PHYSICS REVISION CARDS

Science (9-1)
Combined Science / Physics Topics 1 - 7
www.physicsinfo.co.uk Modified 06/11/2017/(PB)
 PHYSICS INDEX
4 SI units in Physics 22 Wave velocity 42 Radioactive decay
5 Scalar and Vector 23 Measuring sound 43 Decay examples
6 Distance time Graph 24 Sound (Physics) 44 Models of the atom
7 Determining speed 25 Ultrasound (Physics) 45 Uses of radioactivity (P)
8 Velocity time 27 Measuring depth (Physics) 46 Risks of ionising radiation
9 Acceleration 28 Refraction 47 PET scans (Physics)
10 Newton’s 2nd Law 29 Light and Colour (Physics) 48 Half life
11 Momentum 30 T. I. R. (Physics) 49 Nuclear power (Physics)
12 Circular motion 31 Lenses (Physics) 50 Fission of U-235 (P)
13 Newton’s 3rd Law 32 Electromagnetic waves 51 Nuclear Fusion (Physics)
14 Stopping 33 Radiation (Physics) 52 Weight and g (Physics)
15 Stopping distance (P) 34 Harm from EM waves 53 Solar system (Physics)
16 K.E. & G.P.E. 35 Uses of EM waves 54 Orbits (Physics)
17 Energy transfers 36 Absorption / transmission 55 Changing velocity (P)
18 Energy storage 37 Global temperature (P) 56 Big Bang (Physics)
19 Efficiency 38 Structure of the atom 57 Life of a star (Physics)
20 Sources of energy 39 Isotopes and ions 58 Observing the Universe (P)
21 Waves 40 Ionising radiations 59 Equations to recall for P1
22 Frequency, amplitude 41 Background radiation 60 Equations to use in P1
The box on the bottom left identifies the Learning Outcomes, The on-line
version of these Revision Cards contain links to relevant You Tube videos, web
pages and photographs, accessed by links at the bottom of each page.
 GCSE Physics
Full details of this course are available from the Pearson
website www.edexcel.com.
Revision materials, workbooks and past papers are always
being added and the latest information should be available
from
www.physicsinfo.co.uk and www.pearsonactivelearn.com
Combined Science is a double GCSE award with content from
Biology, Chemistry and Physics. Students are awarded two ISBN 9781292131634 ISBN 9781292133706
grades between 9 and 1, with 9 being the highest and 1 the
lowest, level 4 being the equivalent of an old C grade. Those studying Physics as a separate
subject will receive just one grade.
Combined content will be examined at the end of the course in the summer of year 11 by two 1
hour 10 minutes papers in each subject area (6 in total). Each paper is worth 60 marks with
papers all sat at either Higher or Foundation tier. Physics-only papers contain extra content with
the two papers each worth 100 marks. Physics papers are 1 hour 45 minutes each.
Questions will be a mixture of multiple choice, short answer, calculations and extended open-
response questions (6 mark questions). There is a separate practical endorsement.
Paper 1 will test Topics 1-7 and Paper 2 will test Topics 8-15.
Topics highlighted in blue will only be tested in separate science Physics papers.
 Topic 1: SI units in Physics
Multiple of base Example
Name Symbol Number of zeros
unit units
Centi c 10-2 cm 0.01
Milli m 10-3 mm 0.001
Micro μ 10-6 μm 0.000001
Nano n 10-9 nm 0.000000001
Kilo k 103 kg 1000
Mega M 106 MB 1 000 000
Giga G 109 GB 1 000 000 000

Base unit symbol When using standard name unit symbol

form you would usually
metre m Frequency hertz Hz
quote your value to 3
kilogram kg significant figures and Force newton N
second s show consistency with Energy joule J
the number of decimal
ampere A Power watt W
places
kelvin K Radioactivity Bq
mole mol Remember: 60 seconds in 1 minute, 60 minutes in 1 hour.
 Topic 2: Scalar & Vector
Scalar quantities have magnitude WEIGHT (V) (density) (S)
VECTOR quantities – having magnitude (mass) (S)
and direction:

FORCE (V)

VELOCITY (V)
(speed) (S)
(energy) (S)

MOMENTUM (V) &

energy (S)

DISPLACEMENT
ACCELERATION (V)
If you remember
the 5 vectors, everything DISPLACEMENT (V)
else is scalar ! (distance) (S)
(weight is a force)

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

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 Topic 2: Distance time graph
Speed is the
gradient of a distance
vs. time graph

Formula you need to know: (Topic 4)

distance
Speed = time
NO !
v=x/t
(m/s) = (m) /( s)

Formula you need to know:

Velocity is speed in a Distance = speed x time

stated direction X=vxt
(m/s) = (m) /( s)

2.6 2.7 4.6

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 Topic 2: Determining speed
You can use light gates Remember that a light gate measures
time (not speed). It has to be used
with an interrupt card of known
length and a computer for the results
to be recorded as speed.

There’s always the

humble stop watch and
ruler

Some typical speeds:

Walker Motorway
1 m/s 30 m/s
Sprinter Cyclists
10 m/s 15 m/s
Human reaction
The wind speed in a gale is approx. 20 m/s time is about 0.25
The speed of sound in air is approx. 330 m/s secs
The speed of light in a vacuum is approx. 300,000,000m/s

2.11 2.12 2.27

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 Topic 2: Velocity time graph
Distance travelled is
the area under a velocity
vs. time graph

Acceleration is the
gradient of a velocity
vs. time graph

Formula you need to know:

velocity change
Acceleration = time taken
Rapid acceleration
a = (v-u) / t
Gradual acceleration (m/s2) = (m) /( s2)

2.8 2.10
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 Topic 2: Acceleration
Formula (given to you):

(final velocity)2 – (initial velocity)2 = 2 x acceleration x distance

v2 – u2 = 2 x a x x
(m/s)2 = (m/s2) x (m)
Common mistake: v2 - u2 is not the same as (v-u)2

Newton’s First Law:

lift
Unbalanced forces result in acceleration.
If the resultant force is zero, the drag
plane will be moving at a
constant velocity (or it’s at rest!)
thrust weight
The arrows on the
diagram make this a
free body force diagram
You can add thrust and drag or lift and weight values
to get a resultant (don’t forget the direction)
2.9 2.14
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 Formula you need to know:
Topic 2: Newton’s 2nd law
Force = mass x acceleration

F=ma The larger the force, on the object,

the greater the acceleration for the
(newton, N) = same mass.
(kilogram, kg) x (metres per second2, m/s2)
Formula you need to know:

Weight = mass x gravitational field strength

The greater the mass, of the
.
W=mg object, the less the acceleration
for the same force.
(newton, N) = (kilogram, kg) x
(newtons per kilogram, N/kg) weight not
In a vacuum, all bodies accelerate at the same rate gravity

On Earth, the acceleration, g, in free fall is 10 m/s2 or, more usually, 10 N /kg.
Investigate: The relationship between mass and weight
Investigate: The acceleration g in free fall and the magnitudes of everyday accelerations

2.13 2.15 2.16 (2.17) 2.18 2.26

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 Topic 2: Momentum
Formula (given to you) (H):
Large changes in momentum over a
change in momentum short time increase the forces
Force = time experienced.
Safety features, like crumple zones
or air bags, extend the time
F = (mv-mu) / t or distance of
a collision
(newton, N) = and so
(kilogram meters per second, kg) / (metres reduce the
per second2, m/s2) force experienced.
Formula you need to know (H):

Momentum = mass x velocity

р=mxv
kilogram meter per second (m/s) = kilogram (kg) / metre per second (m/s)

Investigate: How crumple zones can be used to reduce the forces in collisions

2.24 2.25 2.26 2.31 2.31

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 Topic 2: Circular motion
Velocity The red ball is travelling in a circle
at a constant speed.

The direction in which the ball is

travelling is constantly changing, in
other words velocity is changing.
acceleration Acceleration is the rate of change
(force) in velocity so the ball is constantly
towards the accelerating (towards the centre).
centre
The mass of the red ball is
accelerating towards the centre.
F = ma means that there is also a
Force acting towards the centre.
This is centripetal force.

m (inertial mass) = F / a and is a measure of how difficulty it is to change velocity

2.20 2.21 2.22

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 Topic 2: Newton’s 3rd law
Newton’s Third Law The man pushes on the Earth
whilst the Earth pushes
on the man.
For every action, there is Note: This is not a
an equal and opposite free-body force
reaction diagram.

Action and reaction forces are equal in size and opposite in direction.

In any collision,
momentum is
conserved
Investigate: conservation of momentum during collisions
Investigate: conservation of momentum, inelastic collisions, near elastic collisions
Investigate: inelastic collisions with the two objects remaining together after the
collision and also near-elastic collisions
2.23 2.23
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 Topic 2: Stopping
Factors affecting the stopping distance of a vehicle

Stopping distance is made up of the sum of thinking distance and braking distance

2.28 2.29
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 Topic 2: Stopping distances (Physics)

Thinking distance increases in direct proportion to the speed (2 x speed = 2 x distance)

Braking distance increases with the square of the speed (2 x speed = 4 x distance)
(3 X speed = 9 x distance)

The work done to

bring the car to rest will
be equal to its initial
Expected to carry out calculations using K.E. = ½ m x v2 Kinetic energy.

2.32(P) 2.33(P)
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 Topic 3: KE & GPE
Formula you need to know:

ΔG.P.E. = mass x gravitational field strength x Δvertical height

ΔGPE = m x g x Δh
(joule, J) = (kilogram, kg) x (newton per kilogram, N/kg) x (metre, m)
Formula you need to know:

Kinetic energy = ½ x mass x velocity 2

KE = ½ m x v2
(joule, J) = (kilogram, kg) x ((metre per second)2, (m/s)2)

Often questions will be asked about roller coasters, a swing, a pendulum or a bouncing
spring. In each case the energy changes from GPE to KE and back again though the total
energy of the system remains constant.

3.1 3.2
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 Topic 3: Energy transfers
Remember: Energy is not created or destroyed – it’s conserved. We represent this in
Energy transfer (Sankey) diagrams:

Heat energy
Electrical energy
(90 joules)
(100 joules)

Light energy
(10 joules)
So for every 100 joules of electrical energy in, 100 joules will be transferred to other
forms of energy. Often the answer is “energy is dissipated as heat” don’t use “lost”
(really energy that is dissipated / lost is just stored in a less useful way.)

Heat energy
Chemical energy
(90 joules)
(100 joules)

Kinetic energy
(10 joules)
Investigation: Conservation of energy
3.3 3.4 3.7 3.8
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 Topic 3: Energy storage
Energy can be stored in different forms,
and then transferred. For example:

Car braking:
Kinetic  heat + sound

Kettle boiling:
Thought the energy may be constantly Electrical  Thermal
changing form, within a closed system
there will be no net change of energy.
Skydiver:
Sometimes the energy changes can be
G.P.E.  Kinetic Energy
harder to describe……….

Hammer & nail:

Kinetic  Sound & Thermal
Up hill:
Kinetic  Gravitational potential (G.P.E.)
3.5 3.6
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 Topic 3: Efficiency
Formula you need to know:

Efficiency = (useful energy transferred by the device)

(total energy supplied to device)
Useful energy is the energy that ends up in the form that the device is used for (eg: a
light bulb is used for light, so light energy is the useful form)
Wasted energy is the energy that ends up in forms that the device is not used for (eg:
a light bulb is not used to heat a room, so heat energy, lost to the surroundings, is a
wasted form)
Efficiency can be increased by reducing the amount of wasted energy
(eg: reduce friction through lubrication) but there is always some
wasted energy. The more effective the insulation in walls and ceilings
the slower a room will cool down or warm up.

3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12

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 Topic 3: Sources of energy
Oil (N) Coal (N)
(N) Means it will run out !

Nuclear
Fission(N)

Gas (N)
Hydro (R)
Tidal (R)

Wind (R) (R) Means it’s renewable ! Biofuel (R)

Solar (R)

In future the reliance on fossil fuels will decrease and the use of renewables increase

3.13 3.14
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 Topic 4: Waves
Transverse
waves
s-waves
electromagnetic spectrum & water
(side-to-side)

Transverse waves oscillate at right angles to the direction of travel

Movement / transfer of energy / information (not matter)

Longitudinal waves p-waves sound

(push & pull)

Longitudinal waves oscillate parallel to direction of travel

Both wave types are vibrations that transfer energy. They can be reflected and refracted

4.1 4.5
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 Topic 4: Frequency, amplitude
Both longitudinal and transverse waves can be shown on a displacement vs time graph:

Wavelength (λ) Greater amplitude:

Displacement or pressure

Amplitude (A)

Time (t) -> Higher

frequency:

• Speed of sound in air = 330 m/s

Frequency (f) is the number of • Speed of sound in water = 1500 m/s
waves passing a point every second • Speed of light = 300,000,000 m/s

When asked to calculate λ from a diagram, usually do so from a number of waves

4.3 4.4
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 Topic 4: Wave speed (velocity)
Formula you need to know:

wave speed = frequency x wavelength

v=fxλ
metres per second (m/s) = hertz (hz) x metres (m)
Formula you need to know:

wave speed = distance / time

v=x/t
metres per second (m/s) = metres (m) / seconds (s)
When measuring depth, don’t forget that a signal may travel there and back (P)
4.6
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 Topic 4: Measuring wave velocity
Waves transfer
information and energy,
they do not transfer
Velocity of sound in air: matter.
Assuming that the speed of light is virtually
instantaneous, then the time between seeing Distance (x)
and hearing a distant event can be used to
time
calculate the speed of sound waves in air using
v = x / t. (provided you know how far away it was).

A wave front is a line

Wave velocity:
joining all the points
that are at the same
state of oscillation (like
ripples). The speed of
ripples in water can be
measured using a ruler
and stopwatch.

4.2 4.4 4.7

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 Topic 4: Sound (Physics only)
Infrasound:
Frequencies
less than 20Hz

Ultrasound:
Frequencies
greater than
20 000Hz
Sound, vibrations in the air, is converted to vibrations When a sound wave is
of the ear drum. Bones in the middle ear pass these refracted at a boundary:
vibrations on, via small windows, to the inner ear. * Speed changes
There is a limit to how much objects can vibrate and * Wavelength changes
for humans the range of hearing frequencies is * Frequency remains the
20 - 20,000Hz same

4.12(P) 4.13(P) 4.14(P)

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 Topic 4: Ultrasound (Physics only)
Ultrasound can be used to scan the body.
Each layer / interface has a different effect so
waves are transmitted, absorbed and reflected by
different amounts at each boundary.
Gel is used at the air-skin boundary due to a huge
difference in resistance to the waves.
Reflected waves are built into a picture by
computer.

Echolocation is used by animals like dolphins

Exploring the Earth’s structure
and bats to locate objects, also by ships to take
Seismograph measures reflected
soundings (SONAR)
waves

Distance = speed x time

(When measuring depth,
don’t forget that a signal
must travel
there and back (P))

4.8(P) 4.9(P) 4.15(P)

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 Topic 4: Measuring depth (P)

A ship can use ultrasound to measure the depth of water below: The ship emits a
pulse of sound. Knowing the speed of sound in water and the time interval between
transmission and receipt it is possible to calculate the distance travelled ( from
speed = distance / time). The depth is ½ this distance.

The same idea is used

by a sonic tape
measure but this time
the sound travels
through the air.

4.8 (P)
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 Topic 4: Refraction
Normal i = incident angle
r = reflected angle
i r
As the wave reaches the boundary it
AIR changes speed and changes direction.
Going from air to glass, light will slow
GLASS down and bend towards the normal.
Toy cars and sand are often used to
model this effect.

The amount a wave is refracted at a boundary can vary with

wavelength. For example, in a prism the longer red
wavelength is refracted less than the shorter blue
wavelength.
The same is true for other materials which
may absorb, transmit, refract or reflect waves
in ways that also vary with wavelength.

Investigation: Models to show refraction, such as a toy car travelling in a region of sand.
4.9(P) 4.10 4.10 4.11 5.13
5.14
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 Topic 5: Light and colour (Physics)

Specular reflection: Reflection off of smooth surfaces Diffuse reflection: Reflection off of rough surfaces

The wavelength of light can affect whether it is absorbed

or reflected.
Yellow objects absorb all wavelengths except
yellow light, the yellow is reflected which is how
we see it.

Coloured filters only transmit light of one

colour so a red filter will only allow red
light through, absorbing all the others.

5.2(P) 5.3(P)
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 Topic 5: Total internal reflection (P)
At incident angles (i)
less than the critical,
Endoscopes: light is refracted.
refracted

At incident angles
greater than the
critical, light undergoes
Using TIR (Total Internal Total Internal Reflection Total Internal Reflection
Reflection): Light passes down Angle of incidence i = angle of reflection r
fibres, illuminating the subject,
and returns along other fibres to
At the critical angle light
the monitor.
reflects and passes out
at 90° to the ‘normal’.
Critical Angle (c)
Prisms (T.I.R.) reflect more light than a mirror so are used
in high quality optical instruments such as binoculars or
periscopes.
5.1(P)
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 Topic 5: Lenses (Physics only)
Magnification: The ‘fatter’ the lens, the more powerful it is

x4 x2
The shorter the focal length,
Subject
the more powerful the lens

Converging lens:
Larger
Image is real / positive
(virtual)
Beyond the image
Diverging lens: focal length, the image will be
Image is virtual / negative inverted, real and start to get smaller.
An image can be
considered ‘real’ if you can
touch it on screen

5.4(P) 5.5(P) 5.6(P)

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 Topic 5: Electromagnetic waves

Our eyes can only detect a limited range of frequencies Decreasing wavelength
Increasing frequency
Increasing danger
All electromagnetic waves are transverse, all travel at the same speed (3 x 108 m/s)
in a vacuum
All EM waves transfer energy (not matter) from the source to the observer.

Investigation: Constuct a simple spectrometer from a CD and use it

to analyse common light sources
Investigate the areas beyond the visible spectrum, such as the
work of Herschel and Ritter in discovering IR and UV respectively.
5.7 5.8 5.10 5.11 5.12
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 Topic 5: Radiation (Physics only)
All bodies emit radiation. The colours in the
pictures directly relate to the temperature
of the object observed.

You can see that one

roof (left) is poorly
insulated and even that
two of the cars have
recently been parked.

At a constant temperature, the energy

going in will be exactly matched by the
energy given out.

(H) Remember power = energy / time so in this case the electrical

power in will exactly match the thermal energy radiated per second
If the power radiated is less than the energy in, it will get hotter and
visa versa.

5.15(P) 5.16(P) 5.17(P)

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 Topic 5: Harm of EM waves
Microwaves: UV:
Internal heating of body Damage to surface cells
cells and eyes, leading to skin
cancer and eye conditions.
NOT burns

X-rays and gamma rays:

Mutation or damage to
cells in the body. Infrared: Skin burns
The dangers of electromagnetic radiation increase with
increasing frequency - from Radio, through Visible to X-
rays and gamma
Higher frequency
= more energy
= greater harm

5.20 5.21
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 Topic 5: Uses of EM waves
Radio waves: Broadcasting,
communications & low level
satellite transmissions
Microwaves: Cooking, WiFi,
communications & low satellite
transmissions. Also speed cameras.

Infrared: Cooking, thermal imaging, short

range communication, optic fibres, TV
Visible light:
remote, security
Vision, photography
and Illumination. UV: Security marking,
Eyes only detect a fluorescent lamps,
limited range. forged bank notes,
disinfecting water
x-ray: observing internal structure, broken bones, airport security,
scanners & medical x-rays
Gamma: sterilising food and
equipment, cancer detection
and treatment.

5.22 5.12
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 Topic 5: Absorption & transmission

Radio waves can be produced

or induced by oscillations in
electrical circuits, this is how walkie
talkies and radio stations work (H)

Quite a few materials,

atoms and molecules
will give off E.M.
radiation. We’re quite
used to fluorescent
tubes, glow in the
dark stickers or security marking on bank notes but a whole range of
frequencies can be radiated and this, in turn, can be caused by the
absorption of a range of radiations.

5.23 5.24
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 Topic 5: Global temperature (P)
Whilst the amount of
the sun’s radiant energy
reflected, transmitted
and absorbed by the
Earth’s atmosphere
remains constant so will
the average
temperature of the
Earth.
However, if more
energy is transmitted
and / or absorbed then
global temperatures will
rise.

Various gases in the atmosphere, including carbon dioxide, methane and water vapour,
trap heat from the Sun and this keeps the Earth warm. Human activity can have an
impact on the proportion of these gases, thus raising the temperature, causing changes
to the climate.

5.19(P)
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 Topic 6: Structure of the atom
1/ th a.m.u. -1
Structure of 2000
the atom :
Protons 1 a.m.u. +1
Positively charged Neutron 1 a.m.u. zero
a.m.u. = Atomic Mass Unit (this is a relative mass)

An atom has a diameter in the order of 10-8m

A nucleus has a diameter in the order of 10-12m
Mass / nucleon
number 7 For each atom, electrons orbit the nucleus at
(protons + neutrons) different set distances (called shells).
Proton / Atomic
Li The nucleus contains most of the mass and has
number 3
a radius much (10,000 times) smaller that that
of the atom.
N.B. Positrons (positive electrons) A neutral atom contains
have a positive charge and a the the same number of
same mass of 1/2000th a.m.u. negative electrons as it does
protons.
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.5 6.6 6.7 10.1
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 Topic 6: Isotopes and ions
Isotopes: Isotopes of an element
A positive ion is an
12 14 have the same number
atom that has lost
of protons
an electron
C C (characteristic positive
charge) but different
6 6
numbers of neutrons

Electrons can change orbit when there is absorption

or emission of electromagnetic radiation:
Full spectrum:
If radiation is
absorbed, the EM Absorbed
electron jumps a level Absorption spectrum:

EM Emitted
Emission spectrum:
If the electron drops an
orbit, radiation is given out

6.4 6.8 6.9

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 Topic 6: Ionising radiations
symbol type Mass / charge Ionising Penetration
amu
α Alpha 4 +2 particle !!!! !
β Beta 1/2000 -1 particle !! !!
γ Gamma 0 0 EM wave ! !!!!

Emitted from unstable nuclei in a random process:

Alpha (α) particles are slow moving helium nuclei with a 2+ charge. They are highly
ionising (can knock electrons of other molecules- like DNA) but cannot even
penetrate the outer layers of dead skin.
Beta (β-)particles are electrons from the nucleus with a 1- charge and various
energies, they will penetrate thin aluminium or a few cm into a body. Though they
are less ionising than alpha, they are potentially more dangerous.
Gamma (γ) rays are high frequency electromagnetic waves. They easily penetrate
lead, glass or the body but are unlikely to have a collision on the way through - you
need a high density of gamma radiation to guarantee collisions.

6.10 6.11 6.15 6.16

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 Topic 6: Background radiation
Background radiation can come from many sources. It will vary from place-to-place
and will have an impact on any radiation reading. To take account of the background
you should remove the source, measure the background, return the source and then
repeat the process subtracting the results for the background from the final reading.
Medical Radon gas given
radiotherapy and off by Radon
granite
diagnostic rocks gas
14.3% 50.1%50.1%

Gamma rays from

the ground and
buildings
13.5%

Other sources
including nuclear
Early on, photographic film Internal from Cosmic waste and
was used to detect radiation. food and drink 10.0% accidents
(coffee, bananas) <0.5%
The Geiger-Muller tube is a 11.6%
modern equivalent

6.12 6.13 6.14

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 Topic 6: Radioactive decay
Radioactive decay:
α, β-(beta minus), β+(positron), gamma rays and neutron radiation are emitted from
unstable nuclei which will decay and emit radioactive particles or gamma rays in a
random process. Nuclei that have undergone radioactive decay often lose energy in
the form of gamma
radiation as they β- decay: neutron -> proton + electron (β-)
rearrange the nucleus. (mass (nucleon) number stays the same
but the atomic (proton) number goes up).

β+ decay: proton -> neutron + positron (β+)

(mass (nucleon) number stays the same but
the atomic (proton) number goes down).

α decay: mass (nucleon) number falls

Neutron emission sees by 4 and the atomic (proton) number
the mass (nucleon) falls by 2 (Helium nuceus).
number fall but no
change to the atomic γ radiation is a form of energy given out when the nucleus
(proton) number. rearranges after these other emissions.

6.10 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21

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 Topic 6: Decay examples
α decay:
mass (nucleon) number falls by 4 and the atomic (proton) number falls by 2
232 228 4
Th -> Ra + α
90 88 2
β- decay: neutron -> proton + electron
(mass (nucleon) number stays the same but the atomic (proton) number goes up)
131 A 0 A = 131
I -> Xe + e-
53 Z -1 Z = 54
β+ decay: proton -> neutron + positron
(mass (nucleon) number stays the same but the atomic (proton) number goes down)
22 22 0
Na -> Ne + β+
11 10 +1
γ decay: No change to nucleon (mass) number or atomic (proton) number
238 4 234 0
Pu -> α + X + γ X = Uranium
94 2 92 0

Neutron emission: mass (nucleon) number falls but no change to the atomic (proton)
number.
6.20 6.22
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 Topic 6: Models of the atom
J. J. Thomson’s ‘plum pudding’ model (left) proposed
positive charges distributed throughout the atom with
negative electrons also dotted throughout.
6 protons
8 neutrons

The Bohr model (right) is the one we

now recognise. Here a positive nucleus
of protons and neutrons is surrounded by
Penetration 2
electrons that exist in shells
Ionising 2
Rutherford fired alpha particles at thin layers of gold atoms, most
went straight through, some bent by a small amount and a few
bounced back. This indicated that most of the atom is empty space,
that the nucleus was small and had a positive charge. Bohr showed
that electrons exist in shells, hence the model above.

6.17
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 Topic 6: Uses of radioactivity (P)
Cancer diagnosis & treatment Sterilising of
Irradiating food equipment
αβγ
γ
γ
Razor blades and
needles can be
Used because γ can sterilised inside the
pass through package
Smoke alarm α packaging
α particles β
only travel
Gauging thickness
short
distances Beta particles have a
and are range of energies and
easily stopped this means they are
excellent for
measuring thickness.

6.28 (P)
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 Topic 6: Risks of ionising radiation
Dangers of and precautions against ionising radiation

Increased DISTANCE
reduces exposure, as does
less exposure time and
Ionising
shielding. radiation

SHIELDING
Many things may have been
irradiated, exposed to
DISTANCE radiation, such as surgical
instruments or even some
fruit, without themselves
becoming radioactive.

Contamination involves the transfer of radioactive

TIME
material (to the person or the environment) which will
remain radioactive (dangerous) until the material decays.

6.29 6.31 6.32

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 Topic 6: PET scans (Physics only)
Once identified, tumours PET Scan
(uncontrolled growths) can (Positron Emission Tomography)
be treated, either using
external radiation (i.e.
gamma radiation) or by
using another molecule
(sugar?) to carry the
radiation to the tumour.

In a similar way, positron emitting isotopes (tracers) are

carried to highly metabolising parts of the body (tumours).
The positrons released collide with electrons in the body
and the gamma photons emitted are detected outside of
the body using a gamma camera. These are combined with
a CT scan make the positions of cancers easy to identify.

Radioactive isotopes used in the

body need to have a short half-life to reduce
the exposure risk and therefore are
produced nearby.
6.33(P) 6.34(P) 6.35(P)
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 Topic 6: Half life
Activity is Example:
measured in (Bq) A sample has a half-life of 2
Becquerel days. You start with 16g how
much is left after 8 days:
Time Mass
(days) (g)
Note: This
1/2 doesn’t 0 16
reach zero 2 8
4 4
6 2
8 1
t1/2
The half-life (t1/2) of a radioactive substance is the time taken for half of the
undecayed nuclei to decay or for the Activity (measured in Becquerels / Bq) to fall to
half its original value. The longer the half life the more dangerous the isotope.
Individual decay cannot be predicted but the Activity of a very large number of nuclei
can be predicted
Investigation: Models that simulate radioactive decay
6.23 6.24 6.25 6.26 6.27 video video video www www photo page: 48
 Topic 6: Nuclear power (Physics)
Heat from the reactor vessel produces steam. Steam spins the turbine which drives
the generator producing electricity. The steam cools to water in the condenser.
Nuclear energy > Thermal energy > Kinetic Energy > Electrical energy

Nuclear power stations produce no greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide).

The public perception of risk is poor, there are security issues related to terrorism
and problems associated with the transport and long-term storage of waste.

6.36(P) 6.37(P) 6.41(P)

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 Topic 6: Fission of U-235 (Physics)
Fission is the splitting of a large nucleus into smaller nuclei with the subsequent
release of energy. Drawing the diagram often helps when explaining this process.
Slow Unstable
‘thermal’ nucleus
neutron Two or
more (fast)
neutrons.

ENERGY
Control rods:
Capture neutrons,
controlling the chain Absorbed Two radioactive
reaction: daughter nuclei
produced

Moderators:
Slow down the fast neutrons so that they
can be absorbed by U-235 triggering a
chain reaction.

6.38(P) 6.39(P) 6.40(P)

6.42(P) 6.44(P)
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 Topic 6: Nuclear Fusion (Physics)
Fusion is the joining of two small nuclei (deuterium and tritium are isotopes of
hydrogen) into one larger nucleus with the consequent release of lots of energy.

Fusion is the
energy source for our
Sun and other
stars.
Fusion results in the
creation of larger nuclei
and a small loss of mass
associated with a release of energy.
High temperature and pressure are required to overcome the electrostatic repulsion
of like-charged protons and to give the particles sufficient kinetic energy to collide
and fuse. This kinetic energy would be insufficient to overcome electrostatic
repulsion at low temperatures and the chances of successful collisions increase with
increasing pressure. At present, the cost of containing the reaction and reaching and
maintaining these extreme conditions means that there a no nuclear fusion power
stations.

6.43(P) 6.44(P) 6.45(P) 6.46(P)

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 Topic 7: Weight and the value of g (P)
Mass = 120 kg
Weight = 120 x 10
. Mass = 120 kg
= 1200 N
Weight = 120 x 1.7
= 200 N

On Earth, the acceleration, g, in free fall is 10 m/s2 or, more usually, 10 N /kg.
The mass of the Earth and the radius is larger than the mass and the radius of the
moon hence the value for g is bigger.
On the moon, the value for g is approximately 1/6th of that on earth.

7.1 (P)
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 Topic 7: Solar system (Physics only)

You will need to recall the names and the order from the Sun of the eight planets
The moon is a natural satellite of the Earth. A number of other planets in
the solar system also have satellites / moons. We send up artificial
satellites that orbit the Earth and other planets.
There are a number of dwarf planets in our solar system the most
notable of which is Pluto, these orbit the Sun but are too small to be
considered planets.
Asteroids are various sized rocky bodies mostly found in the asteroid belt
between Mars and Jupiter.
Mostly ice mixed with dust and rock and a few km across, comets follow
an elliptical orbit around the Sun.

7.2(P) 7.3(P)
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 Topic 7: Orbits (Physics only)
Planets follow largely circular orbits
around the Sun whilst comets follow
more elliptical orbits – some taking many
years to complete.
The Sun’s gravitational attraction is
greatest as the comet nears the Sun. the
greater the force, the faster the comet
travels and the smaller its radius of orbit

The moon follows an approximately

circular orbit around the Earth.

Over time, ideas moved

from an earth-centred Universe The nearer the satellite to the earth, the faster it
(Geocentric model) to one with travels. Polar orbiting, mapping, satellites are in
the Sun at the centre low orbit and scan the Earth several times a day.
(Heliocentric). Geosynchronous, communication, satellites stay
at a fixed point above the Earth’s surface orbiting
once every 24 hours.
7.4(P) 7.5(P) 7.7(P)
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 Topic 7: Changing velocity (Physics)
Velocity
The Earth / satellite / planet is travelling in a
circle at a constant speed.
The direction in which the ball is
Acceleration travelling is constantly changing over time. In
Due to
other words it’s velocity is changing
gravitational
field constantly.
strength Acceleration is the rate of change in velocity.
The planet is constantly accelerating
(towards the Sun). g is an acceleration.
Any force acting towards the centre on an
object in a circular orbit will result in a
change in velocity. We tend to (wrongly) call
this ‘the force of gravity’.

the nearer the sun, the

faster the orbital speed to
keep a planet in orbit.

7.6(P) 7.7(P)
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 Topic 7: Big Bang (Physics only)
Steady state > > > The Steady State Model assumes that matter is still
pumping into the centre of an expanding Universe
which therefore remains at a constant density and a
constant temperature.

Big Bang > > > The Big Bang Model suggests that the density and
temperature are decreasing as the Universe expands.
Red Shift is an increase in wavelength observed when
something is moving away from you. It is evidence for
both models:
CMB (Cosmic Microwave A B
Background) radiation is left ‘A’ sees light shifted
over from the early stages of to the blue end of
the Universe and is seen as the spectrum whilst
evidence supporting the Big ‘B’ sees light shifted
Bang Theory. to the red end of
the spectrum.

Further away or faster moving galaxies will show

greater red shift
7.8(P) 7.9(P) 7.10(P) 7.11(P)
7.12(P) 7.13(P) 7.14(P) 7.15(P)
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 Topic 7: Life of a star (Physics only)
(not needed)

Main
sequence
star

The nuclear fusion reaction within a star produces immense heat. Hot particles
with a high kinetic energy will try to fly outwards from the core (thermal
expansion) but they are held in place by gravitational potential energy – it is a
balance. Once the fuel starts to run out gravitational collapse takes place, if the
star is big enough this will result in a Black Hole, smaller stars will shrink and cool
(White Dwarf)

7.16(P) 7.17(P) 7.18(P)

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 Topic 7: Observing the Universe (P)
Whilst most visible light and radio waves can Large reflecting telescopes allow
reach the earth’s surface, telescopes in space scientists to pick up more light than
(outside of the Earth’s atmosphere) can pick up refracting lens telescopes and so see
a much wider spectrum including gamma, further and in more detail. However,
microwave and x-rays and can ‘see’ much more. all earth-bound light telescopes are
limited by the atmosphere and
pollution.
Radio waves sent from Earth will
spread out, therefore, higher
frequency (high energy)
microwaves are used to
communicate with geostationary
satellites. (These will then carry
more information and be picked
up by a smaller antenna).

7.19(P)
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 Equations to recall for Paper P1
2.6b distance travelled = average speed x time

2.8 acceleration = change in velocity / time taken (v – u) a = acceleration

a= t v = finishing speed
u = starting speed
t = time
2.15 force = mass x acceleration F=mxa F = force
m = mass
a = acceleration
2.16 weight = mass x gravitational field strength W=mxg W = weight
m = mass
2.24 momentum = mass x velocity р=mxv р = momentum
v = velocity
3.1 ∆Gravitational Potential Energy. = mass x g x height ∆GPE = m x g x h ∆ = change in
g = gravitational field
strength
h = height
3.2 Kinetic Energy = ½ x mass x speed2 K.E = ½ x m x v2 v = speed (!)

3.11 efficiency = useful energy transferred by the device / total energy supplied to the device

4.6 wave speed = frequency x wavelength v=fxλ v = wave speed

f = frequency
wave speed = distance / time x λ = wavelength
v= t x = distance
 Equations to use in Paper P1
You should know what the symbols in these equations represent but you will not be
expected to learn them – they will be given to you in the paper.
2.9 (final velocity)2 – (initial velocity)2 = 2 x acceleration x distance v = finishing velocity
u = starting velocity
v2 – u2 = 2 x a x x a = acceleration
x = distance
2.26 force = change in momentum / time

F = (mv – mu) / t

Higher Tier only equations will not appear in Foundation Tier paper formula sheets
Foundation Tier students are not usually required to re-arrange equations.

Hey diddle diddle,

Mean = the average the median’s the middle;
Mode = most frequent value you add and divide for the mean.
(can be more than one mode) The mode is the one that appears the most
And the range is the difference between
Median = middle value