Resistance Thermometers

The Industrial resistance thermometer is more popularly used in

recent years because of its accuracy and simplicity.
A further advantage is that resistance temperature measurement
allows very small increments of temperature to be detected.
Temperature as small as 0.03oF can be measured.
In Laboratory, resistance thermometer is a standard for precise
temperature measurement.
Temperature range : -300 to 1200oF.
Thermal coefficient of Resistance:
The resistance thermometer operates from the change of electrical
resistance of a substance with temperature.
Usually this substance is a metal, but nonmetallic materials called semi
conductors have also been used.
The industrial resistance thermometer nearly always employs
platinum, copper, or nickel.
A material suitable for use as a resistance thermometer element should
have continuous and stable relationship between resistance and
temperature.
The material should have high thermal coefficient of resistance.
The resistance of most metals increases with temperature; i.e their
conductivity decreases.
The variation of electrical resistance with temperature is assumed to be
of the form R = Ro[1 + a1t + a2t2 + a3t3 + …antn]
Where R=resistance, ohms Ro=resistance, ohms at 0oC, t = temperature deg.
centigrade, a1,a2,….. are constants.

For general purposes, the higher powers assumed to be zero, leaving only
average coefficient of resistance.
Thereby a linear relationship between resistance and temperature is
assumed over a small temperature range.
This method is not sufficiently accurate for use in resistance
thermometry.
For platinum two constants are sufficient up to about 1200oF and even
higher.
Its equation is therefore quadratic and varies from a linear relationship
by about 7% at the upper limit.
Three constants are generally used for copper, although the relationship
is very nearly linear up to 250oF.
3 constants are required for nickel in the common temperature range,
and its relationship is nonlinear.
The coefficient of resistance may vary considerably with the purity
of the metal and with its heat treatment.
In fact temperature coefficient of resistance has been used as a test for
impurities.
This is considered as disadvantage in the use of the resistance
thermometer; namely that the primary element is sensitive to
contamination and oxidation and requires protection.
Resistance temperature measurements may be made below 32oF, but
although platinum has been used as low as -400oF, the industrial
resistance thermometer is not often used below -150oF.
The resistance vs temperature was radically altered at very low
temperatures by the phenomenon of superconductivity.
At a temperature of about 1 to 50o K, depending upon the metal, the
resistance drops suddenly to almost zero.

Naturally the resistance thermometer can not be used below this point.
In precision resistance thermometry a platinum resistance element is
used.
The resistance-temperature relation for platinum is given by
Callendar equation:
T = [(Rt – Ro)/(R100-Ro)]100 + δ[T/100 – 1]T/100
T = temperature at resistance element, oC
Rt = resistance at temp T, ohms
Ro= resistance at 0oC, ohms
R100=resistance at 100oC
δ = constant, characteristic of each element (about 1.49 to 1.50per deg.
centigrade)
The accuracy of the Callendar equation is excellent agreement with
the thermodynamic scale, and correction is not required in the
region 32 to 1832oF.
3 constants, R100, Ro, and δ are determined by calibration of
thermometer at 0,100 and 444.6oC.

Industrial Resistance Thermometer Bulbs

The industrial thermometer bulb is made in various forms, but
essentially it consists of a coil of fine wire wound on or in a frame of
insulating material.
First of all the resistance wire is arranged so that good thermal
conductivity is provided and a high rate of heat transfer obtained.
Second, the windings should be made in such a manner that
physical strain is negligible as the wire expands or contracts with
temperature changes.
Third, inductive effects due to the position of the wire in a coil must
me minimized in order to make measurement of one resistance only.
The resistance wire must be homogeneous in order to avoid any
localized emf, because of thermoelectric effect when the bulb is not
at uniform temperature and in order to avoid variation in
temperature coefficient of resistance.
The platinum thermometer bulb usually has a resistance at 32oF
between 10 and 35 ohms, although values as high as 125 ohms are in
use.
The wire is wound on a notched or perforated mica frame so that
the shape is more or less of a round coil as indicated in left side
figure.

Another form as indicated in right side figure, is made with the platinum
wire clamped between two mica plates.
This latter form makes the thermometer bulb more compact.
Improvement in heat transfer characteristics is obtained by using a
metal frame having spring qualities so as to insure physical contact
between all parts of the bulb.
The platinum bulb is used industrially between the limits of -300 to
1200oF.
The copper resistance bulb usually has 10 ohms resistance at 32oF, less
than other bulbs because of low resistivity of copper.
Since it is used only at moderate temperatures, the frame may be
composed of a plastic or of a glass instead of mica.
The copper bulb is used industrially between the limits of -40 and 250oF.
The nickel resistance bulb has a resistance at 32oF of 100 to 300 ohms,
depending on the circuit in which it is used.
A high resistance is employed because the resistivity of nickel is high, it
is a relatively inexpensive material, and high resistance makes
resistance measurements easier.
Since it is used in moderate temperature range, the wire may be wound
with plastic or glass insulation.
Temperature range: -300 and 600oF.
A resistance thermometer element is some times made of a very thin
nickel foil with a resistance of about 10 ohms. As a bolometer it is used
to receive radiant energy.
Another type of resistance thermometer element is made in the form
of a woven-wire mesh cloth. This type is particularly suitable for some
surface temperature measurements.

The connections to the wires of the resistance bulb are made

carefully in order to avoid contact resistance and thermoelectric
effects.
Contact resistance is avoided by soldering, fusing or welding joints.
The thermoelectric power of copper and platinum or of nickel and
copper junctions is not negligible.
Consequently thermoelectric emfs can be avoided only by making
certain that all such junctions in the circuit are at the same
temperature.
Resistance thermometer bulbs are generally used with a thermal
well, except when the temperature measurement is made in dry air.
Platinum bulbs may be fitted with a well of porcelain, brass or
stainless steel which is some times sealed.
The well is in the form of a tube as shown below, or the sensitive end
of the well may be flattened to provide better heat conduction
between well and resistance bulb.
Often a secondary well, made of one of various metals, is used to
protect further the resistance element from contamination.

The speed of response of modern resistance thermometer bulbs is

approximately equal to the speed of response of thermocouples when
they are used in same conditions.
The response characteristics are shown below:
The resistance thermometer responds much more quickly in a fast
flowing liquid than in air.
A greater part of the lag is caused by the necessity for using a well
with the inevitable air space separating the resistance element and
well.
The thermal resistance of air space is more influential in causing
lag when the thermometer is installed in liquid than in air, because
the resistance of the heat transfer film around the well is small
compared to the resistance of the air inside the well.
In air radiation transfer of heat occurs and the condition of the
surface of the well is important.
Darkened surfaces are better receivers of radiation.
The secondary well nearly doubles the lag.

The accuracy of resistance thermometer is better than that of

either thermocouples or expansion thermometers.
Accuracy = +/-0.25%.
The precision and reproducibility of resistance thermometer bulbs
are in general better than those of thermocouples.
This is due to the absence of any thing resembling a reference
junction, in resistance thermometer.
The temperature is measured by the change of resistance of the
bulb, which is altogether located in the fluid in which the
temperature is measured.
 Industrial Thermocouples

The desirable properties of thermocouples for industrial use are :

Relatively large thermal emf
Precision of calibration
Resistance to corrosion and oxidation
Linear relation of emf to temperature
The emf of most thermocouples is 10 to 50 milli volts for the desired
temperature ranges.
The measurement of such small emfs requires an instrument of high
quality and capable of accurately measuring emfs as small as 10
microvolts.
A thermocouple must be capable of calibration to a standard emf
temperature relationship and should maintain calibration with out drift
over a long period of time.
Thermocouples are made to operate with standard instruments
having calibrated charts and scales.
The interchangeability of thermocouples and instruments is a
principal reason for their wide use and application.
Resistance to corrosion, oxidation and contamination should be high
in order that thermocouple will have a long life.
It is desirable to have a linear relation between thermal emf and
temperature, not only because the scale is more easily read, but also
because the problems of reference junction compensation are
greatly reduced.
The five most commonly used thermocouples are :
Copper-Constantan-used for low temperature
Iron-Constantan-accuracy = +/-1%
Chromel-Alumel=Accuracy = +/-0.75%
Platinum-Platinum,13% rhodium
Platinum-Platinum,10% rhodium high temperature, Accuracy=+/
-0.5%
Thermocouples are most commonly made in the form of wires
insulated and welded together at the measuring junction as shown
in the figure.

The measuring junction is formed in two different ways: twisted weld and
butt weld.
The twisted weld is made by twisting the two wires for several turns and
welding.
The shape of the junction after welding remains unchanged.
Twisted weld is made with wires of larger sizes and gives mechanical strength.
The butt weld is made by fusing the two wires into a round bead. This is used
for small size wires.
In order to prevent the forming of a second junction, the wires of a
thermocouple are insulated from each other by being threaded through
porcelain insulators.
These insulators will retain their shape up to 2800 F
o

The ends of the thermocouple wires are connected to a porcelain block having
screw terminals for connections.
Tube thermocouples are made of iron-Constantan with the iron in
the form of a tube, the constantan wire running down the center of
the tube as shown below:
The purpose of this construction is to improve speed of response by
avoiding the use of a thermal well.
The iron tube is generally 1/8 inch outside diameter, and the
junction is made by swaging and welding the iron tube around the
constantan wire.
The constantan wire is insulated from the iron tube with either
asbestos or ceramic.

Thermocouple Lead Wires

The Thermocouple measuring junction is usually located some distance from
the instrument with which it is used, some times several hundred feet.
Since the thermocouple is connected to the instrument by wires, we have two
problems:
(1) the location of the reference junction
(2) the errors introduced by the connecting wires.
Variation in temperature of the reference junction causes a change in
thermal emf, since thermal emf depends on temperature difference of the
measuring and reference junctions.
If a temperature is to be measured within one degree, the reference junction
temperature should be constant within one degree (unless the reference
junction compensation is employed).
The reference junction may be located for example, adjacent to the
thermocouple or may be placed near or in the measuring instrument.
Ordinarily temperature variations of some magnitude are expected
adjacent to the thermocouple because the thermocouple may be
installed in a furnace, heat exchanger.
Temperature variation at the measuring instrument are more
constant, especially when the instrument is installed in temperatur
controlled or air conditioned room.
Therefore the reference junctions is located near and generally inside
the measuring instrument.
Further the introduction of connecting wires into the thermocouple
circuit has no effect so long as the ends of the wire are at the same
temperature.

However, the temperature adjacent to the thermocouple may be

several hundred degrees while the temperature at the instrument is
near ambient temperature.
The temperature difference (Th – Ta), shown in the figure below, may
be several hundred degrees.
Therefore it is necessary to use connecting wires or lead wires that
will avoid error.
There are two methods of selecting lead wires:
(1) The thermocouple wires themselves may be extended to the
instrument, and
(2) the lead wires may be made of thermocouple metals having the
same thermoelectric properties as the thermocouple with which
they are used.
The 1st method involves theoretically no error, is used for Copper-
Constantan and Iron-Constantan thermocouples, and sometimes for
Chromel-Alumel thermocouples.

•
The cost of long lengths of Chromel and Alumel wire is high, and the
cost platinum wire in even moderate lengths is prohibitive.
With Chromel-Alumel and platinum thermocouples less expensive
lead wire is used.
Iron and Copper-Nickel alloy lead wires which have temperature-
emf characteristics very close to that of Chromel-Alumel, are widely
used.
Copper and Constantan lead wire may be used for Chromel-Alumel
thermocouples only when high accuracy is not required, since temp-
emf characteristics of these pairs do not match beyond 125oF
For Platinum thermocouples, lead wires are made of copper and
copper-nickel alloy, the temperature-emf characteristics of which is
the same as for platinum thermocouple.

The error involved in using lead wire of different material depends

on how well the temperature-emf characteristics of the lead wire
matches that of thermocouple.
For example, with a chromel-alumel thermocouple used in the range
1000 to 2000oF, the thermocouple head temperature is 250oF and the
temperature at reference junction is 32oF.
If the lead wires are Copper and Constantan, the error caused is the
difference between the emf of the different materials at 250oF and
32oF. This is 5.28-4.97=0.31 millivolt.
At 1400oF this represents an error of 13.3oF or 0.95%, which is not an
allowable error for most industrial applications.
For greater accuracy it becomes necessary to use iron and
coppernickel alloy lead wires
Naturally it is important that the polarity of lead wires and
thermocouples be observed during installation, otherwise a large
error may result.
Various kinds of insulation may be obtained, such as enamel, cotton
covering, asbestos, glass, polyvinyl covering or lead sheath over an
insulating cover.

Measuring Elements for

Gage Pressure and Vacuum
For the measurement of pressures rom 20,000 psi and less, the
elements in common use are the pressure spring (bourdon), the
bellows and the diaphragm.
The pressure spring gage employs a spiral, helix or bourdon tube.
A pressure spring of bronze is used in the pressure range up to about
600 psi, a beryllium-copper pressure spring up to about 10,000 psi
and a steel or alloy steel pressure spring up to 10,000 psi and higher.
The most common type of the pressure spring gage is the simple dial
pressure gage with a bourdon tube element for measuring gage
pressures or vacuums as in the Fig. 8.8.
This type is used literally by the thousands in all industries and
may be obtained in sizes form 2-in diameter dial up to14-in
diameter in many different indicating styles.
The bellows pressure element is shown schematically in Fig. 8.9
Generally a metallic bellows acting with the pressure on one side
and a spring on the other side is used.
The pressure range of the system is determined mainly by the
effective area of the bellows and the spring gradient.
Commonly the bellows are of brass or phosphor bronze.
Often the inside of the assembly is tinned for further protection
against corrosion.
Some times bellows of other materials such as Monel or stainless
steel may be used with the arrangement shown in Fig. 8.9 somewhat
modified.
Bellows gages are commonly employed for measuring gage pressures
or vacuums from about 5 in of water up to 100 psi.
• The metal diaphragm element similar to the Fig 8.10 employs a thin
flexible diaphragm of such material as brass or bronze.
• The force of the pressure against the effective area of the diaphragm
causes a deflection of the diaphragm.
• In some cases the deflection of the diaphragm is opposed by the spring
qualities of the diaphragm itself, and in other cases a spring is added to
limit deflection of the diaphragm.
• The motion of the diaphragm operates an indicating or recording type
instrument.
• Diaphragm gages vary widely in measuring range, depending upon
their construction.
• They are normally employed for low pressures or vacuums up to about
5 psi.

Instruments for indicating or recording low gage pressures or vacuums

are used for measuring furnace drafts, air duct pressures, and so on.
In such applications the pressure or the vacuum does not usually
exceed 20 in. of water (about 0.7 psig).
The nonmetallic diaphragm pressure element similar to the figure 8.10,
employs a flexible diaphragm of high quality leather, goldbeaters skin
or a thin neoprene like material.
The pressure acts against the effective area of the diaphragm, causing
the diaphragm to deflect against the force of a flat spring.
The resulting displacement is multiplied by a suitable linkage, and a
pointer is made to operate over a scale.
The span of these gages is usually in inches of water.
For higher pressures, a flexible neoprene diaphragm can be employed.
Indicating Elements for Pressure Gages
The various forms of industrial pressure gages differ mainly in the
method by which the displacement of the measuring element is
arranged to operate an indicating pointer.
By far the most common method is the mechanical system, in which
the displacement element is directly connected to an indicating
pointer as shown in fig 8.8. or to a recording pen.
In most respects the indicating or recording system of the
mechanical gage is the same as the recording system of the pressure
spring thermometer.
However, pneumatic and electrical means are also used.

Mechanical means for transmitting motion of the float, bell, or

bellows of the differential pressure meter are the pressure tight
bearing and the torque tube.
The pressure tight bearing used in nearly all types of meters is
shown in the Fig. 8.15
 The shaft is lapped to a precision fit, and the bearing is made
several inches long to provide a long path for leakage.
The lubricator acts mainly as a seal, and it is remarkable that even
under very high pressures no leakage and very little friction exist
when the bearing has proper maintenance.
The torque tube shown in the figure 8.16 is often employed in the
bellows meter.
The outer tube is made from relatively thin metal tubing and is
clamped rigidly to the meter housing.
The inner shaft is rigid, and the force of the bellows causes the free
end of the torque tube to twist.
The inner shaft then rotates in the same direction.
The torque tube also serves as a spring.

Thus the motion of the bellows is transmitted through the housing

without the necessity for a sealed bearing.
 Measurement of Pressure
and Vacuum

Pressure, Vacuum and Head

Pressure exerted by the fluid is given in terms of force per unit
area. Therefore the unit of pressure is not a primary quantity but
is a derived unit since it is based on the unit of force.
pg = pa – ps where pg = gage pressure, pa = absolute pressure
Ps = atmospheric pressure.
Vacuum is another special case of differential pressure and is
deined by V = ps – pa where V is the vacuum
It is obvious that a negative vacuum and a positive gage pressure
are identical.
Another unit of pressure is the static pressure head or the liquid
column height corresponding to a given pressure.
Head and pressure are related by p = γh where p = absolute or gage
pressure, h = height of liquid column, γ = density of liquid.
Liquid Column Manometer:
Oldest method of pressure measurement.
It is the simplest, most direct and most accurate of all pressure
measuring means.
Manometers are normally limited to measurement of differential
pressures less than about 30 psi; for higher pressures they become very
unwieldy.
The types of manometers in common use are: the U – tube type, the
enlarged-leg type, the well type, the inclined tube type and the ring
type.

The U – tube manometer is shown in Fig 8.1.

The vertical tubes (legs) are freely connected through a metal fitting at
the bottom.
The assembly is partly filled with a manometer liquid such as mercury,
oil or water.
If the legs of the u tube are vertical, for static balance p2- p1 = γh where h
= difference in level, γ = density of manometric fluid, p = pressure.
Here it is assumed that the density of any fluid above manometer liquid
is negligible.
The manometer can be used for the measurement of pressure
differential (p2 – p1), for the measurement of gage pressure (p1 equals the
atmospheric pressure), for the measurement of absolute pressure(p1 is
zero absolute) or for the measurement of vacuum (p2 equals atmospheric
pressure)
When the fluid over the monomeric liquid is of appreciable density, for
example shown in Fig 8.2, then the additional head must be taken into
account.
The equation for static balance now is p2 – p1=hρ –Hδ where H = head of
liquid over manometer, δ = density of liquid over manometer.
It is evident from this relation that, when there are several immiscible
liquids over the manometric liquid, the measurement of pressure is no
longer simple.
The enlarged leg manometer shown in Fig. 8.3 is used in recording type
manometers, because it provides a means for obtaining an indication of
the pressure as well as a means of changing the span of measurement.
The equation for static balance is
p2 – p1 = γ(1+A2/A1)d where d = float displacement, inches form zero
line.
Note that the area of the both legs can be changed to provide for
different span of measured pressure.

The well manometer shown in the Fig 8.4 is a variation of the

enlarged-leg manometer, the purpose of which is to make the
variation of level in the well of negligible magnitude.
The head can then be read directly on a single scale instead of
subtracting two distance readings as in the U-tube manometer.
For static balance, p2 – p1 = γ(1+A1/A2)d where d = head, inches form
zero line.
 If the area o the well is 500 or more times larger than the area of
the vertical leg then the error in neglecting the area term is
negligible.
The head relation for properly designed well manometer is then
p2 – p1 = γh when the vertical scale is placed so as to read zero when
the pressure differential is zero.
The inclined tube manometer is shown in Fig. 8.5.
The purpose of the inclined leg is to expand the scale so that lower
pressure differentials may be read more easily.
For static balance, p2 – p1 = γ(1+A1/A2)dsinα where d is the distance,
inches along the tube through which the level moves.
When the ratio of areas A1/A2 is negligible, p2 – p1 = γdsinα
The scale of the instrument can be greatly expanded by reducing
the angle of the inclined leg α to a small value.
 Direct Measurement of
Liquid Level

The simplest method of liquid level measurement directly is to use an

ordinary sight glass or gage glass on the vessel. This method is quite
effective for clean colored liquids if remote indication is not required.
A widely used method for directly measuring level is the float and tape
method shown in the fig. 9.1.
It is employed in open vessels only.
The float, usually of nickel plated copper, rests on the surface of the
liquid, supported by buoyant force.
The float is made with a sloping top in order to avoid building up of solid
material on the top of the float, thereby changing its weight.
The float is connected to the drum by a thin, light weight, flexible tape or
cable.
Slipping of the tape on drum is prevented by a direct connection of the
tape to the drum.
By a suitable reduction in motion, the pointer indicates on a scale
calibrated in feet or other units.
Both indicating and recording instruments of this type are
available in ranges form 4 in up to 60 feet level.
These instruments must be installed close to and preferably over
the vessel in which the level is measured so as not to introduce extra
pulleys into the tape line.
The float and shaft type is shown in the fig. 9.2.
It is employed either in open vessels or in pressure vessels having up to
1000 psi internal pressure.
The temperature in the vessel may be up to 750oF in which case the
pressure limit is lower.
The float and shaft level device is suitable for a wide range of liquids
and semiliquids.
Difficulties are some times encountered when the liquid deposits solids
on the float and when the liquid level is foaming or turbulent.
The float rests on the surface of the liquid, and the motion of the float
is taken through the stuffing box by the shaft.
The counter weight is adjustable, so that the float can be made to ride
half submerged.

This is important since floats are usually spherical, and this is the
point of maximum area.
The float cage may be obtained in steel or cast iron and float in
copper, stainless steel, nickel or aluminum.
The rotation of the shaft may be converted into a change of
pneumatic pressure by the use of a pneumatic transmission system.
Indicating and recording instruments, remotely located, may be
operated from the float when pneumatic means of transmission are
used.
Often the motion of the float is used to operate directly a valve for
control of level or to operate directly a recording instrument.
The range of the instrument is restricted, and level changes greater
than 10 to 20 in. can not generally be measured.
Several different means are in use for transmitting the arm motion
o the float and shaft type unit to a remote point. One of these is
shown in fig.9.3.

The movement o the float causes a displacement of a metallic bellows

which is solidly filled with oil.
The displacement of the oil is carried by the tube to an identical
receiving bellows at a remote point.
The receiving bellows displacement is equal to the transmitting bellows
displacement, and the instrument may be calibrated in terms of liquid
level or volume.
With the float type gage the force on the float caused by the buoyant
effect of the liquid displaced depends on the density of the liquid.
The greater the density, the greater the force and therefore, the effect
of static friction in the system is reduced.
The shaft and other bearings require maintenance, particularly when
the vessel is under pressure.
 Pressure (Level)Measurement
in Open Vessels

For pressure measurement of liquid level, only a pressure

measuring instrument is required, provided that the density or
specific gravity of the liquid is known.
The most common pressure gage systems employed for liquid level
measurement are known as : the bubbler system, the diaphragm
box system and the air trap system.
The bubbler system which is the most popular is shown in Fig. 9.4
This system is satisfactory for nearly all liquids, even corrosive
liquids and liquids containing suspended solids
Practically the only limitation to this system is that clogging of the
bubbler pipe may occur on few semisolids such as chemical slurries.
 A length of 1-in pipe is lowered into the vessel to a point about 3-in
above the sediment line.
Air or any suitable gas is supplied to the pipe through a valve and
sight feed bubbler so that the gas bubbles out the open end of the
pipe at a rate of about 3 cu ft per hour.
A liquid with flow of about 1 gallon per hour can some times be
substituted for the air or gas supply.
A pressure gage of suitable type is connected separately to the
upper end of the bubbler pipe.
The system operates by building up a pressure in the feed line until
the gas escapes and the flow stabilizes at a rate determined by the
valve or other regulator in the feed line.
The pressure in the bubbler pipe necessary to cause the flow is just
negligibly higher than the liquid head over the bubbler pipe.
Therefore the air, gas or liquid feed must be available at a pressure
slightly higher than the maximum head to be measured.
This pressure is measured by the pressure gage which can be
calibrated in terms of head or level.
To measure the pressure, any of the instruments for pressure
measurement are suitable.
The range of the instrument depends on the height to be measured
and the specific gravity of the liquid.
Assuming a specific gravity of one, the diaphragm pressure gage can
be used from about 4 in to 150 ft change in level,
Differential pressure meter= 5 in to 400 inch level change
Pressure spring gage= 150 in to 250ft.

The pressure gage may be installed up to about 1000 ft from the vessel and can
be placed either the above or below the vessel.
The rate of feed to the bubbler pipe should preferably be controlled with an
orifice and differential pressure regulator.
Often a small rotameter is used to indicate the flow of feed.
The diaphragm box system is shown in the fig. 9.5
It is very similar to diaphragm seal used for pressure gages, with the difference
that the diaphragm is very slack, thin and flexible and the system is filled
with air.
The diaphragm box is usually suspended in the vessel by a chain or if currents
exist in the vessel, by a fixed support.
The box is connected to the pressure receiver.
The calculations regarding pressure, head and density are the same as for the
bubbler system.
The instrument may be located up to about 500 ft from the vessel
and either above or below it.
Changes in level from about 20 in up to 250 ft may be measured.
This system is some what limited for use in corrosive liquids.
The diaphragm boxes are made of cast iron or bronze and
diaphragms are of neoprene fabric.
For liquids with suspended solids, a liquid flushing arrangement can
be made to clear the open end of the diaphragm box.
It is essential that the complete system be airtight since loss of air
would prevent operation.
The air trap system is shown in the Fig. 9.6
This system is similar to the diaphragm box system, except that no
diaphragm is used; the reason is that no suitable diaphragm material
can be found for some kind of corrosive liquids.
The pressure receiver operates from the pressure of the trapped air.
The main limitation of this type is the possibility of slow loss of air
trapped in the system.
For this reason, an auxiliary tap should be provided for filling the
system with air as frequently as necessary.
The pressure measurement of liquid level is theoretically as accurate
as the pressure gage itself.
Weight determinations are direct when the pressure measurements
are used.

Volume determinations depend on density or specific gravity.

In this latter case, temperature variations causing variations in
density, will result in a corresponding error.
Density variations in the column of liquid also may cause an error.
In addition, the gage reading must be corrected for various heads
which may exist in the connecting line.
 Radiation Temperature
Measurement

Laws of black body radiation

A black body is a body that absorbs all radiation falling on it with out
transmitting or reflecting any.
In other words, a black body radiates energy at all spectral wavelengths at a
maximum rate corresponding to its temperature.
Kirchhoff's law relates the radiant energy to absorbed energy :
Any body in thermal equilibrium emits as much radiation as it receives at
any given wavelength and temperature.
Stefan-Boltzman law: φ =σ A T
b
4

For two bodies exchanging radiation φ =σ A (T -T )

b 2
4
1
4
In more convenient form, Q = KA[(T2/100)4-(T1/100)4]
Q, Btu/hr; K = radiation constant = 0.172; A=ft2; T =Rankine
Planck’s radiation law: Wbλ = (C1/ λ5) 1/(eC2/(λT)-1)
Wien’s displacement law: λmax T = 2900 where λmax is in microns(The
wavelength where maximum radiation intensity is obtained.

Radiation pyrometers
The radiation pyrometer consisting of a radiation receiving element
and a potentiometer instrument has come into wide use because it is
able to measure directly temperature of work surfaces in a furnace.
It can measure the temperature of moving objects, and is less
effected by a corrosive atmosphere than a thermocouple, and it can
measure higher temperature than a thermocouple.
Most important in many applications is its fast speed of response.
The most common type of radiation receiving unit is shown in the
figure.
A lens is used to concentrate the radiant energy from the source on
the diaphragm and on the thermopile.
Sighting glasses are shown in the unit to enable the proper line of
sight and proper focus to be established.
The position of the lens or the diaphragm is usually made
adjustable for calibrating purposes.

The mirror type radiation receiver is shown below:

Here a diaphragm system together with a mirror is used to focus the
radiation on a thermopile (or Vacuum thermocouple).
The lens to the thermopile distance is adjustable for proper focus.
This unit has an advantage in having no lens, since lens absorption
and reflection are avoided.
Several effects in the use of radiation receivers should be considered.
These are reference junction temperature effect, the distance effect, the
absorbing media effect and the effect of emissivity.
The temperature of the reference junction of the thermocouple should be
kept substantially constant.
The emf generated by the radiation receiver depends on the difference in
temperature of the measuring and reference junctions.
The reference junction is arranged so that it is in close thermal contact
with the housing of the unit.
The distance from the target surface to the receiver and the size of the
target area must be considered in installing radiation unit.
With all types of radiation receivers the target area must be large enough
to fill the field of view; otherwise insufficient radiation is received and a
negative static error results.

The angle of the lens or mirror is usually selected so that the target
diameter is a given fraction of the distance from target to receiver.
The distance from target to receiver is 10 or 20 times the maximum
useful diameter of the target.
The lens type radiation receiver is arranged so that the image of the
target surface is focused on the diaphragm opening.
For this reason, an adjustment of the position of either the
diaphragm or the lens is provided.
The mirror type radiation receiver is arranged so that the image of
the front diaphragm is focused on the thermopile by the mirror.
Therefore the measured temperature is substantially independent
of target distance if the field of view is filled.
Absorbing media at ambient temperature between the target and
thermopile reduce the amount of radiation received by the thermopile.
Such substances as smoke, dirt and gases absorb radiation and cause
the instrument to read low.
On the other hand, hot gases, flame, and high temperature carbon
particles may add to the radiation and cause the instrument to read
high.
Gases such as CO2, SO2 and water vapor, ammonia have absorption and
radiation bands in the wavelengths useful to the radiation receiver.
If these media are prevalent, then one remedy is to use a target tube.
Some times an open tube which is purged with air will keep the line of
view free from absorbing media.
Hot gases and flame in the line of sight should be avoided.

Undirected radiation falling on the walls and other parts of the

receiver may disturb the radiation conditions between walls and
thermopile.
This effect is reduced by blackening the walls and arranging shields
and diaphragms to reduce intraradiation.
The total emissivity of the target surface is an important factor in the
operation of radiation receiver.
Emissivity of target surface presents two problems:
First, black body conditions are closely approximated in closed
furnaces, and the measurement of temperature can usually be made
with out corrections for emissivity.
 Second, the temperature of open surfaces such as molten metals and
hot steel plate can not be measured accurately unless corrections are
made for the low emissivity of such surfaces.
Slag and oxides form over the surface of most molten metals and the
surface may be at considerably lower temperature than the metal
underneath.
For open surfaces of sheet material such as steel plate, it is
necessary to know the total emissivity before accurate temperature
measurement can be made.
Correction of temperature:
 The radiant energy actually received by the radiation unit is
assumed to be given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law and the
emissivity of the surface.
ɸ = e σAT4
The energy related to apparent temperature and is the
temperature indicated by the same law ɸ = σATa4

The true temperature is then T = e-1/4Ta.

The industrial millivolt meter or automatically balanced
potentiometer instrument is ordinarily used to measure the emf
developed by the radiation receiver.
The receiver may be connected to the instrument with ordinary
copper lead wire, because both measuring and reference junctions of
the thermocouple or thermopile are located in the radiation receiver.