PHYSICS FOR YOU Atoms 1

Chapter-12
Atoms
12.1 Introduction
People have long guessed about the structure of matter and the existence of atoms. Ancient Greeks,
philosophers in both India and China made speculations that there is a smallest unit that cannot be
further subdivided. This smallest unit is atom. Indian saint ‘KANAADA’ gave the concept of atom
long back. In Kannada we call atom as ಅಣು or ಕಣ. Dalton, Avogadro and many others have proved
the existence of atoms and the fixed number of atoms and molecules in a mole.
For many years it was believed that atom is the finest part and it has no structure. However the
following scientific achievements and observations prove that atoms do have structure
i. Discovery of electron: In 1897 JJ Thomson discovered electrons using the experiment
‘electric discharge through gases’. He proved that electrons are negatively charged and
have lesser mass. They have smaller size and identical in all the atoms.
Thomson predicted one model called plum-pudding model. According to him an atom has
uniformly distributed positive charge throughout the volume and electrons are embedded in
it (similar to seeds in water melon). This model was a failure

ii. Emission spectra: Solids, liquids and gases emit electromagnetic radiation at all
temperatures. This radiation consists of several wavelengths and is considered to be due to
interaction of each atom or molecule with its neighbors. But light emitted from rarefied
gases such as neon sign or mercury vapour has only certain discrete wavelengths. The
spectrum appears as a series of bright lines. The average spacing between atoms is large
and the interaction between atoms and molecules is not possible. Hence, the radiation
emitted is due to individual atoms rather than due to interactions between atoms or
molecules. This clearly shows that atoms have structure and thereby discrete properties

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iii. Atomic spectra: Each element emits radiation of particular color (or wavelength). For ex,
sodium emits yellow color light, neon emits pink color, hydrogen emits 5 set of lines in UV,
visible and IR region. This clearly shows that there is an intimate relationship between the
structure of an atom and the spectrum of the emitted radiation Balmer gave a simple
empirical formula to calculate the wavelengths of spectral lines emitted by hydrogen
iv. -particle scattering: Ernst Rutherford predicted nuclear model based on the -particle
scattering experiment. According to this the entire positive charge and most of the mass of
the atom is concentrated in a small volume called the nucleus and electrons revolve around
the nucleus.
12.2 Alpha particle scattering- Geiger and E. Marsden Experiment
This experiment is the first direct evidence of the size and mass of the nucleus. It was suggested by Rutherford
and conducted by his students Geiger and E. Marsden.
The experimental set up consists of radioactive source 83Bi214 enclosed in lead chamber, a thin gold foil
(0.2m), a rotatable detector containing zinc sulphide screen & microscope
Alpha particles emitted by the source are collimated into a narrow beam and made to fall on the gold
foil. After scattering -particles will hit the screen and produces flashes (or dots). These dots are viewed
and their distribution w.r.t scattering angle are recorded using microscope. Most of the particles scatter
through a small angle and very few are scattered through large angles. Some are even back scattered
also. A graph of scattered dots v/s scattering angle is as shown in fig

Observations and conclusions:

i. From the graph it is clear that most of the alpha particles scattered through small angles.
This shows that atom is mostly empty inside and mass is not uniformly distributed
ii. The back scattering of the particles indicates that most of the mass and entire positive charge
of the atom is localized at a single point. This is because, alpha particles are positively
charged (+2e)and they repel from the localized positive charge
Rutherford calculated the force of repulsion between alpha particles and gold nucleus using
Coulomb’s law and the trajectory using Newton’s second law. The electrostatic force is given by
(𝑍𝑒)(2𝑒)
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
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Here, Z = Gold atomic number, 2e = charge on -particle, r = distance between  and nucleus
12.3 Trajectory of -particles
Since gold foil is very thin, it is assumed that -particles will suffer not more than one scattering during
their passage through it. On this basis the trajectory of an alpha-particle scattered by a single nucleus
is sketched as follows

The path of the -particles depend on ‘impact parameter’ (b). Impact parameter is defined as the
distance between initial direction of -particle velocity and center of the nucleus. More the value of b
less will be the deviation and less the value of b more is the deviation. For particles for away from the
nucleus b is large. Hence they scatter through least angle (green line). -particles travelling close to
nucleus have lesser value of b and they scatter through large angle (brown line). In the case of head on
collision b is nearly equal to zero and therefore back scattering (blue line)
12.4 Rutherford model (nuclear model)
From the -particle scattering experiment observations Rutherford proposed an atomic model called
nuclear model. According to him
Atom consists of centrally localized nucleus in which entire positive charge and most of the atomic
mass is concentrated. The size of the nucleus is very small. It is about 10-15m. Electrons are revolving
around the nucleus in circular path exactly like planets revolving around the sun. Hence it is also called
as planetary model
Failures:
There are two major failures in this theory. They are
i. Stability of the atom: According to classical theories an electron moving in a circular path
is accelerated and emits EM radiations. As a result it loses energy continuously, radius
decreases and finally collapse into the nucleus. If this is the case no atom is stable. Actually
atoms of all the elements are highly stable
ii. Emission spectra: According to classical theories an accelerated electron emits EM
radiations continuously and the emitted radiation contains all wavelengths. But it is
experimentally observed that the emission spectra of many elements contain selected
wavelengths (lines)

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In order to overcome these failures Bohr proposed a new atomic model. Before discussing it in detail
let us see the concept of electron orbit and atomic spectra.
12.5 Electron orbits
Electrons revolve in a circular orbit around the nucleus. For any rotational motion we need a force
called centripetal force. The necessary centripetal force is provided by the electrostatic force of
attraction between electrons (-ve charge) and nucleus (+ve charge). It is given by
(𝑍𝑒)(𝑒)
𝐹= − − − (1)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
The general expression for centripetal force is
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹= − − − (2)
𝑟
From Eq (1) and (2) we can write
(𝑍𝑒)(𝑒) 𝑚𝑣 2
=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 × 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑟
𝑍𝑒 2
𝑟=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑚𝑣 2
This is the expression for radius of the electron orbit. For hydrogen atom, Z = 1. Hence
𝑒2
𝑟= − − − (3)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑚𝑣 2
Its kinetic energy is given by
1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 − − − (4)
2
From Eq (3) we have

2
𝑒2
𝑚𝑣 = − − − (5)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Substitute eq (5) in Eq (4) we get

1 𝑒2
𝐾= ( )
2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝑒2
𝐾= − − − (6)
8𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Potential energy of the system of electron and nucleus is
𝑞1 𝑞2 (−𝑒)(𝑒)
𝑈= =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

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−𝑒 2
𝑈= − − − (7)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
The total energy is
𝐸 =𝐾+𝑈
𝑒2 −𝑒 2
𝐸= +
8𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
−𝑒 2
𝐸=
8𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
The negative sign indicates that electron is in attractive system. If E were to be positive, an electron
will not follow a closed orbit around the nucleus.
12.6 Atomic spectra
Each element emits radiation of different wavelengths. The sequential arrangement of the radiations
emitted by the atoms according to their wavelength (or frequency) is known as atomic spectrum.
There are two types of atomic spectra namely line emission spectra and line absorption spectra
When current is passed through gases at low pressure radiation of specific wavelengths is emitted. The
spectrum consists of bright lines with dark background. This is known as line emission spectra.
When white light is passed through gases and the transmitted light is analyzed, the spectrum appears
as dark lines (in selected wavelength region) with bright background. This is known as line absorption
spectra.
The absorption or emission of radiation is the sole property of the element. The study of atomic spectra
gives properties of the element. Hence atomic spectra is also considered as ‘finger print’ of the elements

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12.7 Bohr’s theory of Hydrogen

Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom is based on the following postulates
i. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular orbit of fixed (or definite) radius, ie, orbits
are quantized. The necessary centripetal force is provided by the electrostatic force of
attraction between electron and nucleus
ii. Their energy in the given orbit is quantized and do not change. Each orbit is a stable orbit
iii. When they go from lower orbit to higher orbit energy is absorbed (increases). When they
jump from higher orbit to lower orbit energy is released in the form of radiation (decreases)
If E1 and E2 are the energies in two different level (E2 > E1), then
𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝛾
iv. The angular momentum of the electron in the given orbit is quantized. It is given by
𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣𝑟 =
2𝜋
We can derive the expression for radius of orbit using these postulates
12.7.1 Expression for radius of nth orbit
Consider an electron of charge –e revolving around the nucleus in a circular orbit of radius r. Let z be
the atomic number. The electrostatic force between them is
(𝑍𝑒)(𝑒)
𝐹= − − − (1)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
According to Bohr postulate, this force is equal to centripetal force. The general expression for
centripetal force is
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹= − − − (2)
𝑟
From Eq (1) and (2) we can write
(𝑍𝑒)(𝑒) 𝑚𝑣 2
=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝑟
𝑍𝑒 2 𝑟 𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑟 2
=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑚
𝑚𝑍𝑒 2 𝑟
= (𝑚𝑣𝑟)2 − − − (3)
4𝜋𝜀0
According to Bohr postulate
𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣𝑟 =
2𝜋
𝑛2 ℎ2
(𝑚𝑣𝑟)2 = − − − (4)
4𝜋 2
Substitute Eq (4) in Eq (3) we get

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𝑚𝑍𝑒 2 𝑟 𝑛2 ℎ2
=
4𝜋𝜀0 4𝜋 2
𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀0
𝑟= − − − (5)
𝜋𝑚𝑍𝑒 2
Here,
n represents the orbit number. n=1 for 1st orbit, n=2 for 2nd orbit and so on
Z = Atomic number. For Hydrogen Z = 1
Hence the radius of the nth orbit of hydrogen atom is
𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀0
𝑟𝑛 =
𝜋𝑚𝑒 2
According to eq (5) radius of the electron orbit is quantized. It is directly proportional to n2
𝑖𝑒, 𝑟𝑛 ∝ 𝑛2
If n=1 then
ℎ2 𝜀0
𝑟1 =
𝜋𝑚𝑒 2
In general
𝑟1 : 𝑟2 : 𝑟3 = 12 : 22 : 32
This is the radius of 1st orbit in Hydrogen atom. It is also called as Bohr radius. Its value is 0.528A0.

Bohr radius is the smallest possible orbital radius and the electron cannot get any closer to the nucleus
than this. That is why the attraction between electron and nucleus does not simply collapse them
together.

NOTE: Radius of the orbit is inversely proportional to atomic number. As atomic number increases the
radius of the orbit decreases
1
𝑟∝
𝑍
12.7.2 Expression for velocity
According to Bohr postulate
𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣𝑟 =
2𝜋
𝑛ℎ
𝑣= − − − (1)
2𝜋𝑚𝑟
But
𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀0
𝑟= − − − (2)
𝜋𝑚𝑍𝑒 2
Substitute Eq (1) in Eq (2) we get
𝑛ℎ
𝑣=
𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀0
2𝜋𝑚 ( )
𝜋𝑚𝑍𝑒 2
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𝑍𝑒 2
𝑣= − − − (3)
2𝑛ℎ𝜀0
ie, velocity is directly proportional to atomic number and inversely proportional to n. the velocity of
electron and hence KE decreases as we move from inner orbit to outer orbit

12.7.3 Expression for total energy

By assuming the expression for radius in nth orbit we can derive the equation for total energy as follows
The radius is given by
𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀0
𝑟= − − − (1)
𝜋𝑚𝑍𝑒 2
And velocity is given by
𝑍𝑒 2
𝑣=
2𝑛ℎ𝜀0
2 4
𝑍 𝑒
𝑣 2 = 2 2 2 − − − (2)
4𝑛 ℎ 𝜀0
KE is given by
1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 − − − (3)
2
Substitute Eq (2) in Eq (3)
𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4
𝐾 = 2 2 2 − − − (4)
8𝑛 ℎ 𝜀0
Potential energy of electron-nucleus system is given by
𝑞1 𝑞2 (−𝑒)(𝑍𝑒)
𝑈= =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
−𝑍𝑒 2
𝑈= − − − (5)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Substitute Eq (1) in Eq (5) we get
−𝑍𝑒 2
𝑈=
𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀0
4𝜋𝜀0 ( )
𝜋𝑚𝑍𝑒 2
−𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4
𝑈 = 2 2 2 − − − (6)
4𝑛 ℎ 𝜀0
Total energy is E=K+U
𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 −𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4
𝐸= +
8𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀02 4𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀02
−𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4
𝐸=
8𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀02
For Hydrogen, Z = 1. Hence
−𝑚𝑒 4 1
𝐸= ( ) − − − (7)
8ℎ2 𝜀02 𝑛2

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This is the expression for energy of electron in nth orbit of hydrogen atom. The negative sign indicates
that the electron is bound to the nucleus. External energy is required to remove it from the orbit.
According to this equation, E depends on n. Hence energy is quantized. We can calculate the energy
for different n values
Ex:
For n = 1, we get 𝐸1 = −13.6 𝑒𝑉 Energy of electron in 1st orbit (Ground state energy)
For n = 2, we get 𝐸2 = −3.4 𝑒𝑉 Energy of electron in 2nd orbit
For n = 3, we get 𝐸3 = −1.51𝑒𝑉 Energy of electron in 3rd orbit
And so on. As n approaches infinity, the total energy becomes zero. This corresponds to a free electron
with no kinetic energy
In general
−13.6
𝑖𝑒, 𝐸 = 𝑒𝑉
𝑛2
12.8 Energy levels, Excitation energy and ionization energy
Energy of electron in its orbit is quantized. Energy is calculated in each level using the equation 𝐸 =
−13.6
𝑒𝑉 and each value is represented by a line. The diagram representing the energy values of electron
𝑛2
in different orbits is known as energy level diagram. It is as shown in fig.
[An energy-level diagram is a plot of energy vertically and is useful in visualizing the energy states of a system
and the transitions between them]
The level corresponds to lowest energy value is known as ground state and all other levels above the
ground state are known as excited states. Electrons will go from lower level to higher level when
external energy is supplied
Energy required to take electron from ground level to any one of the excited level is known as
excitation energy. It is given by
𝐸𝑒 = 𝐸𝑛2 − 𝐸𝑛1
Where n1 = 1 and n2 = 2,3,4,5,….
When electron jumps from higher level to lower level the energy is emitted in the form of radiation
The energy required to move the electron from ground level to infinite level (ie, from n = 1 to ) is
known as ionization energy
𝐸𝑒 = 𝐸∞ − 𝐸𝑛1

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12.9 Hydrogen spectra (line spectra of Hydrogen)

Much earlier to Bohr’s theory many scientists had studied the emission spectra of Hydrogen and
noticed emission lines in 5 different regions. They are
 Lyman,
 Balmer,
 Paschen,
 Bracket
 Pfund
These series can be explained using Bohr’s theory and energy level diagram.
According to Bohr’s postulates when electron jumps from higher level to lower level the excess energy
is emitted in the form of radiation. The frequency and wavelength of the emitted radiation is given by
ℎ𝛾 = 𝐸𝑛2 − 𝐸𝑛1
(𝐸𝑛2 − 𝐸𝑛1 )
𝛾=
ℎ
ℎ𝑐
𝜆=
(𝐸𝑛2 − 𝐸𝑛1 )
Various spectral series are obtained due to transitions between different energy levels as follows
i. Lyman series is obtained when electron jumps from higher levels to ground state. It lies in UV
region. The condition is n1 = 1 and n2 = 2,3,4,5….. n1 = 1 is the home level
ii. Balmer series is obtained when electron jumps from higher levels to 1st excited state. It lies in
the visible region. The condition is n1 = 2 and n2 =,3,4,5….. n1 = 2 is the home level

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iii. Paschen series is obtained when electron jumps from higher levels to 2nd excited state. It lies in
the IR region. The condition is n1 = 3 and n2 =4,5,6….. n1 = 3 is the home level
iv. Bracket series is obtained when electron jumps from higher levels to 3rd excited state. It lies in
the IR region. The condition is n1 = 4 and n2 =5,6,7….. n1 = 4 is the home level
v. Pfund series is obtained when electron jumps from higher levels to 4th excited state. It lies in
the IR region. The condition is n1 = 5 and n2 =6,7,8….. n1 = 5 is the home level

The line arising due to transition to home level from its nearest excited level is known as 1st member
of the series. Its frequency is low and wavelength is large compare to other lines in the same series.
The line arising due to transition to home level from its farthest excited level is known as series
limit. Its frequency is high and wavelength is low compare to other lines in the same series.

For Ex,
Condition for 1st member in Lyman series is n1 = 1 and n2 = 2
Condition for series limit in Lyman series is n1 = 1 and n2 = 
(Similarly try to write the conditions for other series also)
12.10 Expression for frequency
Consider the de excitation of electron from the higher level n2 to lower level n1 the difference in the
energy is emitted in the form of radiation of frequency . According to Bohr postulate
(𝐸𝑛2 − 𝐸𝑛1 )
𝛾=
ℎ
Put

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−𝑚𝑒 4 1 −𝑚𝑒 4 1
𝐸𝑛2 = ( ) and 𝐸𝑛1 = ( )
8ℎ2 𝜀02 𝑛22 8ℎ2 𝜀02 𝑛12
1 −𝑚𝑒 4 1 −𝑚𝑒 4 1
𝛾 = [ 2 2 ( 2 ) − 2 2 ( 2 )]
ℎ 8ℎ 𝜀0 𝑛2 8ℎ 𝜀0 𝑛1
1 −𝑚𝑒 4 1 1
𝛾 = ( 2 2 ) [ 2 − 2]
ℎ 8ℎ 𝜀0 𝑛2 𝑛1
𝑚𝑒 4 1 1
𝛾 = ( 3 2 ) [ 2 − 2 ] − − − (1)
8ℎ 𝜀0 𝑛1 𝑛2
This is the expression for frequency of radiation. The wave number (ie, reciprocal of wavelength)
is given by
𝑐 𝑚𝑒 4 1 1
= ( 3 2) [ 2 − 2]
𝜆 8ℎ 𝜀0 𝑛1 𝑛2
1 𝑚𝑒 4 1 1
=( ) [ − ]
𝜆 8𝑐ℎ3 𝜀0 𝑛1 𝑛22
2 2

1 1 1
= 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ] − − − (2)
𝜆 𝑛1 𝑛2
𝑚𝑒 4
where 𝑅 = ( ) called Rydberg constant
8𝑐ℎ3 𝜀02
1 1 1
For Lyman series = 𝑅 [ − 2 ] where 𝑛2 ≥ 2
𝜆 1 𝑛2
1 1 1
For Balmer series = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ] where 𝑛2 ≥ 3
𝜆 2 𝑛2
1 1 1
For Paschen series = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ] where 𝑛2 ≥ 4
𝜆 3 𝑛2
1 1 1
For Bracket series = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ] where 𝑛2 ≥ 5
𝜆 4 𝑛2
1 1 1
For Pfund series = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ] where 𝑛2 ≥ 6
𝜆 5 𝑛2
2.11 Success of Bohr’s theory
 The main success of Bohr’s theory is that it confirms the quantization of angular momentum
and orbital energy
 It successfully explains the stability of the atom
 It gives one of the four quantum numbers namely principal quantum number (n)
 It explains the formation of different spectral series in Hydrogen spectrum
 The ionization energy calculated by this theory matches with experiment value

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 The empirical formula given by Balmer can be derived from Bohr’s theory. It is of the form
1 𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 1 1
= 2 3 ( 2 − 2)
𝜆 8𝜀0 ℎ 𝑐 𝑛2 𝑛1
For Hydrogen, Z = 1. Hence
1 1 1 𝑚𝑒 4
= 𝑅 ( 2 − 2) where 𝑅 = 2 3 called Rydberg constant
𝜆 𝑛2 𝑛1 8𝜀0 ℎ 𝑐
The calculated value of Rydberg constant is R = 1.0973  107 m-1
12.12 Failures of Bohr’s theory
 Bohr’s theory explains only Hydrogen atom spectra. It fails explain the spectra of Hydrogen
like elements such as He+, Li++.
 Bohr’s theory failed to explain the intensity variation of spectral lines
 It failed to explain the fine structure of spectral series of Hydrogen atom
 Bohr’s theory considers only the force of attraction between electron and nucleus. The
repulsion between electron-electron
12.13 de Broglie’s explanation of Bohr’s postulate of quantization
According to de-Broglie electron behaves like a wave called matter wave when it is in motion. The
wavelength of the matter wave is
ℎ
𝜆= − − − (1)
𝑚𝑣
According to Bohr’s postulates, the angular momentum is
quantized. It is given by
𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣𝑟 =
2𝜋
𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣 = − − − (2)
2𝜋𝑟
Substitute Eq (2) in Eq (1) we get
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑛ℎ
(2𝜋𝑟)

𝑛𝜆 = 2𝜋𝑟 − − − (3)
Here, 2r is the circumference of the nth orbit and  is the wavelength associated with electron
revolving in that orbit.
According to 𝑛𝜆 = 2𝜋𝑟 if an orbit of radius r can accommodate n number of waves then it is an allowed
orbit. The value of r should have definite value. This is nothing but quantization of orbit size.
For ex, 3rd orbit shall accommodate only 3 waves, 4th orbit has to accommodate 4 waves and so on

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