The fundamental and underlying purpose of measurement in industrial
manufacturing and processing is to aid in the economics of industrial
operations by improving either quality of product or the efficiency of
production.
If the primary purpose of making a measurement is to determine a
quality of product , then, one should measure that quality directly.
Direct measurement is not possible always then indirect measurement is
required.
In indirect measurement an empirical relation is generally established
between the measurement actually made and the results that are desired.
The Elements of Instruments:
 A measuring instrument is simply a device for determining the value of a quantity or
condition. The purpose served by the instrument is first to determine the value of some
phenomena.

The instrument does not necessarily have to indicate, signal, record or otherwise make
known what value it has determined.

On the other hand, it may be required to indicate, record, register, signal or perform some
operation on the value it has determined.

The value determined by the instrument is generally, but not necessarily quantitative.

 Ex: An instrument for the measurement of the presence of acid in a chemical solution may
simply answer yes or no.

Functions of the instruments:

Transmitting, in which the instrument is intended to convey
information concerning the measured quantity over some distance
to remote point.
The value of measured quantity never be made known, because it
may be used for some other purpose. A homely example is the
telephone.
Signaling, where the instrument only indicates the general value or
range of values of its measured quantity.
Some grocer’s scales for example, show only that the weight is too
little or too great.
Registering, in which the instrument merely indicates, by numbers or some
other symbol of discrete increments, the value of some quantity.
A cash register and certain water meters only register incremental
quantities.
Indicating, in which an instrument provides the some kind of calibrated
scale and pointer. The value of quantity may be red on the scale to any
fraction with in limitations of instrument or human eye.
Ex: Most clocks.
Recording, in which an instrument makes a written record, usually on
paper, of the value of the measured quantity against some other variable or
against time.
Any combination of these may be found in measuring instrument.
The quality of control action is often determined by the quality of
measuring means.

 Another function accomplished in an instrument is to perform various

manipulations on a measured variable.
Instrument used with combustion furnace takes the ratio of fuel flow
and air flow.
Differential pressure instrument may measure the difference in
pressure between two pints in a process.
All instruments contain various parts that perform prescribed
functions in converting a variable quantity or condition into a
corresponding indication.
The process of conversion in an instrument is necessary inorder to
change the measured variable, a temperature, a pressure, a flow or
chemical composition into a more useful quantity such as displacement,
pressure, force or potential.
In most cases instrument convert measured variable into displacement.
Parts of the instrument:
Primary Element Secondary Element

Manipulation Functioning
Element Element
The primary element is the part of the instrument that first
utilizes energy from measured medium to produce a condition
representing the value of the measured variable.
In indicating thermometer, the thermometer bulb is the primary
element, because it first converts energy into fluid displacement,
which is proportional to the temperature at the bulb.

The secondary element merely converts the condition produced by

the primary element into a condition useful to the function of the
instrument.
In the example the secondary element is a pressure spring, which
converts into a displacement of a link.
The manipulating element performs given operations on the
condition produced by secondary element.
In the example, the motion of the pressure spring is modified by the
cam in order to correct for nonlinearity in preceding conversion
processes. The manipulation element some times precedes the
secondary element.
The functioning element simply denotes the part of an instrument
used for transmitting, signaling, registering, indicating or recording.
Automatic vs Manual instruments:
Automatic- does not require the service of operator in fulfilling its function.
Manual – requires the service of operator.
Hg in glass thermometer is automatic instrument.
Resistance thermometer with Wheatstone bridge is a manual instrument.
Another Classification: Based on source of power.
Hg thermometer derives power wholly from the thermal expansion of
mercury.
The power oriented instrument requires source of power such as compressed
air, electricity, hydraulic supply or a mechanical source of power.

A further classification is according to the type of arrangement.

Self contained instrument – such as room temperature
thermometer, all parts of the instrument from primary to
indicating element are contained in one physical assembly.
On the other hand there are instruments so used that the primary
element is located hundreds of feet from the secondary element. The
indicating may also be remotely located.
 Static Characteristics

The static characteristics of an instrument are, in general, those

that must be considered when the instrument is used to measure a
condition not varying with time.
These characteristics are :
Desirable Undesirable
Accuracy Static error
Reproducibility Drift
Sensitivity Dead zone
In indicating or recording instrument, the value of measured
quantity is indicated on a scale or a chart by a pointer or similar
means.
Highest point of calibration = b
Lowest point of calibration= a
•

or curve, which can be used for correcting instrument readings

Static error: The static error of an instrument is the difference
between true value of a quantity not changing with time and the
value indicated by instrument.
It is expressed as +x units or –x units.
True value + static error = instrument reading
For plus static errors instrument reads high and for minus static
errors the instruments reads low.
True value = instrument reading + static correction
Therefore static correction = - static error
Error calibration means that an industrial instrument has been
calibrated against some suitable standard and its error is determined
at a number of points of its scale. These data form an error.
 Reproducibility: It is the degree of closeness with which a given
value may be repeatedly measured.
Perfect reproducibility means the instrument has no drift.
Several types of drift may occur. The whole instrument calibration
may gradually shift by the same amount. This is some times called
zero drift due to some kind of simple effect such as permanent set or
slippage.
Zero drift describes the effect where zero reading of instrument is
modified by the change in ambient conditions. This causes a
constant error that exist over the full range of measuring
instrument.
Suppose in case of weight scales, the initial reading is 1kg when no
one the scale, if some one of known weight of 50 kg get on to the scale,
it shows 51 kg. If person is 70 kg it shows 71 kg.

Span drift: Span drift or sensitivity drift is a

proportional increasing or decreasing shift of the
measured value away from the calibrated value as the
measured value increases or decreases. (Zero drift)


(Span Drift)
This may be caused by a gradual change in a spring
gradient.
Zonal drift: A third kind of drift occurs when only one portion of a
calibration changes.

Drift may occur in thermocouples in thermocouples and resistance

thermometer elements because of contamination of metal and
changes in metallurgical or atomic structure.
Drift occurs in orifice flow meter because of wear and erosion of the
orifice plate.
Drift is an undesirable quality in industrial instruments, because
it rarely apparent and must be carefully guarded against by
continuous inspection and maintenance.

Sensitivity denotes the smallest change in value of a measured

variable to which instrument responds.
(or) sensitivity = change in output/change in input
Dead zone is the largest range of values of a measured variable to
which the instrument does not respond. This is some times called
dead spot or hysteresis.
In other words it is defined as the range of input values over which
there is no change in output value.
For Ex. 10 g weight on a 10 KG balance.
The dead zone usually occurs with friction in indicating or
recording instruments.
 Dynamic Characteristics
of Instruments

B Tech 5th Semester

Instrumentation and
Process control
Chemical Engineering

Instruments rarely respond instantaneously to

changes in measured variable. Instead they
exhibit characteristic slowness or sluggishness due
to such things as mass, thermal capacitance, fluid
capacitance or electric capacitance.
Further more delay in time is often encountered
where the instrument waits for some reactions to
take place.
Industrial instruments are always used for
measuring quantities that fluctuate with time.
Therefore the dynamic behavior is more
important than static behavior.
The dynamic behavior of an instrument is
determined by subjecting its primary element to
some known and predetermined variation in
measured quantity.
 The three most common variations are:
(1) step change in which the primary element is
subjected to instantaneous and finite change in
measured variable.
(2) linear change, primary element is following a
measured variable, changing linearly with time.
(3) Sinusoidal change, in which the primary
element follows a measured variable, the
magnitude of which changes in accordance with a
sinusoidal function of constant amplitude.

The dynamic behaviour of the measuring instruments

is judged for the following three types of inputs -
(i) Step Input
(ii) Linear Input
(iii) Sinusoidal Input

(i)Step Input- In this case, the input changes

instantaneously by a finite value and then remains
constant.
(ii)Linear Input- In this case, the input changes
linearly with time
(iii)Sinusoidal Input- In this case, the input changes
according to a sinusoidal function of constant
amplitude.
The dynamic characteristics of any
measurement system are:
(i) Speed of response and Response time
(ii) Lag
(iii) Fidelity Dynamic error
(iv)
Out of the above four characteristics the
Speed of Response and the Fidelity are desirable in
a dynamic system,
while Lag and Dynamic error are undesirable.

Speed of Response & Response Time

 Speed of Response is defined as the rapidity with
which an instrument or measurement system
responds to changes in measured quantity.
 Response Time is the time required by
instrument or system to settle to its final steady
position after the application of the input.
For a step input function, the response time may be
defined as the time taken by the instrument to settle
to a specified percentage of the quantity being
measured, after the application of the input.
 This percentage may be 90 to 99 percent depending
upon the instrument.
For portable instruments it is the time taken by the
pointer to come to rest within 0.3 percent of final scale
length.
For switch board (panel) type of instruments it is the
time taken by the pointer to come to rest within 1
percent of its final scale length.

Measuring Lag
 The delay in the response of an instrument to a
change in the measured quantity is known as
measuring lag.
 This lag is usually quite small, but this small
lag becomes highly important when high
speed measurements are required.
 In the high speed measurement systems, as in
dynamic measurements, it becomes essential
that the time lag be reduced to minimum.

Measuring lag is of two types :

i)Retardation type: In this type of measuring
lag the response begins immediately after a
change in measured quantity has occurred.

ii)Time delay: In this type of measuring lag the

response of the measurement system begins
after a dead zone after the application of the
input
 Fidelit
• Fidelity of a systemyis defined as the ability of the
system to reproduce the output in the same form as
the input.
• It is the degree to which a measurement system
indicates changes in the measured quantity without
any dynamic error.
• Supposing if a linearly varying quantity is applied
to a system and if the output is also a linearly
varying quantity the system is said to have 100
percent fidelity.
• Ideally a system should have 100 percent fidelity
and the output should appear in the same form as
that of input and there is no distortion produced in
the signal by the system. In the definition of
fidelity any time lag or phase difference between
output and input is not included.

Dynamic
Error
 The dynamic error is the difference between the true value of
the quantity changing with time and the value indicated by
the instrument if no static error is assumed.
• However, the total dynamic error of the
instrument is the combination of its fidelity
and the time lag or phase difference between
input and output of the system.

Overshoot
Moving parts of instruments have mass and thus
possess inertia. When an input is applied to
instruments, the pointer does not immediately
come to rest at its steady state (or final deflected)
position but goes beyond it or in other words
overshoots its steady position.
• The overshoot is evaluated as the maximum
amount by which moving system moves
beyond the steady state position. In many
instruments, especially galvanometers it is
desirable to have a little overshoot but an
excessive overshoot is undesirable.
 Temperature Measurement and
Thermometer

Thermometry and Temperature Scales

Temperature is difficult to measure directly, so we
usually measure it indirectly by measuring one of
many physical properties that change with
temperature. We then relate the physical property to
temperature by a suitable calibration.
In the United States, the most common temperature
scale is the Fahrenheit (oF) scale. Water freezes at 32oF
and boils at 212oF, and the normal body temperature
(rectal) is about 98.6oF. Fahrenheit devised this scale in
1724 so that 100oF would represent the normal body
temperature and 0oF would represent the coldest
temperature man could then produce (by mixing ice and
salt)
 Most scientists in the United States use the Celsius (oC)
scale (formerly called centigrade scale), which is in common
use throughout most of the world. Water freezes at 0oC and
boils at 100oC, and the normal body temperature (rectal) is
about 37oC.
Another important temperature scale used for scientific
work is the Kelvin (oK), or absolute scale, which has the
same degree intervals as the Celsius scale; 0oK (absolute
zero) is -273.15oC. On the absolute scale, water freezes at
273.15oK and boils at 373.15oK, and the normal body
temperature (rectal) is about 310oK. This temperature
scale is not used in medicine.

Rankine scale, abbreviated as oR’ and also

called the Fahrenheit absolute scale is
commonly used in Engg literature. It assigns
491.6oR’ to the ice point and 671.69oR’ to the
steam point.
Reaumur scale oR. It assigns 0o to the ice point
and 80oR to the steam point. This scale is often
used in the alcohol industries.
 Scales
Temperature normally measured in degrees [o]
using one of the following scales:
 Fahrenheit [oF].
 Celsius or centigrade[oC].
 Kelvin [oK].
The relationships between the different temperature
scales are: -
The Ways of Measuring the Temperature
1. Orally (Conduction).
2. Axillary (Conduction).
3. Ear Drum (Radiation).

4- Rectally (Conduction).
5- IR thermometer (Radiation).
How Does Heat Travel?
Heat can be transferred from one place to another by
four methods: -
1. Conduction.
2. Convection.
3. Evaporation.
4. Radiation.

The method used to transfer heat is usually the one

that is the most efficient. If there is a temperature
difference in a system ,heat will always move from
higher to lower temperatures.
Heat Verses Temperature
We have all noticed that when you heat something up,
its temperature rises. Often we think that heat and
temperature is the same thing. However, this is not the
case. Heat and temperature are related to each other,
but are different concepts.
Heat
Is the total energy of molecular motion in
a substance.
Temperature
Is a measure of the average energy of molecular
motion in a substance.
Heat energy depends on the speed of the particles, the
number of particles (the size or mass), and the type of
particles in an object.

Heat vs. Temperature

Temperature Heat

The degree of hotness and A form of energy which Definition

coldness of a body. flows from a hotter
region to a cooler region

Kelvin (oK) Joule (J) Unit of Measurement

Celsius(oC)

 Increases when Heated. Flows from hot area to a Property

 Decreases when Cooled. cold area.
 Temperature does not depend on the size or type of
object. For example, the temperature of a small cup of
water might be the same as the temperature of a large
tub of water, but the tub of water has more heat
because it has more water and thus more total thermal
energy.
If we add heat, the temperature will become higher. If
we remove heat, the temperature will become lower.
Higher temperatures mean that the molecules are
moving, vibrating and rotating with more energy.

Detecting Heat
There are many ways to detect heat. The method
chosen often depends on what heat source we are trying
to measure. For example, the way we detect the heat in
the air is different from how we detect heat from a fire
or heat from objects in deep space.
We have all felt various levels of heat. Our skin is
a good detector of heat and we interpret the average
molecular motion within an object as a feeling that the
object is hot or cold. However, our skin does not always
give us consistent measurements of heat energy.
For this, we need special instruments, which can
accurately measure temperature, like a thermometer.
 Mercury in –Glass
Thermometer

The mercury in glass thermometer, widely used in both laboratory and

industry, is one of the simplest temperature measuring devices.
It utilizes the volumetric expansion of mercury with temperature as a
means of indicating temperature.
Industrial thermometer has a bub formed by
Glass envelope, which contains mercury,
enclosed in a metal well.
As the heat is transferred through the metal
and metal stem and into the mercury, the mercury expands, pushing the
column of mercury higher in the capillary above.
 The scale of calibration is not perfectly linear but the deviation from
linearity is small.
First, the glass envelope of thermometer expands and contracts with
temperature changes.
This changes the volume inside the thermometer, and must be taken into
consideration in original calibration.
Second, the coefficient of cubical expansion of mercury varies some what
with temperature.
Third the space above the mercury in thermometer bore is sometimes
filled with dry nitrogen under pressure.
The purpose of this gas is elevate the boiling point of the mercury when
the thermometer is used at high temperatures.
The boiling point of mercury used in thermometers is 675oF
Therefore when the mercury column rises, the gas pressure increases,
causing elastic expansion of thermometer walls and compression of
mercury volume.
 Thermometer is contained in a metal case with bulb inserted in
metal thermal well.

A metal scale is mounted behind the upper end of the thermometer,

and a glass covers the scale. This provides the complete protection of
the thermometer.
Thermal well is provided for the purpose of preventing breakage
and providing a sealing means at the point of installation.
Thermal well materials: brass or steel, although cast iron, monel
stainless steel and Aluminum are some times used.
Industrial thermometer can be obtained in many shapes: some with
thermometer bulb at an angle to the scale, some with scale rotated to
any desired angle.
The temperature range of industrial thermometer is -38 to 950oF.
For over range protection, a small reservoir is formed above the top
of the thermometer bore.
As the Hg expands above the highest calibration point, it slowly fills
the reservoir, and the thermometer can be subjected to higher
temperatures with out breakage.
Accuracy = ±1 percent of span.
The thermometer bulb is at temperature equilibrium with
surroundings to achieve this accuracy.
It is installed such that flow of surrounding medium is sufficient to
provide rapid heat transfer.
It should be immersed to a sufficient length that the heat loss to
surroundings is minimum.
The speed of response of industrial mercury thermometer will vary
considerably, depending mainly on the characteristics of medium in
which it is inserted and on the size of thermometer, particularly the
size of the thermal well.

The space between the bulb and thermal well is filled with
mercury or oil in order to increase the rate of heat transfer.
Applications: open tanks containing liquids, cooking kettles, certain
molten metal baths, steam lines, pipelines for fluid flow and air
ducts.
It should not be employed when rapidly fluctuating temperatures
are to be measured with accuracy.
In some instances filling media other than mercury is used to
extend the range.
Ex: Ethyl alcohol, pentane, toluene or hydrocarbon compounds.
Bimetallic Thermometer
 The bimetallic thermometer is commonly used wherever the mercury in
glass thermometer is employed.
The construction of bimetallic strip element provides a rugged yet
accurate and simple device for the indication of temperature.
A bimetal is composed of two strips of metal welded together, each strip is
made from a metal having a different coefficient of thermal expansion.
For a bimetal in the form of a straight cantilever beam, temperature
changes cause the free end to deflect, and this deflection can be related
quantitatively to temperature change.
The deflection with temperature is nearly linear, depending mainly on
the coefficient of linear thermal expansion.
Invar is universally employed as the low expansion metal.
Invar is an iron nickel alloy containing about 36% nickel.
Its thermal coefficient of expansion is 1/20 of ordinary metals.
As the high expansion metal, brass is used at lower temperatures
and nickel alloys at higher temperatures.
Industrial bimetallic thermometer is shown below:

 The bimetal is wound in the form of a helix, with one end fastened
permanently to the outer casing and the other end connected to the
pointer stem.
A pointer is attached to the upper end of stem and sweeps over a
circular dial to indicate the temperature.
The temperature surrounding the whole stem changes, the bimetal
expands and the helical bimetal rotates at its free end, thus turning
the inside stem and pointer to a new position on the dial.
A thermal well may be used with thermometer for protection
against corrosion and breakage
Thermal well may be of brass, steel, stainless steel or other alloys.
The shape of the thermometer can be selected to suit particular
needs with the scale and stem at different angles.
The temperature range is -40 to 800oF
A bimetallic thermometer will, in general withstand about 50% over
range in temperature, depending on the ability of bimetal to be over
stressed.
Accuracy= ±1% of span.
 As with mercury in glass thermometer, the stem should be inserted
far enough to minimize immersion error.
The changes in ambient temperature at the head of the instrument
do not seriously affect the accuracy, so long as the stem is immersed
to a depth that will cover the bimetallic element inside the stem.
The speed of response of a bimetallic thermometer depends greatly
on the conditions under which it is installed and is comparable to a
mercury in glass thermometer.

Pressure Spring Thermometer

 The construction and mechanical operation of all industrial types
of pressure spring thermometers are virtually identical.
 Briefly the liquid expansion thermometers utilizes the cubical
expansion of a liquid, generally mercury, to indicate the
temperature.
 The gas expansion thermometers operates at substantially
constant volume, the pressure of gas being proportional to
temperature.
 The vapor actuated thermometer is operated by the vapor pressure
of a liquid.
 The thermal system for all pressure spring thermometers is very
similar to that shown below
A metal bulb contains the thermometer fluid, a liquid or a liquid- vapor
and is inserted at the point at which the temperature is to be measured.
The bulb comes to temperature equilibrium with its surroundings,
thereby developing a given pressure or displacement of fluid.
A metal capillary is connected to the bulb and transmits the pressure at
the bulb to the receiving element at the instrument.
The receiving element is a form of bourdon tube or pressure spring and is
used to convert the pressure or displacement of fluid in the thermometer
bulb into a motion.
This motion is multiplied by a linkage to operate a pen arm over a
moving chart for recording purposes, or to operate a pointer over a
stationary scale for indication of temperature.
The thermal system consisting of bulb, capillary, and receiving element,
is a hermetically sealed unit.
Construction of thermometer bulb and
thermal well
The bulb is composed of a cylindrical piece of metal tubing, closed at
one end and with the capillary and extension neck inserted a the
other end.
The size of the bulb varies considerably, depending on the type of
filling medium, the temperature span of the instrument and the
length of the capillary tubing with which it is used.

Averaging (Capillary) Thermometer bulb

It is composed of long bulb of approximately ¼ inch tubing wound
n spiral form and is useful in obtaining average temperature over
an extended region as in a duct or oven.
The materials of the bulb are chosen according to the requirements
of the particular application as to corrosion, strength and wear and
so on.
Some of the materials: copper, steel, stainless steel and Monel.
For mercury filled thermometer bulbs, stainless steel is universally
used because mercury tends to amalgamate with copper and its
alloys.
The extension neck is made of small size tubing, and its purpose is to protect
the capillary from damage when the bulb is being installed or removed.
The extension neck is fastened directly to the bulb with the capillary inside
also fastened to the bulb, and thus both may be bent or shaped to facilitate
installation.
A thermal well may be used with bulb in applications where the
temperature of fluids under pressure is to be measured,
Where extra corrosion protection is required,
Or where extra mechanical strength is required.
The mechanical fit between bulb and well is made as reasonable close as
possible.
Since the heat transfer occurs mainly by conduction, the space between bulb
and well is filled with oil, mercury, powdered metal or thin metal inserts in
order to increase the contact area between bulb and well.
Thermal well may be made from such materials as copper, brass, cast
iron, steel, stainless steel, Monel, nickel etc.
The capillary connects the thermometer bulb to the receiving element.
The distance between the bulb and instrument is restricted to 200 ft or
less because of high cost of systems with greater lengths of capillary.
The capillary tube is made of copper or steel for all but mercury filled
systems and is about 1/16 inch outside diameter and 0.015 in inside
diameter.
Mercury systems employ stainless steel capillary with thicker walls.
For protection against damage or against corrosion the capillary is
enclosed in armor tubing or other protective covering.

The armor may be spiral wound bronze, steel, stainless steel or it is

sometimes covered with rubber or other plastic material.
Receiving elements: The purpose of receiving element is to convert
the fluid pressure or the volumetric expansion in thermal system
into a motion which can be amplified by mechanical linkage to
operate a pen or pointer.
The receiving element in a recording thermometers is always one of
the bourdon tube form shown below:
The bourdon tube is a metal tube with thin wall bent in the from of a
circle.
The cross section of the tube is elliptical.
When a pressure is applied to the inside of the tube, the cross section
deflects towards a more circular form, and this causes the tube to
straighten, thus moving the tip of the tube along an arc.
For most bourdon tubes this motion is about 1/8 inch. and is nearly
linearly proportional to the applied pressure.
In order to increase this motion the bourdon tube is often made with
several turns wound in a spiral shape or wound in a helical form.
All the 3 forms are used in recording thermometers and pressure gages.
The materials commonly used in thermometer spiral or helix are
phosphor-bronze, beryllium-copper, steel and stainless steel.

The industrial pressure thermometer is either an indicating or

recording instrument.
It may indicate the temperature by sweeping over circular dial or
it may record the temperature on a chart of circular form.
The typical arrangement of recorder is shown below:
The spiral is fastened cantilever fashion at its center, where
capillary tubing enters.
The free end of the spiral is connected by a metal link to an
extension on the pen arm.
The pen arm is thus made to move in an arc over a chart in response
to movement of spiral tip.
A zero shift for calibration is accomplished by rotating the whole
spiral and by moving the pen arm with respect to its shaft.
A range adjustment is made by setting the connecting link so as to
vary the ratio of spiral movement to pen movement.

Thermoelectric
Temperature Measurement
The thermocouple pyrometer has the widest useful range and
application of any temperature measuring device.
Temperatures encountered in industrial processing are seldom
higher than 3000oF and temperatures ranging from 2000 to 3000oF
are commonly met in steel, glass and ceramic industries.
Temperatures of both liquids and gases as low as -300oF are
measured with the thermocouples.
Thermocouple provides an accurate and reliable indication of
temperature for many kinds of industrial applications.
Thermoelectricity: A thermocouple is composed of two dissimilar
wires joined together so as to produce a thermal emf.
A simple thermoelectric circuit composed of two wires of different
metals, A and B is shown in the figure.
Assume that the left hand junction of the wires is the point of
measurement. Then left hand junction is called the measuring
junction.
The right hand junction is called the reference junction and it is
frequently maintained at either 32oF (0oC) or 68o F (20oC)
In 1821 Seebeck discovered that a current flows in thermoelectric
circuit when the temperatures at the junctions are different.
There is therefore a thermal emf is generated in the circuit which
causes current flow.
By the principle of conservation of energy, it is apparent that this
energy under static conditions, comes from the absorption of heat
from the external sources.

 The Peltier effect relates the absorption and evolution of heat at the
junctions of a thermocouple to the current flow in the circuit.
Under conditions of use, heat is evolved at the reference junction and
absorbed at the measuring junction is proportional to the flow of
current but independent of the method by which the junction is made.
The junction may be welded, soldered or merely an intimate contact.
The Peltier effect is proportional to current alone and is different from
Joule heating effect which is proportional to the square of the current
times resistance (I2R).
Joule heating effect is not relevant to the operation of thermocouple.
Therefore the junction of the thermocouple produces an emf called
Peltier emf, the magnitude and direction of which depends on the
temperature.
The Peltier emf differs for different combinations of metals.
The Thomson effect predicted by Thomson is a relation between the
emf generated in a single homogeneous wire and the temperature
difference between the ends of the wire.
Thomson emf is proportional to temperature and temperature
difference in the wire and differs for different metals.
Finally, a thermocouple employs both the Peltier effect and the
Thomson effect.
The Peltier effect can not be used alone, since, if two dissimilar
metals are joined and a high temperature exist at the measuring
junction, then there must necessarily be a temperature gradient
along each wire. This involves Thomson effect.
There are then four emfs that appear in thermocouple: the Peltier
emf at measuring junction,

the Peltier emf at reference junction,

Thomson emf along wire A due to temperature difference and
Thomson emf along wire B due to temperature difference.
Laws of thermoelectric circuits
There are three laws of thermoelectric circuits composed of homogeneous conductors.
Law of homogeneous circuit: An electric current can not be sustained in a circuit of
single homogeneous metal, however varying in section, by the application of heat
alone.
From it we deduce that the thermal emf developed in the thermocouple, when the
measuring junction T is at a different temperature from the reference junction T is
r

independent of temperature gradient and its distribution along the wires.

The only temperatures related to the thermal emf are measuring junction
temperature T and reference junction temeperature T and all other intermediate
r,

temperatures are of no consequence.

Law of intermediate metals: The algebraic sum of the thermal emfs in a

circuit composed of any number of dissimilar metals is zero, if all the circuit
is at a uniform temperature.
This law follows directly from the second law of thermodynamics.
If a net emf did exist, the resulting flow of electric current would ause
heating in some part of the circuit, there by transferring heat from a lower
to a higher temperature with out application of external work.
By combination with law of homogeneous circuits, this law makes it possible
to insert a measuring device and its connecting wires C into the thermocouple
circuit at any point, as shown below, with out altering thermal emf,
provided that all intermediate junctions are at the same temperature T . i

 Law of intermediate Temperatures: The thermal emf generated by any

thermocouple of homogeneous metals with its junction at any two
temperatures T and T respectively, is the algebraic sum of the mf of the
1 3
thermocouple with its junctions at temperatures T1 and T2
respectively, and the emf of the same thermocouple with its junctions
at temperatures T2 and T3 respectively.
This law deals with the calibration of a thermocouple.
If the thermal emfs of several metal versus a reference metal such
as platinum or lead are known, the thermal emf of any combination
of these metals may be obtained by algebraic difference.

Further the calibration of thermocouple can be made by reference

only to the difference temperature of junctions (T-Tr) as shown
above fig.
When all three laws are combined, it is evident that the algebraic
sum of the thermal emfs generated in a thermocouple circuit
containing any number of dissimilar homogeneous conductors is a
function only of the temperature of the junctions.
Thermocouple may be regarded as a reversible heat engine.
 Thermal Wells

In corrosive or oxidizing environment, it is advisable to protect

Thermocouples by means of a thermal well or protecting tube.
Even with a thermal well, the corrosion and oxidation may be so
rapid that the frequent replacements are required.
In certain molten metal baths, it is the practice to use one
thermocouple and one thermal well for one quick reading of
temperature and discard them.
There are many types of thermal wells and other accessories, but
generally the thermal well is made in the form of a tube with a
closed end installed as shown below.
The thermocouple assembly on the left is the kind normally used
for the measurements of air or gas temperatures as in a furnace.
It is composed of a head, a mounting flange, the thermocouple itself,
and the thermal well.
The thermocouple assembly on the right is used for pressure vessels
and pipe lines, particularly for liquids under pressure.
An open end thermal well is sometimes used where only a slight
protection is required as in furnaces at lower temperatures.
An open ended thermal well only protects the thermocouple form
mechanical damage and from the erosive effects of fast moving gases,
while supporting the thermocouple from sagging.
Where erosion may be severe, especially at temperatures over
2000oF or where platinum thermocouples are used two thermal
wells are employed.
A secondary thermal well covers the primary thermal well.
The purpose of the secondary well is to prevent sagging of the
assembly at high temperature and to protect the surface of the
primary well so that it will remain gastight.
Secondary wells are made of either metal or ceramic, depending on
the requirements.
Thermal wells of platinum are used only for molten glass since their
cost is extremely high.
Firebrick, Mullite, and silicon carbide are used only for secondary
protection.

The mechanical properties which must be considered in the selection of

a thermal well are:
Resistance to corrosion and oxidation
Resistance to mechanical shock
Resistance to thermal shock
Resistance to gas leakage
Mechanical strength
In some applications the primary purpose of the thermal well is to
protect the thermocouple from physical damage.
For physical protection, a metal well is preferred.
When the thermocouple is used for testing in a kettle filled with liquids
or molten metal, it is plunged into the bath and the temperature
determined.
This improves a great thermal shock or sudden change of
temperature on the thermocouple and its thermal well.
Metals generally withstand shock but some ceramics do not.
The thermal well should be impervious to diffusion of gases through
its walls, since some gases attack thermocouple materials.
With the platinum thermocouple, special care must be taken to
insure no diffusion of gases through the protecting well.
A secondary thermal well is sometimes used for prevention of gas
leakage.
Calorized iron and Nichrome are the metals having lowest
permeability, whereas in ceramics, porcelain, sillimanite and
Mullite are superior.