T W O

Modeling in the
Frequency Domain
SOLUTIONS TO CASE STUDIES CHALLENGES

Antenna Control: Transfer Functions

Finding each transfer function:

Pot: = ;

Pre-Amp: = K;

Power Amp: =
2
() = 0.25
Motor: Jm = 0.05 + 5
2
Dm =0.01 + 3() = 0.13

Therefore: = =

And: = =

Transfer Function of a Nonlinear Electrical Network

d ( i 0 +di )
+2( i 0 + di )2 −5=v ( t )
Writing the differential equation, dt . Linearizing i2 about i0,
2 2 2 2
(i + i) - i = 2i  i = 2i i. Thus, (i + i) = i + 2i i.
0 0 0 0 0 0
i=i
0
Substituting into the differential equation yields, + 2i02 + 4i0i - 5 = v(t). But, the

resistor voltage equals the battery voltage at equilibrium when the supply voltage is zero since
2-2 Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

the voltage across the inductor is zero at dc. Hence, 2i02 = 5, or i0 = 1.58. Substituting into the linearized
differential equation, + 6.32i = v(t). Converting to a transfer function, = . Using the linearized i about i0,

and the fact that vr(t) is 5 volts at equilibrium, the linearized vr(t) is vr(t) = 2i2 = 2(i0+i)2 = 2(i02+2i0i) =
5+6.32i. For excursions away from equilibrium, vr(t) - 5 = 6.32i = vr(t). Therefore, multiplying the
transfer function by 6.32, yields, = as the transfer function about v(t) = 0.

ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Transfer function
2. Linear time-invariant
3. Laplace
4. G(s) = C(s)/R(s), where c(t) is the output and r(t) is the input.
5. Initial conditions are zero
6. Equations of motion
7. Free body diagram
8. There are direct analogies between the electrical variables and components and the mechanical variables
and components.
9. Mechanical advantage for rotating systems
10. Armature inertia, armature damping, load inertia, load damping
11. Multiply the transfer function by the gear ratio relating armature position to load position.
12. (1) Recognize the nonlinear component, (2) Write the nonlinear differential equation, (3) Select the
equilibrium solution, (4) Linearize the nonlinear differential equation, (5) Take the Laplace transform of
the linearized differential equation, (6) Find the transfer function.

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS
1.
¥
1 1
F (s )=∫ e−st dt=− e−st|¥0 =
a. 0 s s

¥
e−st −( st+1 )
F (s )=∫ te −st dt = 2
(−st −1)|¥0 = 2 st |¥0
b. 0 s s e

Using L'Hopital's Rule

−s 1
F (s )|t →¥ = | =0 . Therefore, F (s )= 2 .
3 st t→¥
s e s
 Solutions3

¥
e−st w
F (s )=∫ sin wt e−st dt= 2 2
(−s sin wt −w coswt )|¥0 = 2 2
c. 0 s +w s +w
¥
e−st s
F (s )=∫ cos wt e−st dt= 2 2
(−s coswt + w sin wt )|¥0 = 2 2
d. 0 s +w s +w
2.

a. Using the frequency shift theorem and the Laplace transform of sin t, F(s) = .

b. Using the frequency shift theorem and the Laplace transform of cos t, F(s) = .

c. Using the integration theorem, and successively integrating u(t) three times, = t; = ; = , the Laplace

transform of t3u(t), F(s) = .

3.

a. Taking the sum of the voltages around the loop and assuming zero initial conditions yields:

t
di(t ) 1
Ri(t )+L + ∫ i( τ )dτ=v (t )
dt C 0

b. Applying Laplace transform and solving for I(s)/V(s) gives:

I (s) 1 1
= =
V (s) 1 R 1
Ls+ R+ L( s+ + )
Cs L LCs

Substituting the values of R, L, and LC, we have:

I (s) 2 2s
= =
V (s) 16 2
s +2 s +16
( s+2+ )
s

Solving for I(s) and noting that V(s) = 1/s, we get:

2
I ( s )=
s2 + 2 s+16
2-4 Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

Observing that the denominator has complex roots, we re-write the above equation as:

2
I (s )=
(s+ 1)2 +( √15 )2

Applying the frequency shift theorem to the Laplace transform of sin t u(t), we find that the
ω
−at F (s )=
transform for f (t )=e sin(ωt ) is ( s+ a )2 +ω 2 .

Comparing F(s) to I(s), we conclude that in the latter: a = 1 and  √ 15 . Thus, the current,
i(t), may be given by:

2
i(t )= √ 15 e−t sin ( √15 t )
15
c.
0.5

0.4

0.3
Current, i(t), A

0.2

0.1

-0.1

-0.2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time, sec

4.

a.

The Laplace transform of the differential equation, assuming zero initial conditions, is,
2s
( s+5 ) X ( s)= 2 2
(s +3 )
 Solutions5

Solving for X (s) and expanding by partial fractions,

2s A Bs+ C
X ( s) = = +
( s+5 ) (s + 9) s+5 s 2+ 9
2

Multiplying by the lowest common denominator and equating the same powers of s on both

sides,
A+ B=0 ,5 B+C=2 , 9 A +5 C=0

Combining equations,
−5 5 9
A= , B= , C= ,
17 17 17

Thus,
−5 5 9 1
s . .3
17 17 17 3
( )
X s= + + 2
s+5 s 2+ 32 s +9
Taking the inverse Laplace transform,
−5 −5t 5 3
x (t )= e + cos 3 t + sin 3 t
17 17 17

b.

The Laplace transform of the differential equation, assuming zero initial conditions, is,
( s2 + 4 s +2 ) X ( s )= 22
s +1
Solving for X (s) and expanding by partial fractions using the two real roots of the quadratic,
2 A B Cs+ D
X ( s) = 2 = + + 2
( s + 4 s+2 ) (s +1) s +3.414 s+ 0.586 s +1
2

Multiplying by the lowest common denominator and equating the same powers of s on both

sides,
A+ B+C=0 , 0.586 A+3.414 B+ 4 C + D=0 ,
A+ B+2 C+ 4 D=0 ,0.586A+3.414B+2D=2

Combining equations,

A=-0.56, B=0.527, C=-8/17, D=2/17

Therefore,
2-6 Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

8 2
s
X( s )= 2 −0.56 0.527 17 17
= + − 2 + 2
( s + 4 s+2 ) ( s +1) s +3.414 s+ 0.586 s + 1 s +1
2 2

Taking the inverse Laplace transform,

−3.414 t −0.586 t 8 2
x (t )=−0.56 e +0.527 e − cos t + sin t
17 17

c.

The Laplace transform of the differential equation, assuming zero initial conditions, is

¿
Solving for X (s) and expanding by partial fractions,
5 A Bs+C
X ( s) = 2 = + 2
s(s + 6 s+ 20) s s + 6 s+ 20

Multiplying by the lowest common denominator and equating the same powers of s on both

sides,
A+ B=0 ,6 A +C=0 , 20 A=5

Combining equations,
1 −1 −3
A= , B= ,C=
4 4 2

Thus,
1 1 3
s+
4 4 2
X ( s) = − 2
s s +6 s+20

The roots of the quadratic are complex and located at −3 ± 3.317

Thus, use the following form for exponentially damped sinusoids.

1 1 ( s+3)+ 3
√11
4 4 4 √ 11
X ( s) = − 2
s (s+3) +11

Taking the inverse Laplace transform,

−3 t
x (t )=0.25−e ¿)
 Solutions7

5.
a.
Obtaining the Laplace transform on both sides of the equation one gets
2 2
s X ( s )−2 s +2+2 ( sX ( s )−2 ) +2 X ( s )= 2
s +4
From which
3 2
s + s +4 s +5 As+ B Cs+ D
X(s)=2 2 2
= 2 + 2
(s + 4)(s +2 s+2) (s +4 ) (s +2 s +2)

with A=−0.2, B=−0.2, C=2.2, D=2.6. So, the latter expression can be written as
−0.2 s 2 2.2 ( s +1 ) 0.4
X(s)= −0.1 2 + +
2
(s + 4) ( s +4 ) ( s+1 ) +1 ( s+1 )2 +1
2

Inverse Laplace transformation yields

−t −t
x(t)=-0.2 cos 2t -0.1 sin 2t + 2.2 e cos t +0.4 e sin t
b.
Laplace transformation on both sides gives
2 5 1
s X ( s )−s−1+ 2 ( sX ( s ) −1 ) + X ( s )= + 2
s +2 s
or
4 3 2
s +5 s + 11s + s+ 2 A B C D E
X(s)= 2 2
= 2+ + 2
+ +
s ( s+1 ) ( s+ 2) s s (s+1) s+1 s+2

It is found that A=1, B=−2 , C=8, D=−2, E=5.

The inverse Laplace transform of

1 2 8 2 5
X(s)= − + − +
s
2
s ( s +1 ) 2
s+ 1 s +2
gives
x (t )=t−2+ 8 t e−t −2 e−t +5 e−2t
c.
Laplace transforms on both sides of the differential equation gives
2 2
s X ( s )−0−1+4 X ( s )= 3
s
or
3
( ) s +2 A B C Ds+ E
X s= 3 2 = 3+ 2+ + 2
s (s + 4) s s s s + 4
2-8 Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

1 −1 1
The constants are found to be A= , B=0 , C= , D= , E=1. So,
2 8 8
1 2! 1 1 1 s 1 2
X ( s) = − + +
4 s 3 8 s 8 s2 + 4 2 s2 + 4

Obtaining the inverse Laplace transform

2
( ) t 1 cos 2 t sin2 t
xt= − + +
4 8 8 2
6
Program:
syms s
'a'
G=(s^2+3*s+10)*(s+5)/[(s+3)*(s+4)*(s^2+2*s+100)];
pretty(G)
g=ilaplace(G);
pretty(g)
'b'
G=(s^3+4*s^2+2*s+6)/[(s+8)*(s^2+8*s+3)*(s^2+5*s+7)];
pretty(G)
g=ilaplace(G);
pretty(g)

Computer response:
ans =

2
(s + 5) (s + 3 s + 10)
--------------------------------
2
(s + 3) (s + 4) (s + 2 s + 100)

/ 1/2 1/2 \
| 1/2 11 sin(3 11 t) |
5203 exp(-t) | cos(3 11 t) - -------------------- |
20 exp(-3 t) 7 exp(-4 t) \ 57233 /
------------ - ----------- + ------------------------------------------------------
103 54 5562

ans =

3 2
s +4s +2s+6
-------------------------------------
2 2
(s + 8) (s + 8 s + 3) (s + 5 s + 7)
 Solutions9

/ 1/2 1/2 \
| 1/2 4262 13 sinh(13 t) |
1199 exp(-4 t) | cosh(13 t) - ------------------------ |
\ 15587 /
----------------------------------------------------------- -
417

/ / 1/2 \ \
| 1/2 | 3 t | |
| / 1/2 \ 131 3 sin| ------ | |
/ 5t\| |3 t| \ 2 /|
65 exp| - --- | | cos| ------ | + ---------------------- |
\ 2 /\ \ 2 / 15 / 266 exp(-8 t)
---------------------------------------------------------- - -------------
4309 93

7.
The Laplace transform of the differential equation, assuming zero initial conditions, is,

(s3+3s2+5s+1)Y(s) = (s3+4s2+6s+8)X(s).
Y ( s ) s 3 + 4 s2 + 6 s+ 8
Solving for the transfer function, X ( s ) = s +3 s +5 s+1 .
3 2

8.

a. We cross-multiply and expand the original expression

( s2 +7 s+80 ) X (s)=10 F (s)

2
s X ( s)+7 sX ( s)+ 80 X ( s)=10 F (s )
Then obtain the inverse Laplace transform on both sides with zero initial conditions
2
d x (t) dx (t)
2
+7 + 80 x ( t )=10 f (t)
dt dt

b. It is convenient to express the denominator as a polynomial before cross-multiplying

X (s) 100 100

= = 2
F (s ) (s+3)(s+17) s + 20 s+ 51

2
(s +20 s+51) X (s )=100 F(s)
2
s X ( s)+20 sX (s )+ 51 X (s )=100 F (s)

Inverse Laplace transform with zero initial conditions gives:

2
d x (t) dx (t)
2
+20 +51 x (t )=100 f (t)
dt dt

c. Cross-multiplying
2-10 Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

3 2
( s +10 s −7 s+30) X ( s)= ( s−8 ) F (s )
3 2
s X ( s ) +10 s X ( s )−7 sX ( s )+ 30 X ( s )=sF ( s ) −8 F ( s)

Inverse Laplace transforms with zero initial conditions gives

3 2
d x (t ) d x (t) dx (t ) df ( t )
3
+10 2
−7 + 30 x ( t )= −8 f (t)
dt dt dt dt
 Solutions11

5 4 3 2
R(s) s +4s +3s +2s +1 C(s)
6 5 4 3 2
s +5s +2s +4s +s +2
9.
C( s)
The transfer function is R( s) = .

Cross multiplying, (s6+7s5+3s4+2s3+s2+5)C(s) = (s5+2s4+4s3+s2+4)R(s).

Taking the inverse Laplace transform assuming zero initial conditions,

d6 c d5 c d4 c d3 c d2 c d5 r d4 r d3 r d2 r
dt 6 + 7 dt 5 + 3 dt 4 + 2 dt 3 + dt 2 + 5c = dt 5 + 2 dt 4 + 4 dt 3 + dt 2 + 4r.

4 3 2
R(s) s +3s +2s +s+1 C(s)
5 4 3 2
s +2s +3s +2s +3s+2
10.
The block diagram represents the transfer function
4 3 2
C( s) s +2 s +3 s + s +1
= 5
R( s) s +5 s 4 +8 s3 +2 s 2 +3 s +4
Cross-multiplying

(s ¿ ¿ 5+5 s +8 s +2 s +3 s+ 4)C( s)=(s ¿ ¿ 4+2 s +3 s + s +1) R( s)¿ ¿

4 3 2 3 2

5 4 3 2 4 3 2
s C(s)+5 s C (s)+ 8 s C (s)+2 s C (s )+ 3 sC (s)+ 4 C ( s)=s R (s )+2 s R( s)+3 s R (s)+ sR (s)+ R (s )
Now we obtain the inverse Laplace transform on both sides of the equation with zero initial
conditions
5 4 3 2 4 3 2
d c(t) d c (t) d c (t ) d c (t) dc ( t ) d r (t) d r (t) d r (t) dr ( t )
5
+5 4
+8 3
+2 2
+3 + 4 c (t )= +2 +3 + + r (t)
dt dt dt dt dt d t4 dt3 d t2 dt
Substituting the corresponding derivatives for the input signal:
5 4 3 2
d c(t) d c (t) d c (t ) d c (t) dc ( t )
5
+5 4
+8 3
+2 2
+3 + 4 c (t )=240+480 t+ 360 t 2 +40 t 3 +10 t 4
dt dt dt dt dt

11.

Taking Laplace transform of the differential equation:

s2 X (s)−s+1+4 sX ( s)−4 +5 X ( s)=R( s)

2-12 Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

Collecting terms: (s 2 +4 s+5 ) X (s)=R (s)+s+3

R( s ) s +3
X ( s )= 2
+ 2
Solving for X(s), s + 4 s+5 s + 4 s +5

The block diagram is shown below, where R(s) = 1/s.

R(s)
+
R(s) 1 X(s)
X(s)

+ + s 2  4s  5
+

s +3

12.
Program:
'Factored'
Gzpk=zpk([-15 -26 -72],[0 -55 roots([1 5 30])' roots([1 27 52])'],5)
'Polynomial'
Gp=tf(Gzpk)

Computer response:
ans =

Factored

Zero/pole/gain:
5 (s+15) (s+26) (s+72)
--------------------------------------------
s (s+55) (s+24.91) (s+2.087) (s^2 + 5s + 30)

ans =

Polynomial

Transfer function:
5 s^3 + 565 s^2 + 16710 s + 140400
--------------------------------------------------------------------
s^6 + 87 s^5 + 1977 s^4 + 1.301e004 s^3 + 6.041e004 s^2 + 8.58e004 s

13.
Program:
numg=[-5 -70];
deng=[0 -45 -55 (roots([1 7 110]))' (roots([1 6 95]))'];
[numg,deng]=zp2tf(numg',deng',1e4);
Gtf=tf(numg,deng)
G=zpk(Gtf)
[r,p,k]=residue(numg,deng)
 Solutions13

Computer response:

Transfer function:
10000 s^2 + 750000 s + 3.5e006
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
s^7 + 113 s^6 + 4022 s^5 + 58200 s^4 + 754275 s^3 + 4.324e006 s^2 + 2.586e007 s

Zero/pole/gain:
10000 (s+70) (s+5)
------------------------------------------------
s (s+55) (s+45) (s^2 + 6s + 95) (s^2 + 7s + 110)

r=

-0.0018
0.0066
0.9513 + 0.0896i
0.9513 - 0.0896i
-1.0213 - 0.1349i
-1.0213 + 0.1349i
0.1353
p=

-55.0000
-45.0000
-3.5000 + 9.8869i
-3.5000 - 9.8869i
-3.0000 + 9.2736i
-3.0000 - 9.2736i
0
k=

[]

14.
a. The circuit elements are converted into their Laplace transform equivalents. The
equivalent parallel of the rightmost inductor in parallel with the resistor is
2s
Z=s∨¿ 2= . Applying the voltage divider rule one gets
s+ 2
2s
Vo s +2 s
= =
Vi 2 s 2 (s +1)
2+
s+2

b. The circuit elements are converted into their Laplace transform equivalents. The
rightmost resistor in parallel with the branch with an inductor and a capacitor in series is
2-14 Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

1
2 s+
( )
2
1 2s +1
s
Z=1∨¿ 2 s+ = = 2 . Applying the voltage divider rule gives the
s 1 2 s + s+ 1
1+2 s+
s
voltage at the node between the resistors and inductor, V h

2 s 2 +1
2 2
2 s +s +1 2 s +1
V h= V i = Vi
2 s 2+1 4 s 2 +s +2
1+ 2
2 s + s+1

Applying the voltage divider rule for the inductor and capacitor

1
s 1
V o= V h= Vh
1 2
2 s +1
2 s+
s

Substituting for V h

2
1 2 s +1 1
V o= 2
× 2 V i= 2 Vi
2 s +1 4 s + s +2 4 s + s +2

15.
a.

Writing mesh equations,

(2s + 1)I1(s) – I2(s) = Vi(s)

-I1(s) + (3s + 1 + 2/s)I2(s) = 0

Solving for I2(s),

 Solutions15

2 s+ 1 V i ( s )
| |
−1 0
I 2 ( s )=
2 s+ 1 −1
| 3 s + s+ 2 |
2
−1
s

Solving for I2(s)/Vi(s),

I2 ( s ) s
=
V i( s ) 6 s + 5 s 2 +4 s +2
3

But Vo(s) = I2(s)3s. Therefore , G(s) = 3s2/(6s3 + 5s2 +4s + 2).

b. Transforming the network yields,

Writing the loop equations,

s s
(s+ ) I 1 ( s )− 2 I 2 ( s )−sI 3 ( s )=V i ( s )
2
s +1 s +1
s s 1
− 2 I 1 ( s )+( 2 +1+ ) I 2 ( s )−I 3 ( s )=0
s +1 s +1 s

−sI 1 ( s )−I 2 ( s )+( 2 s+ 1)I 3 (s )=0

Solving for I2(s),
s ( s 2 +2 s +2)
I 2 ( s )= V i( s )
s 4 +2 s 3 +3 s 2 +3 s+2

( s 2 +2 s +2)
4 3 2
V i( s )
But, Vo(s) = = s +2 s +3 s + 3 s+ 2 . Therefore,

V o(s) s 2 +2 s+ 2
=
V i( s ) s 4 +2 s 3 +3 s2 +3 s+ 2
2-16 Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

16.
a. Writing the nodal equations yields,

V R (s )−V i (s ) V R ( s ) V R ( s )−V C ( s )
+ + =0
2s 1 3s
1
− V R (s )+ s+
3s
1 1
(
2 3s C
V (s )=0 )
Rewriting and simplifying,

6 s+5 1 1
V R (s)− V C ( s)= V i ( s)
6s 3s 2s

( )
2
1 3 s +2
− V R (s)+ V C ( s)=0
3s 6s

Solving for VR(s) and VC(s),

1 1 6 s +5 1
V ( s) − V ( s)
2s i 3s 6s 2s i
| | | |
3 s2 +2 1
0 − 0
6s 3s
V R (s )= ;V C ( s )=
6 s+5 1 6 s+5 1
− −
6s 3s 6s 3s
| 2 | | 2 |
1 3 s +2 1 3 s +2
− −
3s 6s 3s 6s

Solving for Vo(s)/Vi(s)

V o(s) V R ( s )−V C ( s ) 3 s2
= =
V i( s ) V i( s ) 6 s3 + 5 s 2 +4 s +2

b. Writing the nodal equations yields,

(V 1 ( s )−V i (s )) (s 2 +1 )
+ V 1 (s )+(V 1 ( s )−V o (s ))=0
s s
(V o ( s )−V i (s ))
(V o (s )−V 1 ( s ))+sV o (s )+ =0
s

Rewriting and simplifying,

 Solutions17

2 1
(s+ +1 )V 1 (s)−V o ( s)= V i ( s)
s s
1 1
V 1 ( s)+(s+ +1 )V o ( s)= V i (s)
s s
Solving for Vo(s)

( s 2 +2 s +2)
4 3 2
V i( s )
Vo(s) = s +2 s +3 s + 3 s+ 2 .

Hence,

V o(s) ( s 2 +2 s+ 2)
=
V i( s ) s 4 +2 s 3 +3 s2 +3 s+ 2

17.
Vo −Z (s )
a. The amplifier is in an inverting amplifier configuration. Therefore G ( s )= ( s )= f
Vi Z i (s )
1 1
where Z f ( s )=200 k + and Zi ( s )=500 k + . The transfer function is:
2 μs 2 μs
1
−200 k +
2 μs s+ 2.5
G ( s )= =−0.4
1 s +1
500 k +
2 μs
Vo −Z (s )
b. The amplifier is in an inverting amplifier configuration. Therefore G ( s )= ( s )= f
Vi Z i (s )
1 1
where Z f ( s )=100 k + 200 k∨¿ and Zi ( s )=100 k + . The transfer function is:
2 μs 1 μs
1 2 ×10 5
−100 k +200 k ∨¿ −100 k +
2 μs 0.4 s+1 −s (s +7.5)
G ( s )= = =
1 1 (s +2.5)(s+10)
100 k + 100 k +
1 μs 1 μs

18.
a.

Therefore,
2-18 Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

b.

Therefore,
 Solutions19

19 .

The system has two independent translational displacements: x 1 (t), shown in the figure, and a

displacement x 2 (t) on the right-hand side of the spring where the force is applied. We can write

the following two equations:

X 1 : ( 2 s 2 +4 s+ 5 ) X 1 ( s )−5 X 2 ( s )=0
X 2 :−5 X 1 ( s )−5 X 2 ( s )=F (s)

Using Cramer’s rule

X 1 ( s )=
| 0 −5
F (s) 5 | =
F(s)

| | 2 s 2 +4 s
2
2 s +4 s+ 5 −5
−5 5
X1 1
The transfer function is G ( s )= ( s) = .
F 2 s( s+ 2)

20.
Writing the equations of motion,
( s 2 +s +1) X 1 (s )−(s +1) X 2 (s )=F ( s )
−(s+1) X 1 ( s )+( s2 +s +1) X 2 (s )=0

Solving for X2(s),

X 2 ( s )=
[ ( s 2 + s+1 )
−( s+1 )
F( s)
0 ] =
( s+ 1) F ( s )

[ ] s 2 ( s2 +2 s+ 2)
2
( s + s+ 1) −( s+1 )
−( s +1) ( s 2 +s +1)

From which,
X 2( s ) ( s+ 1)
= 2 2
F( s ) s ( s + 2 s+2 ) .
21.

The system has two independent translational displacements, so we can write the following two

equations:
X1 : ( s 2+ 2 s+7 ) X 1 ( s )−( s+ 5) X 2 ( s )=0
X 2 : −( s +5 ) X 1 ( s ) + ( 2 s + 3 s+ 5 ) X 2 ( s )=F (s)
2

Solving we get:
2-20 Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

| |
2
s +2 s +7 0
−(s+5) F (s) (s2 +2 s +7)F (s) (s 2+2 s+7) F(s)
X 2 ( s )= = =

|
s2 +2 s +7 −( s+5)
−(s +5) 2 s 2+3 s+5 | ( s 2+ 2 s+7 )( 2 s2 +3 s+5 ) −(s+ 5)2 2 s 4 +7 s3 +24 s2 +21 s+10

X 2 (s) 1 2
s +2 s +7
The resulting transfer function can be written as = 4 .
F (s) 2 s + 3.5 s 3+ 12 s2 +10.5 s +5

22.
a.

Solving for X3(s),

or,

b.

Solving for X3(s),

 Solutions21

or

23.
Writing the equations of motion,

24.

a.

x = 0 is at equilibrium.
2
d x
M 2 + Kx=0
dt

b.
M [ s 2 X ( s ) −sx ( 0 ) −x' ( 0 ) ] + KX ( s )=0
M [ s 2 X ( s )−s x0 −x 1 ]+ KX ( s )=0
2
(M s + K) X ( s )=M (s x 0 + x 1)

Solving for X ( s )

X ( s) =
M x0 s +
x1
x0( ) ( )
=
x 0 s+
x1
x0
=
x0 s
+
x1
=
√ √
x0 s
+
M
K
x1
K
M
M s 2+ (K
M ) (
s2 +
K
M
s 2+
)
K
M
s 2+
K
M
s2 +
K
M
s 2+
K
M

c.

Taking the inverse Laplace transform

2-22 Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

√ √
x (t)= x 0 cos K t + M x 1 sin K t
M K M √
d.

√
ω = K rad/sec,
M
Thus
f=
1
2π √ K
M
Hz

25.
a.

Writing the equations of motion,

b.

Defining
θ1 ( s )=rotation of J 1
θ2 ( s )=rotation between K 1 and D 1
θ3 ( s )=rotation of J 2
θ 4 ( s )=rotation of right-hand side of K 2
θ5 ( s )=rotation of J 3

the equations of motion are

( J 1 s2 + K 1 ) θ1 ( s )−K 1 θ2 ( s )=T ( s )
−K 1 θ1 ( s )+ ( D1 s+ K 1 ) θ2 ( s )−D1 s θ3 ( s )=0

−D1 s θ 2 ( s ) + ( J 2 s2 + D1 s + K 2 ) θ3 ( s )−K 2 θ4 ( s )=0

−K 2 θ3 ( s )+ ( D2 s+ K 2+ K 3 ) θ 4 ( s )−( D2 s + K 3 ) θ5 ( s )=0
¿

26.
 Solutions23

This system has two independent rotations. One, shown in the figure θ2 , and θ1 associated with

the inertia where the input torque is applied. The two impedance equations that describe the

system are:
θ1 : ( 2 s 2+3 s+1 ) θ1 ( s )−(2 s +1) θ2 ( s )=T (s)
θ2 : −( 2 s +1 ) θ 1 ( s ) + ( 3 s+1 ) θ2 ( s )=0

Solving for θ2 we get:

| |
2
2 s +3 s +1 T
−(2 s+ 1) 0 ( 2 s+ 1 ) T (s) ( 2 s+1 ) T (s )
θ2 ( s ) = = = 3

| | ( 2 s +3 s+ 1 ) (3 s+1 )−(2 s+1) 6 s +7 s2 +2 s

2 2 2
2 s +3 s +1 −(2 s+ 1)
−(2 s+1) 3 s+ 1
θ2 (s ) s +0.5
which can be re-expressed in transfer function form as = .
T (s) 3 s(s 2+1.667 s∨0.333)

27.

Reflecting impedances to 3,

N4N2
(Jeqs2+Deqs)3(s) = T(s) ( N 3 N 1 )

Thus,

N4N2
q3 ( s ) N3 N1
2
T ( s ) = J eq s + D eq s
where

( ) ( )
N4 N4 N2
N3 2 N3 N1 2
Jeq = J4+J5+(J2+J3) + J1 , and
N4 N 4 N2
D eq =( D 4 + D 5 )+( D 2 + D 3 )( )2 + D 1 ( )2
N3 N 3 N1
2-24 Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

28.
Reflecting all impedances to 2(s),

2 2 2 2 2
{[J2+J1() +J3 () ]s2 + [f2+f1() +f3() ]s + [K() ]}2(s) = T(s)
Substituting values,
2 2 2
{[1+2(3)2+16() ]s2 + [2+1(3)2+32() ]s + 64() }2(s) = T(s)(3)
Thus,

=
29.
Reflecting impedances across gears from the right hand side to the left hand side one gets:

( ) ( )
2 2
5 5
J eq =2+100 +150 =7.5
25 50

D =300 ( ) =12
2
5
eq
25

K =2+400 ( ) =6
2
5
eq
50

θ N2
So ( 7.5 s2 +12 s+ 6 ) θ ( s )=T ( s ). Since = =10 , ( 7.5 s2 +12 s+ 6 ) 10 θ2 ( s )=T ( s )
θ2 N 1

θ2 (s ) 1 0.0133
= = 2
T (s) 75 s +120 s +60 s +1.6 s +0.8
2
 Solutions25

30.
Reflecting impedances and applied torque to respective sides of the spring yields the
following

equivalent system:

Writing the equations of motion,

2(s) -2 3(s) = 2T(s)

-22(s) + (2.7777s+2)3(s) = 0

Solving for 3(s),

Hence, . But, . Thus,

2-26 Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

31.
Reflecting the 0.02 Nm/rad damper towards the left we get

The corresponding impedance equations are:

θ1 : ( s2 +2 s ) θ1−2 s θ2=T 1
θ2 : −2 s θ 1+ ( 2.32 s+2 ) θ2 =0

Solving:

| |
2
s + 2 s T1
−2 s 0 2sT1 2sT1 2T1
θ2= = = =
| | ( s2 +2 s ) ( 2.32 s +2 )−4 s 3 2 2 2 2
s 2+2 s −2 s 2
2.32 s +2 s +4.64 s + 4 s−4 s 2.32 s +2.64 s +
−2 s 2.32 s+2
So
θ2 2
=
T 1 2.32 s2 +2.64 s+ 4
T 5 1 θ
Using the gear ratios we get = = and 2 = 10 = 1 . It follows that
T 1 20 4 θL 40 4
θL
θL 4 1 θL . Finally
= =
T 1 4 T 16 T

θL 32 13.8
= =
T 2.32 s2 +2.64 s+ 4 s2 +1.14 s+1.72
 Solutions27

32.
Reflect impedances to the left of J5 to J5 and obtain the following equivalent circuit:

Writing the equations of motion,

[Jeqs2+(Deq+D)s+(K2+Keq)]5(s) -[Ds+K2]6(s) = 0

-[K2+Ds]5(s) + [J6s2+2Ds+K2]6(s) = T(s)

From the first equation, = . But, = . Therefore,

=,

2 2 2
[ ()
where Jeq = J1 + (J2+J3) () ]
+ (J4+J5) , Keq = K1() , and

2 2
Deq = D [() + () ]
+1 .
2-28 Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

33.
Draw a freebody diagram of the translational system and the rotating member connected to the
translational system.

2 3 2

From the freebody diagram of the mass, F(s) = (2s2+2s+3)X(s). Summing torques on the rotating

member,

(Jeqs2 +Deqs)(s) + F(s)2 = Teq(s). Substituting F(s) above, (Jeqs2 +Deqs)(s) + (4s2+4s+6)X(s) =

Teq(s). However, (s) = . Substituting and simplifying,

Teq = [(+4)s2 +(+4)s+6]X(s)

But, Jeq = 3+3(4)2 = 51, Deq = 1(2)2 +1 = 5, and Teq(s) = 4T(s). Therefore,

[ s2 + ]
s+6 X(s) = 4T(s). Finally, = .

34.
Reflecting through gears the inertia and damping from the load side to motor shaft one
gets,

( ) ( )
2 2
50 50
J m =6+24 =8.667 and Dm =50+36 =54
150 150
K t T stall 150 ea 60 3
Note from the motor load curve that = = =2.5 and K b = = = .
Ra ea 60 ω no−load 100 5
Substituting all of the above, one gets
Kt
θm Ra J m 0.2885
= =

( ( ))
Ea 1 K K s(s +6.4036)
s s+ Dm + t b
Jm Ra
 Solutions29

θm N 2
Noting that = =3
θL N 1
θL 0.09615
=
Ea s (s +6.4036)

35.

The parameters are:

Ea 5 1
Kt 5Ts K b= = =
= = =1 ω 600 1 4
Ra Ea 5 2π
; π 60 ;

J m=18 () ()1 2
4
+4
12
2
+1=3 .125 Dm=36
;
1 2
4
=2. 25 ()
Thus,
1
θm ( s ) 3 .125 0 .32
= =
Ea (s ) 1 1 s (s +0 . 8)
s (s + (2. 25+(1)( )))
3. 125 4

1
θ2 (s )= θ m (s )
Since: 4 ; then:
θ 2( s ) 0. 08
=
Ea (s ) s (s +0 . 8)

36.
From Eqs. (2.45) and (2.46),

RaIa(s) + Kbs(s) = Ea(s) (1)

Also,

Tm(s) = KtIa(s) = (Jms2+Dms)(s). Solving for (s) and substituting into Eq. (1), and simplifying yields
Dm
(s+ )
1 Jm
Ia(s) Ra R a D m+ K b K t
s+
Ea ( s ) = RaJ m (2)

Using Tm(s) = KtIa(s) in Eq. (2),

2-30 Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

Dm
(s+ )
Kt Jm
Tm( s ) Ra R a D m+ K b K t
s+
E a (s ) = RaJ m
37.
For the rotating load, assuming all inertia and damping has been reflected to the load,

(JeqLs2+DeqLs)L(s) + F(s)r = Teq(s), where F(s) is the force from the translational system, r=2 is

the radius of the rotational member, JeqL is the equivalent inertia at the load of the rotational load and

the armature, and DeqL is the equivalent damping at the load of the rotational load and the armature.

Since JeqL = 1(2)2 +1 = 5, and DeqL = 1(2)2 +1 = 5, the equation of motion becomes, (5s2+5s)L(s) +

F(s)r = Teq(s). For the translational system, (s2+s)X(s) = F(s). Since X(s) = 2L(s), F(s) =

(s2+s)2L(s). Substituting F(s) into the rotational equation, (9s2+9s)L(s) = Teq(s). Thus, the

equivalent inertia at the load is 9, and the equivalent damping at the load is 9. Reflecting these back to

the armature, yields an equivalent inertia of and an equivalent damping of . Finally, = 1; K b = 1.

X (s )
E (s )
Hence, = = . Since L(s) = m(s), = . But X(s) = rL(s) = 2L(s). therefore, a =.
 Solutions31

38.
The equations of motion in terms of velocity are:

K1 K2 K
[ M 1 s +( f v 1 +f v 3 )+ + ]V 1 (s )− 2 V 2 ( s )−f v 3 V 3 ( s )=0
s s s
K2 K2
− V 1 (s )+[ M 2 s+(f v 2 +f v 4 )+ ]V 2 ( s )−f v 4 V 3 (s )=F ( s )
s s
−f v 3 V 1 ( s )−f v 4 V 2 (s )+[ M 3 s +f V 3 +f v 4 ]V 3 ( S )=0

For the series analogy, treating the equations of motion as mesh equations yields

In the circuit, resistors are in ohms, capacitors are in farads, and inductors are in henries.

For the parallel analogy, treating the equations of motion as nodal equations yields

In the circuit, resistors are in ohms, capacitors are in farads, and inductors are in henries.
2-32 Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

39.
Writing the equations of motion in terms of angular velocity, (s) yields

K1 K1
( J 1 s+ D 1 + )Ω 1 ( s )−( D 1 + )Ω 2 (s )=T ( s )
s s
K1 ( K 1+ K 2 )
−(D 1 + )Ω 1 ( s )+(J 2 s + D1 + )Ω 2 ( s )=0
s s
K2 K2
− Ω 2 ( s )−D 2 Ω3 (s )+(D 2 + )Ω4 (s )=0
s s
K3
( J 3 s+ D2 + )Ω3 (s )−D 2 Ω4 ( s )=0
s
For the series analogy, treating the equations of motion as mesh equations yields

In the circuit, resistors are in ohms, capacitors are in farads, and inductors are in henries.

For the parallel analogy, treating the equations of motion as nodal equations yields

In the circuit, resistors are in ohms, capacitors are in farads, and inductors are in henries.

40.
An input r1 yields c1 = 5r1+7. An input r2 yields c2 = 5r2 +7. An input r1 +r2 yields, 5(r1+r2)+7 =

5r1+7+5r2 = c1+c2-7. Therefore, not additive. What about homogeneity? An input of Kr1 yields c =

5Kr1+7 ≠ Kc1. Therefore, not homogeneous. The system is not linear.

 Solutions33

41.
The truncated Taylor series expansion of f ( x )=3 e−5 x ≈ f ( 0 ) +f ' ( 0 ) x=3−15 x
Letting x=δx and substituting for f (x) one gets
3 2
d δx d δx dδx
3
+10 2
+ 20 +15 δx=3−15 δx
dt dt dt
Simplifying
3 2
d δx d δx dδx
3
+10 2
+ 20 +30 δx=3
dt dt dt

42.

The relationship between the nonlinear spring’s displacement, xs(t) and its force, fs(t) is
−f s (t )
x s ( t )=1−e

f (t )=−ln(1−x s (t ))
Solving for the force, s (1)

Writing the differential equation for the system by summing forces,

d 2 x (t ) dx(t )
2 +2 −ln(1−x (t ))=f (t )
dt 2 dt
(2)

Letting x(t) = x0 + x and f(t) = 1 + f, linearize ln(1 – x(t)).

d ln(1−x )
ln (1−x )−ln(1−x 0 )= |x= x δx
dx 0

Solving for ln(1 – x),

1 1
ln (1−x )=ln(1−x 0 )− |x =x δx=ln(1−x 0 )− δx
1−x 0 1−x 0 (3)

When f = 1, x = 0. Thus from Eq. (1), 1 = -ln(1 – x0 ).

Solving for x0, 1 – x0 = e-1 , or x0 = 0.6321.

Substituting x0 = 0.6321 into Eq. (3),

2-34 Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

1
ln (1−x ) = ln (1 – 0. 6321 ) - δ x=-1-2 .718 δx
1-0 . 6321

Placing this value into Eq. (2) along with x(t) = x0 + x and f(t) = 1 + f , yields the linearized
d 2 δx dδx
2 2 +2 +1+2 .718 δx=1+δf
dt dt
differential equation,

d 2 δx dδx
2 +2 +2 .718 δx=δf
or dt 2 dt
Taking the Laplace transform and rearranging yields the transfer function,
δx( s ) 1
= 2
δf (s ) 2 s +2 s+2 .718

43.
a. The three equations are transformed into the Laplace domain:
~
Ss−S 0 =k ψ K S C−k ψ S
~
Cs=k ψ ( S− K M C )
Ps=k 2 C

The three equations are algebraically manipulated to give:

~
S0 kψ K S
S= + C
s+ k ψ s +k ψ

Sk ψ
C= ~
s +k ψ K M
k2
P= C
s
By direct substitutions it is obtained that:

~
( s+ k ψ K M )
S= 2
S0
~ ~ ~
s2 + k ψ (1+ K M ) s+ k ψ ( K M − K S )
 Solutions35

kψ
C= S0
2 ~ 2
ψ ~ ~
( s + k ψ ( 1+ K M ) s+k ( K M − K S ))
k 2 kψ
P= S0
2 ~ 2
ψ ~ ~
s( s +k ψ (1+ K M ) s+ k ( K M − K S ) )
b.
S(∞ )=Lim sS ( s )=0
s→ 0
C (∞)=Lim sC ( s )=0
s→0
k2 kψ S0 k2 S0
P( ∞ )=Lim sP ( s )= = =S0
k ψ2 ( ~
K M −~KS ) k
k ψ(~
KS+ 2 −~
s→ 0
K S)
kψ

44.

Eliminate
T bal by direct substitution. This results in
t
d 2θ
J 2 =−kJ θ (t )−ηJ θ̇ (t )−ρJ ∫ θ(t )dt+T d (t )
dt 0

Obtaining Laplace transform on both sides of this equation and eliminating terms one gets that:
1
s
Θ J
(s)= 3
Td 2
s +η s +ks− ρ

45.

The Laplace transform of the systems output is

T ref T ref 2 aπf T ref λ 2 aπf

L { T ( t) }=T ( s )= − + 2 = + 2
s s+λ s +4 π f 2 2
s (s + λ) s + 4 π 2 f 2

Dividing by the input one gets

T λ 2 aπf s
( s) = +
U s+ λ T ref s +4 π 2 f 2
2
2-36 Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

46.
λ −at
dV (t ) λ ( 1−e )
−αt
=V 0 ( αe−αt )e α =λe V (t )
a. By direct differentiation dt α
λ −αt λ
(1−e )
α α
V (∞ )=Lim V (t )=Lim V 0 e =V 0 e
b. t ⃗∞ t⃗ ∞
c.

Lambda = 2.5;

alpha = 0.1;

V0=50;

t=linspace(0,100);

V=V0.*exp(Lambda.*(1-exp(-alpha.*t))/alpha);

plot(t,V)

grid

xlabel('t (days)')

ylabel('mm^3 X 10^-3')
12
x 10
4

3.5

2.5
mm3 X 10-3

1.5

0.5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
t (days)

12
d. From the figure V (∞ )≈3 . 5 X 10 mm3 X 10-3
 Solutions37

λ 2. 5
α 0 .1
From part c
V (∞ )=V 0 e =50 e =3 . 6 X 1012 mm3 X 10-3

47.
Using the impedance method the two equations are:

x 1: ( m s 2 +k ) x 1−x m k=F 1
x m: −x 1 k +(Bs+ k) x m=F iso

Solving both equations simultaneously, one gets

x 1=
|
F1 −k
Fiso Bs+k | =
F 1 ( Bs+k )+ F iso k
=
F 1 Bs+ k (F 1+ F iso )

| | ( m s +k ) ( Bs+ k )−k
2 2 3
m s + k −k 2
s(mB s +kms+ kB)
−k Bs+k

48.
Opening the current source, we find the contribution of the voltage source, Va(s), to the ac current,
IacF (s).
1

Short-circuiting the voltage source, Va(s), we find the contribution of the current source, IacR(s), to
the ac current, IacF (s).
2

1
R+
Cs RCs+1
I acF ( s )=I acR ( s ) = I acR ( s )
2 1 LCs2 + RCs+1
Ls+ R +
Cs
Thus, the total current, IacF (s), is given by:
2-38 Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

49.

Writing the loop equation around the armature circuit for the motor in Figure 2.35:

d ia d θm
e a ( t ) =R a i a + La +Kb
dt dt

Taking the Laplace transform:

(1)

The torque developed at the motor is:

Taking the Laplace transform:

But . Solving for and substituting for

Substituting in (1) for and simplifying

Thus

50.
 Solutions39

a. Expressing as a Taylor series around h0i

(1)

Also,

(2)

and

(3)

Substituting (1), (2), and (3) into the given nonlinear equation and eliminating

the equilibrium values yields the linear equation

Thus the transfer function is

b. Substituting into

Rearranging

Simplifying,

Taking the Laplace transform

2-40 Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

From which,

51.
a. The first two equations are nonlinear because of the Tv products on their right hand side.
Otherwise the equations are linear.
¿
dT dT dv
= = =0
b.To find the equilibria let dt dt dt
Leading to

s−dT −βTν=0
¿
β Tv −μT =0
¿
kT −cv=0
The first equilibrium is found by direct substitution. For the second equilibrium, solve the last two

equations for T*

¿ β Tv ¿ cv cμ
T= T= T=
μ and k . Equating we get that βk
Substituting the latter into the first equation after some algebraic manipulations we get that
ks d ¿ cv s cd
v= − T= = −
cμ β . It follows that k μ kβ .
52.

a. From , we have: (1)

Substituting for the motive force, F, and the resistances FRo, FL, and Fst using the equations given in

the problem, yields the equation:

(2)
 Solutions41

b. Noting that constant acceleration is assumed, the average values for speed and acceleration are:
aav = 20 (km/h)/ 4 s = 5 km/h.s = 5x1000/3600 m/s2 = 1.389 m/s2

vav = 50 km/h = 50,000/3,600 m/s = 13.89 m/s

The motive force, F (in N), and power, P (in kW) can be found from eq. 2:

Fav = 0.011 x 1590 x 9.8 + 0.5 x 1.2 x 0.3 x 2 x 13.892 + 1.2 x 1590 x 1.389 = 2891 N

Pav = Fav. v / η = 2891 x 13.89 / 0.9 = 44, 617 N.m/s = 44.62 kW

To maintain a speed of 60 km/h while climbing a hill with a gradient α = 5o, the car engine or

motor needs to overcome the climbing resistance:

Thus, the additional power, Padd, the car needs after reaching 60 km/h to maintain its speed while

climbing a hill with a gradient α = 5o is:

= 1358 x 60 x 1000/(3,600 x 0.9) = 25, 149 W = 25.15 kW

c. Substituting for the car parameters into equation 2 yields:

or (3)

To linearize this equation about vo = 50 km/h = 13.89 m/s, we use the truncated taylor series:

(4), from which we obtain:

(5)

Substituting from equation (5) into (3) yields:

2-42 Chapter 2: Modeling in the Frequency Domain

or

(6)

Equation (6) may be represented by the following block-diagram:

Fo = 69.46 N
Excess
Motive Motive Car Speed,
Force, + Force, v(t)
F (t) + Fe(t)
Gv
_

FRo = 171.4 N

d. Taking the Laplace transform of the left and right-hand sides of equation (6) gives,

(7)

Thus the transfer function, Gv(s), relating car speed, V(s) to the excess motive force, Fe(s), when the

car travels on a level road at speeds around vo = 50 km/h = 13.89 m/s under windless conditions is:

(8)

53.
a.
Since the system’s transfer function exhibits a pure time delay of T seconds, the
unit step response of the system is the unit step response of a first order system
delayed T seconds, namely

( ) u ( t−T )
−t −T
τ
h ( t )=K 1−e

b.
 Solutions43

h(t)

0.63K

t(sec)
T T+ɀ Ts=T+ɀ4

c.

The output will he delayed T seconds, thus writing

H (s ) K
= e− sT
Q(s ) (1+ τs)
Then cross-multiplying
sT
H ( s ) (1+ τs ) e =KQ (s)

And obtaining the inverse Laplace transform, one gets:

d
τ h ( t+T ) +h ( t+ T ) =Kq(t)
dt