C.L.

JAIN COLLGE ,FIROZABAD

(Affiliated to Dr. B. R. Ambedkar University ,Agra)

M.Sc. Research Project

On
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
&
CALCULUS OF RESIDUE

Submitted to:- Submitted by:-

DR. USHA SINGH HIMANSHU CHAUDHARY

Assistant Professor M. sc. (Mathematics)

Dept. of Mathematics 1st year( 2ND SEM )

C.L. Jain College, Firozabad Roll no:- 2500310530003

i
SUPERVISOR CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Ms. HIMANSHU CHAUDHARY has worked for

the M.SC. ( MATHEMATICS) (certificate / Diploma /Degree name ) in the (faculty

name) DR. USHA SINGH under my supervision. The work reported in the
present research report entitled “Equation of continuity & calculus of residue ”
has been done by the candidate himself/ herself ,and has not been submitted
elsewhere.

Date:-

(Supervisor Signature)

(Full Name)

Forwarded & Recommended

(Signature and Name) (Signature and Name)

Head of the Department Principal/ Director

ii
 Format Candidate Declaration

I Mr./Ms. HIMANSHU CHAUDHARY declare that the work

done in the present research report entitled Equation of
continuity & calculus of residue” has been done thoroughly by me and
not copied and taken from any other literature related to this field .The related
literature is used only to review the advancement and benefit of the research in this
field and has not been submitted for any other degree.

Date:-……………………..

MR. HIMANSHU
CHAUDHARY

Roll No.:- 2500310530003

Class:- M.sc. 1st year ( IInd sem.)

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, praises and thanks to the God the Almighty for his
showers of blessings, throughout our project to complete.

I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to my research

supervisor
RAHUL , Department of Mathematics ,C. L. Jain College
,Firozabad, who guided me faithfully through this entire project. I have
learned so much from her both in the subject and otherwise .Without
her advice, support and guidance ,it find difficult to complete this
work.

I take opportunity to express my thanks to our principal Dr. Vaibhav Jain ,

who gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic
“Equation of continuity & calculus of residue” .

Lastly, I thank the almighty for being always there for me.
4
 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW EQUATION

3. SIMPLIFIED FORM

4. COMPRESSIBLE FLOW OF EQUATION

5. APPLICATIONS

6. REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

5
Introduction

In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid
occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential
energy.The principle is named after Daniel Bernoulli who published it in his
book Hydrodynamica in 1738. Although Bernoulli deduced that pressure decreases when the
flow speed increases, it was Leonhard Euler who derived Bernoulli's equation in its usual form
in 1752. The principle is only applicable for isentropic flows: when the effects of irreversible
processes (like turbulence) and non-adiabatic processes (e.g. heat radiation) are small and can be
neglected.

Bernoulli's principle can be applied to various types of fluid flow, resulting in various
forms of Bernoulli's equation; there are different forms of Bernoulli's equation for different types
of flow. The simple form of Bernoulli's equation is valid for incompressible flows (e.g.
most liquid flows and gases moving at low Mach number). More advanced forms may be applied
to compressible flows at higher Mach numbers (see the derivations of the Bernoulli equation).

6
 Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the principle of conservation of energy. This
states that, in a steady flow, the sum of all forms of energy in a fluid along a streamline is the
same at all points on that streamline. This requires that the sum of kinetic energy, potential
energyand internal energy remains constant. Thus an increase in the speed of the fluid – implying
an increase in its kinetic energy (dynamic pressure) – occurs with a simultaneous decrease in (the
sum of) its potential energy (including the static pressure) and internal energy. If the fluid is
flowing out of a reservoir, the sum of all forms of energy is the same on all streamlines because
in a reservoir the energy per unit volume (the sum of pressure and gravitational potential ρ g h) is
the same everywhere.

Bernoulli's principle can also be derived directly from Isaac Newton's Second Law of
Motion. If a small volume of fluid is flowing horizontally from a region of high pressure to a
region of low pressure, then there is more pressure behind than in front. This gives a net force on
the volume, accelerating it along the streamline.

Fluid particles are subject only to pressure and their own weight. If a fluid is flowing
horizontally and along a section of a streamline, where the speed increases it can only be because
the fluid on that section has moved from a region of higher pressure to a region of lower
pressure; and if its speed decreases, it can only be because it has moved from a region of lower
pressure to a region of higher pressure. Consequently, within a fluid flowing horizontally, the
highest speed occurs where the pressure is lowest, and the lowest speed occurs where the
pressure is highest.

7
Incompressible flow equation
In most flows of liquids, and of gases at low Mach number, the density of a fluid parcel can be
considered to be constant, regardless of pressure variations in the flow. Therefore, the fluid can
be considered to be incompressible and these flows are called incompressible flows. Bernoulli
performed his experiments on liquids, so his equation in its original form is valid only for
incompressible flow. A common form of Bernoulli's equation, valid at any arbitrary point along
a streamline, is:

where:

8
v is the fluid flow speed at a point on a streamline,

g is the acceleration due to gravity,

z is the elevation of the point above a reference plane, with the positive z-direction pointing
upward – so in the direction opposite to the gravitational acceleration,

p is the pressure at the chosen point, andρ is the density of the fluid at all points in the fluid.

The constant on the right-hand side of the equation depends only on the streamline chosen,
whereas v, z and p depend on the particular point on that streamline.

The following assumptions must be met for this Bernoulli equation to apply:

the flow must be steady, i.e. the flow parameters (velocity, density, etc...) at any point cannot
change with time,

ρ is the density of the fluid at all points in the fluid.

The constant on the right-hand side of the equation depends only on the streamline chosen,
whereas v, z and p depend on the particular point on that streamline.

The following assumptions must be met for this Bernoulli equation to apply

the flow must be steady, i.e. the flow parameters (velocity, density, etc...) at
any point cannot change with time,

 the flow must be incompressible – even though pressure varies, the

density must remain constant along a streamline;
 friction by viscous forces must be negligible.

For conservative force fields (not limited to the gravitational field),

Bernoulli's equation can be generalized as:

9
By multiplying with the fluid density ρ, equation (A) can be rewritten as

where

 q = 1/2ρv2 is dynamic pressure,

 h = z + p/ρg is the piezometric head or hydraulic head (the sum of the elevation z and
the pressure head) and
 p0 = p + q is the total pressure (the sum of the static pressure p and dynamic pressure q).

10
Simplified form
In many applications of Bernoulli's equation, the change in the ρgz term along the streamline is
so small compared with the other terms that it can be ignored. For example, in the case of aircraft
in flight, the change in height z along a streamline is so small the ρgz term can be omitted. This
allows the above equation to be presented in the following simplified form:

where p0 is called "total pressure", and q is "dynamic pressure". Many authors refer to
the pressure p as static pressure to distinguish it from total pressure p0 and dynamic
pressure q. In Aerodynamics, L.J. Clancy writes: "To distinguish it from the total and
dynamic pressures, the actual pressure of the fluid, which is associated not with its motion
but with its state, is often referred to as the static pressure, but where the term pressure alone
is used it refers to this static pressure.

The simplified form of Bernoulli's equation can be summarized in the following memorable
word equation:

static pressure + dynamic pressure = total pressure

Every point in a steadily flowing fluid, regardless of the fluid speed at that point, has its
own unique static pressure p and dynamic pressure q. Their sum p + q is defined to be
the total pressure p0. The significance of Bernoulli's principle can now be summarized as
"total pressure is constant along a streamline".

If the fluid flow is irrotational, the total pressure on every streamline is the same and
Bernoulli's principle can be summarized as "total pressure is constant everywhere in the
fluid flow". It is reasonable to assume that irrotational flow exists in any situation where
a large body of fluid is flowing past a solid body. Examples are aircraft in flight, and
ships moving in open bodies of water. However, it is important to remember that
Bernoulli's principle does not apply in the boundary layer or in fluid flow through
long pipes.
11
Compressible flow equation
Bernoulli developed his principle from his observations on liquids, and his equation is applicable
only to incompressible fluids, and steady compressible fluids up to approximately Mach
number 0.3.] It is possible to use the fundamental principles of physics to develop similar
equations applicable to compressible fluids. There are numerous equations, each tailored for a
particular application, but all are analogous to Bernoulli's equation and all rely on nothing more
than the fundamental principles of physics such as Newton's laws of motion or the first law of
thermodynamics.

Note that w = ε + p/ρ where ε is the thermodynamic energy per unit mass, also known as
the specific internal energy. So, for constant internal energy ε the equation reduces to the
incompressible-flow form.

The constant on the right hand side is often called the Bernoulli constant and denoted b. For
steady inviscid adiabatic flow with no additional sources or sinks of energy, b is constant along
any given streamline. More generally, when b may vary along streamlines, it still proves a useful
parameter, related to the "head" of the fluid (see below).

When the change in Ψ can be ignored, a very useful form of this equation is:

where w0 is total enthalpy. For a calorically perfect gas such as an ideal gas,
the enthalpy is directly proportional to the temperature, and this leads to the concept of the total
(or stagnation) temperature.

When shock waves are present, in a reference frame in which the shock is stationary and the flow
is steady, many of the parameters in the Bernoulli equation suffer abrupt changes in passing
through the shock. The Bernoulli parameter itself, however, remains unaffected. An exception to
this rule is radiative shocks, which violate the assumptions leading to the Bernoulli equation,
namely the lack of additional sinks or sources of energy.

12
Applications

Condensation visible over the upper surface of an Airbus A340 wing caused by the fall in
temperature accompanying the fall in pressure.

In modern everyday life there are many observations that can be successfully explained by
application of Bernoulli's principle, even though no real fluid is entirely inviscide and a small
viscosity often has a large effect on the flow.

 Bernoulli's principle can be used to calculate the lift force on an airfoil, if the behaviour of
the fluid flow in the vicinity of the foil is known. For example, if the air flowing past the top
surface of an aircraft wing is moving faster than the air flowing past the bottom surface, then
Bernoulli's principle implies that the pressure on the surfaces of the wing will be lower above
than below. This pressure difference results in an upwards lifting force. Whenever the
distribution of speed past the top and bottom surfaces of a wing is known, the lift forces can
be calculated (to a good approximation) using Bernoulli's equations – established by
Bernoulli over a century before the first man-made wings were used for the purpose of flight.
Bernoulli's principle does not explain why the air flows faster past the top of the wing and
slower past the underside. See the article on aerodynamic lift for more info.

13
 The carburettor used in many reciprocating engines contains a venturi to create a region of
low pressure to draw fuel into the carburettor and mix it thoroughly with the incoming air.
The low pressure in the throat of a venturi can be explained by Bernoulli's principle; in the
narrow throat, the air is moving at its fastest speed and therefore it is at its lowest pressure.
 An injector on a steam locomotive (or static boiler).
 The pitot tube and static port on an aircraft are used to determine the airspeed of the aircraft.
These two devices are connected to the airspeed indicator, which determines the dynamic
pressure of the airflow past the aircraft. Dynamic pressure is the difference
between stagnation pressure and static pressure. Bernoulli's principle is used to calibrate the
airspeed indicator so that it displays the indicated airspeed appropriate to the dynamic
pressure.
 A De Laval nozzle utilizes Bernoulli's principle to create a force by turning pressure energy
generated by the combustion of propellants into velocity. This then generates thrust by way
of Newton's third law of motion.
 The flow speed of a fluid can be measured using a device such as a Venturi meter or
an orifice plate, which can be placed into a pipeline to reduce the diameter of the flow. For a
horizontal device, the continuity equation shows that for an incompressible fluid, the
reduction in diameter will cause an increase in the fluid flow speed. Subsequently,
Bernoulli's principle then shows that there must be a decrease in the pressure in the reduced
diameter region. This phenomenon is known as the Venturi effect.
 The maximum possible drain rate for a tank with a hole or tap at the base can be calculated
directly from Bernoulli's equation, and is found to be proportional to the square root of the
height of the fluid in the tank. This is Torricelli's law, showing that Torricelli's law is
compatible with Bernoulli's principle. Viscosity lowers this drain rate. This is reflected in the
discharge coefficient, which is a function of the Reynolds number and the shape of the
orifice.

 The Bernoulli grip relies on this principle to create a non-contact adhesive force between a
surface and the gripper.

14
15
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPGY

1.www.wikipedia .com
2.NCERT Textbook
3.www.google.com

16
RESEARCH PROJECT

17
Residue Theory
Definition.1. (Residue). Let f (z) has a non-removable isolated singularity at the point z0. Then
f(z) has the Laurent series representation for all z in some punctured disk DR*( z 0) given
∞
by f ( z )= ∑ a n ( z −z 0 )n
n=−∞

1
The coefficient a-1 of is called the residue of f(z) at z0 .
z−z 0

It is denoted by Res[f,z0] = a-1

Example .1.1.

Consider f (z) = e2/z

Then the Laurent series of f about the point z0 = 0is given by

2 3
2 2 2
¿ 1+ + + +… ,
1! z 2 ! z 2 3! z 3

1 1 1
The co-efficient of = = is 2
z−z 0 z−0 z

Hence by definition of residue, residue of f (z) = e2/z at z0 = 0 is given by Res [f, z0] = 2

3
Example .1.2. Find residue of f (z) = 2 3 at z0 = 0
2 z + z −z

3 3
f(z) = =
z ( 2+ z−z ) 2
z ( z +1 ) (2−z )

3 A B C
Now = + +
z ( z +1 ) (2−z ) z z+1 2−z

⇒A(z+1)(2-z) + Bz(2-z) + Cz (z+1) = 3

18
⇒A(-z2 +2 + z) +B(2z –z2) +C(z2 +z) = 3

⇒-A –B +C = 0---- (a)

A +2B +C = 0 ---- (b)

2A =3 ---- ( c) ⇒A = 3/2

(a) ⇒-B + C = A= 3/2

(b) ⇒2B + C = -A = -3/2

-----------------------------

Adding B + 2C =0⇒ B = - 2C

Put B = - 2C in -B + C = 3/2

⇒3C = 3/2⇒C= 1/2

Put C= 1/2, B = -2C = -1⇒ B = -1

A B C 3 1 1
Hence f(z) = = + + = - +
z z+1 2−z 2 z z+1 2(2−z )

( )
−1
3 1 3 1 z
= - (1+z) -1 + (2-z)-1 = - (1- z+ z2 -….) + 2-1 1−
2z 2 2z 2 2

()
2
3 1 z z
= - (1- z+ z2 -….) + (1 + + + ….)
2z 4 2 2

3 3 9z
= - + - …..
2z 4 8

1 3
The residue of f at 0 is given by Res [f,0] = coefficient of =
z 2
z
e
Example 1.3. Find residue of f (z) = 3 at z0 = 0
z
2 3
1 z z
Laurent expansion of f(z) = 3
{1+ z+ + … }
z 2 ! 3!

19
 1 1 1 1
= + 2+ + …
z z z 2! 3 !
3

1 1
The residue of f at 0 is given by Res [f,0] = coefficient of =
z 2

Contour integration

Contour integration is the process of calculating the values of a contour integral around a given

contour in the complex plane.

The Cauchy integral formulae are useful in evaluating contour integrals over a simple closed

f (z)
contour C where the integrand has the form k and f is an analytic function
( z−z 0 )

Example 1.

Evaluate ∫ ydz along the curve C : x = t-1, y = et-1, 2< t < 3

C

Solution.

Let z = x+iy ⇒ dz = dx + i dy

Given curve x = t-1 ⇒ dx = dt

And y = et-1 ⇒ dy = et-1dt

3 3 3 3

∫ ydz = ∫ e t −1
( dx+ idy) = ∫ e
t −1
( dt+i e
t−1
dt) = ∫ e
t −1
dt + ∫ ie
2 (t −1)
dt
C 2 2 2 2

]
ie 2 t −2 3 2
4 2
ie −e
= e t−1 ] 3 + =e –e+ =
2 2 2 2

Example 2.

If C is the curve y = x3-3x2+4x-1 joining the points (1,1) and (2,3) then

20
find the value of ∫ (12 z 2−4 iz)dz
C

]
2+3 i 3 2
12 z 4 i z 2+ 3i
∫ (12 z −4 iz)dz = ∫ (12 z 2−4 iz)dz
2
=
3
-
2 1+i
C 1+i

= 4(2+3i)3 – 2i(2+3i)2 - 4(1+i)3 + 2i(1+i)2 = -156 +38i

Recall (i).(Cauchy’s integral Theorem)

Let D be any simply connected domain. Let C be any closed contour contained in D and f(z)

analytic in D, then ∮ f ( z)dz = 0

C

Recall (ii).

For a function f(z) analytic in DR*( z 0)and for any r with 0 < r < R, the Laurent series

coefficients of f(z) are given by

1 f ( ξ)
a n= ∮
2 πi C ( ξ−z 0 )n+1
dξ for n =0,±1 ,±2, ….. ------(I)

WhereC denotes the circle {z: |z-z0| = r} with positive orientation.

Put n = -1 in Equation (I) and replace C with any positively oriented simple closed contour C

containingz0, provided z0 is the still only singularity of f(z) that lies inside C,

1
then we obtain a-1 = ∮ f (z)dz .
2 πi C

1
We know that a-1 is the Res[f,z0]⇒ Res[f,z0] = ∮ f (z)dz
2 πi C

⇒∮ f ( z)dz = 2πi Res[f,z0]

C

21
If we know the Laurent series expansion for f(z), then using above equation we can evaluate
contour integrals.
2

Example ii.1. Evaluate ∮ e z dzwhere C denotes the circle C = {z: |z| =1}with positive
C
orientation.

Solution.
2
Let f(z) = e z

From Example.1, we have Res [f, 0] = 2

Recall 2. gives us ∮ f ( z)dz = 2πi Res[f,z0]

C

Hence ∮e z
dz = 2πi Res[f,0] = 2πi (2) = 4πi
C

Theorem 1 (Cauchy's Residue Theorem).

Let D be a simply connected domain, and let C ⊂D be a closed positively oriented contour
within and on the functionf(z) is analytic, except finite number of singular z1,z2,….,zn , then

∮ f ( z)dz = 2πi∑ Res [f , z k ]

C k =1

22
Proof.

Let Ci be the neighborhood of zi, (i=1,2…n) lies inside C such that all Ciare disjoint.

Since each zi is a singular point of f and each Ci is a neighborhood of corresponding zi(i=1,2,..n),

f is analytic in and on C except these neighborhoods Ci (i=1,2…n).

Then by Cauchy’s Theorem,(Recall 1)

∮ f ( z)dz - ∮ f ( z)dz - …… - ∮ f ( z)dz = 0

C C1 Cn

⇒∮ f ( z)dz = ∮ f ( z)dz + …… + ∮ f ( z)dz

C C1 Cn

⇒∮ f ( z)dz = 2πiRes[f,z1] +….. + 2πi Res [f,zn] ( by Recall 2)

C

⇒ ∮ f ( z)dz
n
= 2 πi ∑ Res [f , z k ]
C k=0

Note 1.1: The residue at z0depend only the coefficient a-1in the Laurent expansion, if f(z) has a

removable singularity at z0, then the Laurent expansion has no negative power term and

hencea-1=0 ⇒ Res[f,z0] = 0.

Theorem 2.(Residues at Poles).

23
(i) If f(z) has a simple pole at z0, then Res[f,z0] = lim ¿ z → z0 ( z−z 0 ) f (z)

d
(ii) If f(z) has a pole of order 2 at z0, then Res[f,z0] = lim ¿ z → z0 ( ( z−z 0 ) ¿ ¿ 2 ¿ ¿ f (z ))¿ ¿
dz

(iii) If f(z) has a pole of order 3 at z0, then Res[f,z0] =

2
1 d
lim ¿ z → z 0 2 ( ( z−z 0 ) ¿ ¿ 3 ¿ ¿ f (z ))¿ ¿
2! dz

(v) If f(z) has a pole of order k at z0,

k−1
1 d
then Res[f,z0] = lim ¿ z → z 0 k−1 ( ( z−z 0 ) ¿ ¿ k ¿ ¿ f (z))¿ ¿
(k −1)! dz

Proof.

i) Suppose f(z) has a simple pole at z = z0, then the Laurent series expansion
∞
f(z) = ∑ an ( z−z 0 ) + a−1 ( z−z 0 )
n −1

n=0

⇒ (z -z0)f(z) = (z-z0) ∑ an ( z−z 0 ) + a-1

∞
n

n=0

⇒ (z -z0)f(z) = (z-z0) ∑ an ( z−z 0 ) + Res [f,z0]

∞
n

n=0

Taking lim z→z0, both sides

∞
¿ lim ¿ z → z 0 ( z−z 0 ¿ f (z) = lim ¿ z → z 0 (z-z0) ∑ an ( z−z 0 ) +lim ¿ z → z 0Res[f,z0]
n

n=0

= 0 + Res[f,z0]

Hence Res[f,z0] = ¿ lim ¿ z → z 0 ( z−z 0 ¿ f (z)

v) Suppose f(z) has a pole of order k at z = z0, then the Laurent series expansion
∞
f(z) = ∑ an ( z−z 0 ) + a−1 ( z−z 0 ) + a−2 ( z −z 0)
n −1 −2 −k
+ …… + a−k ( z−z 0 )
n=0

24
Multiply both sides by (z-z0)k
∞
(z-z0) f(z) = a−k + ….. + a−1 ( z −z0 ) + ∑ an ( z−z 0 ) ( z−z o )
k k−1 n k

n=0

Differentiate both sides k-1 times with respect to z,

k−1 k−1
d k d
k−1 ( z −z0 ) f ( z ) = 0+0+…..+ a −1 ( k−1 ) ! + k−1
¿
dz dz

= a−1 ( k−1 ) ! + a 0 (z−z 0)k ! + a 1 ( z−z 0 )

2
( ( k +12! ) ! ) + ….
Taking lim z→z0, both sides
k−1
d k
k−1 (
lim ¿ z → z0 z− z0 ) f (z ) = lim ¿ z → z0 a−1 ( k−1 ) ! + 0 +…
dz

= a−1 ( k−1 ) ! = Res [f,z0] (k-1)!

k−1
1 d k
Hence Res [f,z0] = lim ¿ z → z 0 k−1 ( z−z 0 ) f (z)
( k−1 ) ! dz

ii) and iii) are the particular case of v) (take k = 2 and k= 3)

Example 2.1.
z
e
Find residue of f (z) = 2 at z0 = 1
z −1

Solution.
z z
e e
Given f (z) = 2 =
z −1 ( z−1)(z +1)

The poles of f(z) are z = 1 , z =-1 (simple poles)

( z−1 ) e z e
z
e
Res [f,1] = lim ¿ z → 1 ( z−1 ) f (z) = lim ¿ z → 1 = lim ¿ z → 1 =
( z−1 ) ( z +1 ) ( z+ 1 ) 2

25
Example 2.2 .

Find the residue of f(z) = (z8- ω8)-1, where ω is any complex constant.

Solution.

1
Given f(z) = (z8- ω8)-1 = 88
( z −ω )

The poles of f(z) are the zeros of z8-ω8 ⇒ zeros are given by z8-ω8 = 0

⇒ z8 = ω8 ⇒ z8 = ω8(cos2nπ +isin2nπ), n = 0,1,2,…7 ⇒ z8 = ω8 e2niπ

⇒ z = ω e2nπi/8 ⇒ z = ω enπi/4 , n = 0,1,2,…7

Hence z = ω enπi/4 , n = 0,1,2,…7 are the simple poles of f(z)

Let an = ω enπi/4, n = 0,1,2,…7

The residue of f (z) at z = an , is given by Res [f, an] = lim ¿ z → an ( z−a n ) f (z )

1
=lim ¿ z → an ( z−a n ) 8 8
( z −an )

Since it is not easy to factories (z8- an8) into eight factors , so we have to use L’Hospital’s rule

(that is differentiating Nr and Dr separately w.r.to z)

1 1
= lim ¿ z → an 7 = 8 , n = 0,1,….7.
8z 8 an

Example 2.3

1
Find the residue of
sinhπz

Solution.

1
Given f(z) =
sinhπz

The poles of f(z) are the zeros of sinhπz,

26
Also the zeros of sinhπz are z = ni, for all integer n (since sinhnπi = 0 for all n)

1
( )
Hence Res [f,ni] = lim ¿ z →∋¿ z−¿ sinhπz
¿

By using L’Hospital’s rule

1 1 1
Res [f,ni] = lim ¿ z →∋¿ πcoshπz = = (Since coshix= cosx)
πcoshπni πcosπn
¿

= (-1)n/π (Since

π cot ( πz )
Example 2.3. Find the residue of f(z) = 2 at z0 = 0
z

Solution.

π cot ( πz ) π cos ( πz )
Given f(z) = 2 = 2
z z sin ⁡( πz )

Since z2 has a zero of order 2 at z0 = 0 and sin(πz) has a simple zero 1 at z0 = 0, we have

z2sin(πz) has a zero of order 3at z0 = 0 and πcos(πz) ≠ 0.

Hence f(z) has a pole of order 3 at z0 = 0 .

By part (iii) of Theorem .2, we have

2
1 d
Res [f,0] = lim ¿ z → 0 2 ( ( z−0 ) ¿¿ 3¿¿ f ( z ))¿ ¿
2! dz

1 d
2
π cot ( πz )
= lim ¿ z → 0 2 (z ¿ ¿ 3 ¿ ¿ 2
)¿ ¿
2! dz z
2
1 d
= lim ¿ z → 0 2 (z ¿¿ ¿¿ π cot ⁡(πz))¿ ¿ =
2! dz
1 d 2
lim ¿ z → 0 (¿ ¿ ¿ π cot ( πz )−πzcsc (πz) π)¿ ¿
2! dz

1 d 2 2
= lim ¿ z → 0 (¿ ¿ ¿ π cot ( πz )−π zcs c (πz ))¿ ¿
2! dz
27
 1 2 2 2 2
= lim ¿ z → 0(¿−¿ π csc ( πz ) π−π cs c ( πz )+ π z 2 csc ( πz ) csc ⁡(πz)cot ⁡(πz ) π )¿ ¿
2!

1 2 2 3 2
= lim ¿ z → 0(¿−¿ 2 π csc ( πz ) +2 π z csc ( πz ) cot ⁡( πz ))¿ ¿
2!

2
2π 2
= lim ¿ z → 0 csc (πz)(¿−¿ 1+ π z cot ⁡(πz))¿ ¿
2!

1 cos ( πz )
= π 2 lim ¿ z → 0 (¿−¿ 1+ π z )¿ ¿
2
sin ( πz ) sin ( πz )

2 (πzcos ( πz )−sin ( πz ))
Res [f,0] = π lim ¿ z → 0 3
sin ( πz )

As lim z → 0, LHS is indeterminate, so we have to use L’Hospital’s rule to evaluate the limit

(that is differentiating Nr and Dr separately w.r.to z)

2 (πcos ( πz )−πzsin(πz) π −πcos ( πz ))

Res [f,0] = π lim ¿ z → 0 2
3 sin (πz )cos ⁡(πz )π
2
2 −π zsin(πz)
= π lim ¿ z → 0
3 πsin2 ( πz ) cos ⁡(πz )

2 −π z
= π lim ¿ z → 0
3sin ( πz ) cos ( πz )

( ) ( )
2 2
π − πz −π πz 1
= lim ¿ z → 0 = lim ¿ z →0 lim ¿ z → 0
3 sin ( πz ) cos ( πz ) 3 sin ( πz ) cos ( πz )

( cos1( πz ) ) =
2
−π 1
lim ¿ z → 0 −π
2
−π
2
= 3
lim ¿ z → 0 (
sin ( πz )
πz ) 3
(1)(1) =
3

Example 2.4.

28
Find ∫ z 4 + zdz3−2 z 2 where C denotes the circle {z: |z| =3} with positive orientation.
C

Solution.

1 1 1
Let f(z) = = = 2
4 3
z + z −2 z
2 2
¿
z (z ¿ 2+ z−2)¿ z (z ¿¿ +2)( z−1)¿

The singularities of f(z) that lie inside C are simple poles at the points z =1 and z= -2, and a pole
of order 2 at z =0.

To find the Residue at z = 0 :

d d
Res [f,0] =lim ¿ z → 0 ( ( z−0 ) ¿ ¿ 2 ¿ ¿ f (z ))¿ ¿ = lim ¿ z → 0 ¿
dz dz

d d
= lim ¿ z → 0 ¿= lim ¿ z → 0 ¿
dz dz

−2 z−1 1
= lim ¿ z → 0 2 2 = -
( z + z−2) 4

To find the Residue at z = 1 :

1
Res [f,1] = lim ¿ z → 1 ( z−1 ) f (z ) = lim ¿ z → 1 ( z−1 ) 2
¿
z (z¿ ¿ + 2)(z−1)

1
= lim ¿ z → 1 2
¿= ¿ 1
z ( z¿¿ +2) 3

To find the Residue at z = -2 :

1
Res [f,-2] = lim ¿ z →−2 ( z +2 ) f (z ) = lim ¿ z →−2 ( z +2 ) 2
¿
z (z ¿¿ + 2)(z −1)
29
 1 −1
= lim ¿ z →−2 2 =
z (z −1) 12

n
By Cauchy’s residue theorem ∮ f ( z)dz = 2 πi ∑ Res [f , z k ]
C k=0

−1 1 1
∫ z 4 + zdz3−2 z 2 = 2πi(Res[f,0] +Res[f,1]+Res[f,-2]) = 2πi( + − ¿=0
4 3 12
C

Example 2.5. Find ∫ z 4dz+ 4 where C denotes the circle {z: |z-1| =2 } with positive orientation
C

Solution.

1
Let f(z) = 4
z +4

To find the poles of f(z) , we know that poles of f(z) is nothing but the zeros of z4 +4

Now we have to find the zeros of z4 +4

Put z4 +4 =0 ⇒z4 = -4 = 4i2 = (2i)2⇒ z2 = ±2i

Let z = a+ib ⇒ z2 = (a+ib)2 = a2 + 2iab – b2

Supposez2= 2i ⇒a2–b2+ 2iab = 2i ⇒ a2 –b2=0 and ab = 1

⇒ a2 = b2and b = 1/a

⇒ a = ±b and b = 1/a

If a = b , then b = 1 ⇒ a,b=1

30
If a = -b , then b = -1⇒a = 1 , b = -1

The zeros are z = a+ib , 1+i, 1-i

Suppose z2= -2i ⇒a2 –b2+ 2iab = -2i ⇒ a2 –b2 =0 and ab = -1

⇒ a2 = b2 and b = -1/a

⇒ a = ±b and b = -1/a

If a = b , then b = -1 ⇒ a,b=-1

If a = -b , then b = 1⇒a = -1 , b =1

The zeros are z = a+ib ,-1-i, -1+i

Hence the poles of f(z) are 1±i, -1±i (simple poles)

The poles lie inside the circle {z: |z-1| =2} with positive orientation are 1±i

1
Res[f,1+i] = lim ¿ z → 1+ i ( z−(1+i) ) f (z) =lim ¿ z → 1+ i ( z−( 1+i ) ) ( 4 )
z +4

As lim z →1+i, LHS is indeterminate, so we have to use L’Hospital’s rule to evaluate the limit

(that is differentiating Nr and Dr separately w.r.to z)

1 z 1+ i 1+i 1+i
= lim ¿ z → 1+ i( ) =lim ¿ z → 1+ i ( ) = 4 = =
4z
3
4z
4
4 ( 1+i ) 4 (−4 ) −16

Similarly

1−i
Res[f,1-i] =
−16

n
By Cauchy’s residue theorem ∮ f ( z)dz = 2 πi ∑ Res [f , z k ]
C k=0

1+i 1−i πi
∫ z 4dz+ 4 = 2πi(Res[f,1+i] +Res[f,1-i]) = 2πi( +
−16 −16
¿=-
4
C

Result 3.

31
Let P(z) be a polynomial of degree at most 2. If a ,b and c are distinct complex numbers, then
P(z) A B C
f(z) = = + +
( z−a)(z−b)( z−c ) ( z−a) ( z−b) ( z−c)

P ( a)
Where A = Res [f,a] =
(a−b)(a−c)

P (b)
B = Res [f,b] =
(b−a)(b−c )

P (c)
C = Res [f,c] =
(c−a)(c−b)

Example 3.1.

3 z +2
Find the residue of f(z) = and express f(z) in partial fractions.
z ( z−1 ) ( z−2)

Solution.

In Result I, take a= 0, b = 1, c= 2 and P(z) = 3z+2.

The residues are

P(0)
A = Res[f,0] = =1
(0−1)(0−2)

P(1)
B = Res [f,1] = = -5
(1−0)(1−2)

P(2)
C = Res [f,2] = =4
(2−0)(2−1)

The partial fraction expression of f(z)is given by

A B C
f(z) = + +
( z−a) ( z−b) ( z−c)

1 −5 4
= + +
( z−0) ( z−1) ( z−2)

1 5 4
= - +
z ( z−1) ( z−2)
32
 1
Example 3.2. Find the residue of f (z) = 4 and express in partial fractions.
z −1

1 1 1 A B C D
f (z) = = = = + + +
4 2
z −1 ( z ¿¿ 2−1)(z + 1)¿ ( z−1 ) (z +1)(z +i)(z−i) z−1 z+1 z−i z+i

1
Where A = Res[f,1] = lim ¿ z → 1(z−1)f (z) = lim ¿ z → 1(z−1)
( z−1 ) (z +1)(z +i)(z−i)

1 1 1
= = =
2(1+i)(1−i) 2(1−(−1)) 4

1
B= Res[f,-1] = lim ¿ z →−1(z +1)f (z ) = lim ¿ z →−1(z +1)
( z−1 ) (z +1)(z+ i)(z−i)

1 1 −1
= = ¿ =
−2(−1+i)(−1−i) 2(−1−1)¿ 4

1
C= Res [f,i] = lim ¿ z → i(z −i)f (z ) = lim ¿ z → i(z −i)
( z−1 ) (z +1)(z +i)(z−i)

1 1 −1
= = =
2i(i+1)(i−1) 2i(−1−1) 4i

1
D=Res[f,-i] = = lim ¿ z →−i (z +i) f ( z) = lim ¿ z →−i(z +i)
( z−1 ) (z+ 1)(z +i)(z−i)

1 1 1
= = =
−2i(−i+1)(−i−1) 2i(1−(−1 )) 4i

A B C D 1 1 1
f(z) = + + + = - - +
z−1 z+1 z−i z+i 4 (z−1) 4 (z ¿¿ + 1)¿ 4 i(z ¿¿ −i)¿
1
4 i(z ¿¿ +i)¿

Result 4.

If a repeated root occurs in partial fraction, and P(z) has degree of at most 2, then f(z) =
P ( z) A B C
= 2 + +
2
( z−a ) (z−b) ( z−a ) ( z−a) ( z−b)

Where A = Res [(z-a)f(z),a]

33
B = Res [f, a]

C = Res [f, b]

2
z +3 z +2
Example 4.1. Find the residue of f(z) = 2 and express in partial fraction.
z (z−1)

Solution.

In Result II, take a = 0, b = 1 and P(z) = z 2+ 3 z +2 , we have

P (z) A B C
f(z) = 2 = 2 + +
( z−0) (z−1) ( z−0 ) ( z−0) ( z−1)

2 2
z +3 z +2 z +3 z +2
Where A = Res [(z-0)f(z),0] = Res [ z 2 ,0] = Res [ ,0]
z (z−1) z ( z−1)

2 2
z + 3 z +2 z +3 z +2
= lim ¿ z → 0(z−0)( ) = lim ¿ z → 0( ) = -2
z (z−1) ( z−1)

2 2
d 2 z + 3 z +2 d 2 z +3 z+ 2
B = Res [f, 0] = lim ¿ z → 0 dz ( z −0 ) 2 = lim ¿ z → 0 dz z 2 =
z (z−1) z (z−1)
2
d z + 3 z +2
lim ¿ z → 0
dz (z−1)

[ ( 2 z +3 ) ( z−1 )−( 1 ) ( z 2+ 3 z +2 ) ] [ ( z 2−2 z−5 ) ]

= lim ¿ z → 0 ( z−1 )
2 ¿ = lim ¿ z → 0
( z−1 )
2 ¿= -5
¿ ¿
2 2
z +3 z +2 z +3 z+2
C = Res [f, 1] = Res [ 2 ,1] = lim ¿ z → 1(z−1)( 2 )
z (z−1) z (z−1)
2
z +3 z+ 2
= lim ¿ z → 1( 2
)=6
z

−2 −5 6 −2 −5 6
f(z) = 2 + + = 2 + +
( z−0 ) ( z−0) ( z−1) z z ( z−1)
34
 1
Example 4.2. Find the residue of f(z) = 2
( z−1 ) (z−3)

Take P(z) = 1, a= 1, b=3

P( z ) A B C
f(z) = 2 = 2 + +
( z−1 ) (z−3) ( z−1 ) ( z−1 ) ( z−3)

1 1
A = Res [(z-1)f(z),1] = Res [ (z-1) 2
, 1¿ = lim ¿ z → 1(z−1)( )
( z−1 ) (z−3) (z−1)( z−3)

1 1
= =
(1−3) −2

d 2 1 −1(1) −1
B = Res [f,1] = lim ¿ z → 1 dz ( z−1 ) ( z−1)2( z−3) = lim ¿ z → 1 2 =
( z−3 ) 4

1 1 1
C = Res [f,3] = lim ¿ z → 3(z−3)( 2
) = lim ¿ z → 3 2 =
( z−1 ) (z−3) ( z−1 ) 4

EVALUATION OF REAL DEFINITE INTEGRALS

Cases of poles are not on the real axis.

Type I
2π

Evaluation of the integral ∫ f ( cosθsinθ ) dθ where f(cosθ sinθ) is a real rational function of
0
sinθ,cosθ.

First we use the transformation z = eiθ = cosθ + i sinθ ------ ( a)

1 1
And = = e-iθ = = cosθ - i sinθ -------- (b)
z eiθ

1 1 1 1
From (a) and (b) , we have cosθ = (z + ) , sinθ = (z− )
2 z 2i z

Now z = eiθ ⇒ dz = ieiθdθ ⇒ dθ =

dz
iz
35
 2π

Hence ∫ f ( cosθsinθ ) dθ = ∫ f [¿
0 C
1
2
1 1
( )1 dz
z + , (z− )] ¿
z 2i z iz

Where C, is the positively oriented unit circle |z| = 1

The LHS integral can be evaluated by the residue theorem and

∫ f [¿ 12 ( z + 1z ) , 21i (z− 1z )] dz
iz
¿ = 2πi ∑ Res(zi) , where zi is any pole in the interior of the
C

circle |z| =1

Example I.1.
2π

Evaluate ∫ e
−cosθ
cos ( nθ+ sinθ ) dθ , where nis a positive integer .
0

Solution.
2π

Let I = ∫ e
−cosθ
¿¿
0

2π 2π

= ∫e dθ = ∫ e
−cosθ −i ( nθ+sinθ ) −cosθ−isinθ −i ( nθ )
e e dθ
0 0

2π 2π

= ∫e ∫ e−e e−i (nθ ) dθ

iθ
−(cosθ +isinθ) −i ( nθ )
e dθ =
0 0

Let z = eiθ, dz = ieiθ dθ ⇒ dθ =

dz dz
iθ = and C denotes the unit circle |z| = 1
ie iz

( ) e− z
−z −z
e dz 1 e dz
Therefore I = ∫ n = ∫ n +1 = ∫ f ( z ) dz where f(z) =
C z zi i C z C i z n+1

By Cauchy’s residue theorem, ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] where zk are the singularities(poles) of

C
f(z)

To find the poles of f(z) :

36
Since poles of f(z) = to the zeros of izn+1 ,and the only zero of izn+1 is z = 0 of order n+1

Hence the pole of f(z) is z =0 of order n+1

There are no poles on the real axis

To find the residue of f(z):

n n −z
1 d n+1 1 d n+1 e
n( ) n( )
Res [f,0] = lim ¿ z → 0 z−0 f ( z) = lim ¿ z → 0 z−0 n+1
n! dz n! dz iz

1 d n n+1 e−z 1 d n e−z 1 ne

−z
= lim ¿ z → 0 z = lim ¿ z → 0 = lim ¿ z → 0 ( −1 )
n! d zn i z n+1 n! d zn i n! i

(−1 )n
=
n!i

(−1 )n
Hence ∑ Res[f,zk] = Res[f,0]=
n!i

(−1 )n (−1 )n
Therefore ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] = 2πi n!i
= 2π
n!
C

⇒ I = 2π
(−1 )n
n!

⇒ ∫e
2π
−cosθ (−1 )n
¿ ¿ = 2π
0 n!

⇒ ∫e
2π 2π
(−1 )n
cos ( nθ+ sinθ ) dθ – i∫ e
−cosθ −cosθ
sin(nθ+ sinθ)¿ dθ ¿ = 2π
0 0 n!

Equating real and imaginary parts,

2π
(−1 )n
∫e −cosθ
cos ( nθ+ sinθ ) dθ = 2π
n!
0

2π

And ∫ e
−cosθ
sin(nθ+ sinθ)¿ dθ ¿ = 0
0

37
Example I.2.
2π
dθ 2π
Prove that ∫ = , a >b >0.
0 a+bcosθ √ a2−b 2
Solution.
2π
dθ
Let I = ∫
0 a+bcosθ

Put z = eiθ ⇒ dθ =
dz
and let C denotes the unit circle |z| = 1
iz

1 1 1
Since z = eiθ = cosθ + isinθ and = cosθ – isinθ, we have cosθ = (z + ¿
z 2 z

1 dz 1 dz 2 dz
I=∫
2π
dθ ∫ = i∫ ∫
= i C
( ( )) =
2
b 1 C z b b bi C 2a 2
0 a+bcosθ z a+ z+ z a+ + z +z +1
2 z 2 2 b

2
= ∫ f ( z ) dz where f(z) = 2 az
bi( z 2+ +1)
C b

By Cauchy’s residue theorem, ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] where zk are the singularities(poles) of

C
f(z).

To find the poles of f(z):

2 az 2 az
Poles of f(z) = to the zeros of bi(z2+ +1) and the zeros are given by bi(z2+ +1) = 0
b b

⇒ (z2+
2 az
+1) =0 -------- (a)
b

⇒z = b
−2 a
±

2
4 a2
b
2
−4
√ −2 a
= b
±

2
b√
4 a2−4 b2
2 =
−2 a
b
±2 √ a −b
2b
2 2

=
−a ± √ a2−b 2
b

38
⇒z=
−a+ √ a 2−b2 −a−√ a2−b 2
or are the simple poles of f(z)
b b

−a+ √ a 2−b2 −a−√ a2−b 2

Let α = and β = , these the roots of the equation (a)
b b

1
Now the product of the roots αβ = =1
1

Now | αβ| = 1 ⇒ |α||β| = 1

Since a > b > 0, |β| = |

−a−√ a2−b2
b | |=
a+ √ a 2−b2
b |
Here a > b ⇒ a2 > b2 ⇒ a2- b2>0⇒ √ a2−b2 > 0 ⇒ a + √ a2−b2 > a >b

⇒ a + √ a2−b2 >b ⇒ >1⇒ | |

a+ √ a2 −b2 a+ √ a 2−b2
>1
b b

−a+ √ a 2−b2
Hence z = α = < 1 is the only simple pole lie inside the circle |z| = 1
b

There are no poles on the real axis

To find the residue of f(z):

Res [f,α] = lim ¿ z → α (z −α ) f ( z )

2
2 az
Here f(z) = 2 az and α,β are the factors of z2+ +1
bi( z 2+ +1) b
b

⇒ f(z) =
2
2
2 2 az =
bi( z + +1) bi( z−α )(z −β)
b

∴ Res [f,α] = lim ¿ z → α (z −α ) f ( z ) = lim ¿ z → α (z −α )

2
=
bi (z−α )(z−β )
2 2
lim ¿ z → α =
bi (z−β) bi(α −β)

39
 2 2
2
((
−a+ √ a −b −a− √ a −b
)( )) = bi
2 2 2 2
=
bi − ( −a+ √a −b +a + √ a −b ) 2i √ a2−b 2 =
2 2 2 2 =

b b b
1
i √ a2−b2

1
Hence ∑ Res[f,zk] = Res[f,α]=
i √ a2−b2

∴∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] =
2 πi 2π
=
C i √ a −b
2 2
√ a2−b 2

∴∫
2π
dθ 2π
=
0 a+bcosθ √ a2−b 2

Example I.3.
2π
dθ 2π
Prove that ∫ 2
= 2 , 0 ≤ a < 1.
0 1+ a −2 acosθ 1−a

Solution
2π
dθ
Let I = ∫ 1+ a2−2 acosθ
0

Let z = eiθ ⇒ dθ =
dz
and let C denotes the unit circle |z| = 1
iz

1 1 1
Since z = eiθ = cosθ + isinθ and = cosθ – isinθ, we have cosθ = (z + ¿
z 2 z

40
 dz dz

∴I=
2π
dθ iz 1 z
∫ 1+ a2−2 = ∫ = i∫ =
( )( ) ( )
2
1 1
0 acosθ C 2
1+a −2 a z+ C
( 1+ a )− a z +1
2
2 z z
dz
1 z
∫
i C ( 1+a 2 ) z−a ( z 2+1 )
z

−1 dz
1
= ∫
dz 1
= ∫
dz ∫
= ai C −z 2 =
i C ( 1+ a2 ) z−a ( z 2 +1 ) i C z +a 2 z−a z 2−a −az + z + 1
a
−1 dz
∫
ai C −z 2
a (
+ z +(−az +1) )
−1 dz −1 dz
∫ ∫ = ∫ f ( z ) dz
= ai C
z (
−1
a )
1 = ai C −1
+ z −a(z− )
a a
+ z (z−a) C( )
−1
Where f(z) =
ai ( −1a + z )(z−a)
By Cauchy’s residue theorem, ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] where zk are the singularities(poles) of
C
f(z).

To find the poles of f(z):

−1
Poles of f(z) = zeros of ai( + z)(z−a) and
a

−1
these zeros are given by ai( + z)(z−a) = 0
a

⇒(
−1
+ z ) = 0 or (z−a) = 0
a

⇒z=
1
or z = a which are the simple poles of f(z)
a

41
 1
Since 0≤ a < 1, >1
a

Hence a<1 is the only pole lie inside the unit circle |z| =1

There are no poles on the real axis

To find the residue of f(z):

−1
lim ¿ z → a(z−a)
Res[f,a] = lim ¿ z → a(z−a)f ( z) =
ai ( −1a + z )(z−a)
−1 −1
lim ¿ z → a −1 1
=
ai (
−1
a
+z
=
ai )
−1
a
+a
=
(
i (−1+ a )
2 =
)
i ( a −1 )
2

1
Hence ∑ Res[f,zk] = Res[f,a] =
i ( a −1 )
2

∴∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] =
2 πi 2π
=
C i ( a −1 )
2
( a2−1 )

⇒I=
2π
( a2−1 )

⇒
2π
dθ 2π
∫ 1+ a2−2 = 2
acosθ ( a −1 )
0

Example I.4.
π
a dθ
Evaluate ∫ 2 2
0 a +sin θ

Solution.

First we have to change the limits to 0 to 2π from 0 to π for the given integral.

Let I = ∫ 2 = 2 1−cos 2θ =
π
a dθ
∫
π π
a dθ 2 a dθ
2 0
a+
∫ 2 a2 +1−cos
0 a +sin θ 0 2θ
2

42
To change the limit , take 2θ = ϕ ⇒ 2dθ = dϕ

If θ =0 , then ϕ = 0

If θ= π, then ϕ = 2π

Hence I =
2π
a dϕ
∫ 2 a 2+1−cosϕ
0

Put z = eiϕ ⇒ dϕ =
dz
and let C denotes the unit circle |z| = 1
iz

1 1 1
Since z = eiϕ = cosϕ + isinϕ and = cosϕ – isinϕ, we have cosϕ = (z + ¿
z 2 z

dz dz
a
∴I= =∫ =
2π a
a dϕ iz iz
∫ 2 a 2+1−cosϕ ∫
4 za +2 z−( z +1 )
2 2
1 1
0 C
2 a2 +1− (z+ ) C
2 z 2z

= = =
2a dz −2 a dz
∫ ∫ ∫ f ( z ) dz
i C z −2 z ( 2 a +1 ) +1
2 2 2 2
i C 4 z a +2 z−z −1 C

Where f(z) =
−2 a
i( z ¿ ¿ 2−2 z ( 2 a2 +1 ) +1)¿

By Cauchy’s residue theorem, ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] where zk are the singularities(poles) of

C
f(z).

To find the poles of f(z):

Poles of f (z) = zeros of i(z2-2z(2a2+1)+1) , these zeros are given by i(z2-2z(2a2+1)+1) = 0

⇒ z2-2z(2a2+1)+1 = 0

⇒z= √( 2 ( 2 a +1 ) ) −4 (1)(1) √( ( 2 a +1 ) ) −1
2 2 2 2 2 2
2(2 a +1)± 2(2 a +1)± 2
=
2 (1) 2

√
= 2 a2 +1 ± ( 2 a 2+1 ) −1 = 2 a2 +1 ± √ 4 a 4 +1+4 a2−1
2

= 2 a2 +1 ± √ 4 a 4 +4 a2 = 2 a2 +1 ±2 a √ a 2+1
43
∴ z = 2 a2 +1+2 a √ a2 +1 = α (say)

Or z = 2 a2 +1−2 a √ a 2+1 = β (say)

Hence the poles of f(z) are α,β which are simple poles.

Now α,β are the roots of the equation z2-2z(2a2+1)+1 = 0

Product of the roots αβ = 1 ⇒ | αβ| = 1⇒|α||β| = 1

Clearly |α| = |2 a2 +1+2 a √ a2 +1 | > 1 ⇒ |β| < 1

∴ the only pole lie inside the unit circle |z| =1 is β = 2 a2 +1−2 a √ a 2+1

There are no poles on the real axis

To find the residue of f(z) :

−2 a
Res[f,β] = lim ¿ z → β(z −β) f ( z ) = lim ¿ z → β(z −β) ¿
i(z ¿ ¿ 2−2 z ( 2 a2+ 1 ) +1)

−2 a −2 a −2 a
= lim ¿ z → β(z −β) = lim ¿ z → β = =
i(z−α )(z−β) i(z −α ) i( β−α )
−2a
i(2 a + 1−2 a √ a +1−( 2 a + 1+ 2 a √ a + 1 ) )
2 2 2 2

−2 a −2 a 1
= = = ¿
i(2 a + 1−2 a √ a +1−2 a −1−2 a √ a +1) i(−4 a √ a + 1) 2i √ a +1¿
2 2 2 2 2 2

1
Hence ∑ Res[f,zk] = Res[f,β] = ¿
2i √ a +1¿
2

∴∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] =
2 πi π
¿ = ¿
2i √ a +1¿ √ a +1¿
2 2
C

⇒I= =
π
a dθ π
∫ a 2+sin ¿
0
2
θ √ a2 +1¿
Example I.5.

44
 2π
dθ
Evaluate ∫( 2 ( a > 0, b > 0 ; a > b)
0 a+bcosθ )

Solution
2π
dθ
Let I = ∫( 2
0 a+bcosθ )

Take z = eiθ ⇒ dθ =
dz
and let C denotes the unit circle |z| = 1
iz

1 1 1
Since z = eiθ = cosθ + isinθ and = cosθ – isinθ, we have cosθ = (z + ¿
z 2 z

dz dz

⇒I =∫
iz iz 4 zdz
=∫ = ∫ =
( )
2

( ) 2 az +b ( z +1 )
2
C b 1 C
2
i C ( 2 az+ b(z 2 +1) ) 2
a+ (z + )
2 z 2z
4 zdz
∫
i C ( 2 az+ b z 2 +b ¿ )2

=
4z
∫ f ( z ) dz where f(z) =
i ( 2 az +b z +b ¿ )
2 2
C

By Cauchy’s residue theorem, ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] where zk are the singularities(poles) of

C
f(z).

To find the poles of f(z):

Poles of f(z) = zeros of i(2az+bz2+b)2 , these zeros are given by i(2az+bz2+b)2 = 0

⇒ bz2+2az +b = 0 ⇒ z2+
2 az
+1 = 0
b

⇒z= b
−2 a 2a 2
± ( ) −4
2
b =
2b
√
−2 a ± √ 4 a2−4 b 2
=
−a ± √ a2−b 2
b

⇒z=
−a+ √ a 2−b2
= β (say)
b
45
 −a−√ a2−b 2
Or z = = α (say)
b

Hence the poles of f(z) are α,β both order 2

Since α,β are the roots of the equation bz2+2az +b = 0

Product of the root αβ = b/b = 1 ⇒ | αβ| = 1 ⇒ |α||β| = 1

Given a > b ⇒ a2 > b2 ⇒ a2- b2>0⇒ √ a2−b2 > 0 ⇒ a + √ a2−b2 > a >b

⇒ a + √ a2−b2 >b ⇒ >1⇒ | |

a+ √ a2 −b2 a+ √ a 2−b2
>1
b b

−a+ √ a 2−b2
Hence z = β = < 1 is the only pole lie inside the circle |z| = 1
b

There are no poles on the real axis

To fine the residue of f(z):

d 2 4z
d 2 lim ¿ z → β ( z−β )
Res [f,β] = lim ¿ z → β ( z−β ) f ( z ) =
( )
dz 2 2az 2
2
dz ib + z +1 ¿
b

d 4z d 2 4z
= lim ¿ z → β ( z−β )2 2 ¿ = lim ¿ z → β ( z−β ) 2
dz ib ¿ ¿ ¿ dz 2
ib ( z−α ) ( z−β )
2

[ ]
2
d 4z 4 d z 4 ( z−α ) −z 2 ( z−α )
= lim ¿ z → β dz = lim ¿ z → β = lim ¿ z → β =
ib dz ( z−α )
2 2 2 2
i b ( z−α ) ib
2
( z−α )4

= lim ¿ z → β
4
ib
2
[
( z −α )
]
( z−α )−z 2
( z−α ) 4 = lim ¿ z → β 2
ib [
4 ( z−α ) −z 2
( z−α )3 ] [
=
4 ( β −α )−2 β
ib
2
( β−α )3 ]

46
 [( ]
−a−√ a −b −a+ √ a −b
2 2 2 2
+
= 2
[
−4 α + β
i b ( β−α )
3 =
] [
−4 α + β
2
i b ( β−α )
3 =
−4
ib
2
] b b
−a+ √ a −b −a−√ a −b
−
2 2 2 2 3

)
=

b b

[( )]
−2 a
−4 b
2 2 3
ib −a+ √ a −b a+ √ a −b
2 2 2
+
b b

[( ) ] [
−2 a

]
3
−4 b 8ab a
= i b2 2 3 = =
2 √ a −b 8 b i ( √ a −b
2 3
) i ( √ a −b
2 3
)
2 3 2 2

a
Hence ∑ Res[f,zk] = Res[f,β] = 2 3
i ( √ a −b )
2

∴∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] =
2 πia 2 πa
2 3 = 3
i ( √ a −b ) ( √ a2−b2 )
2
C

⇒I=
2π
dθ 2 πa
∫( 2 =
( √ a2−b2 )
3
0 a+bcosθ )

Type II.
∞

Evaluation of the integral ∫ f ( x ) dx where f(x) is a real rational function of the real
−∞

variable x.

, then degree of h(x) exceeds that of g(x) and g(x) ≠ 0.To

g (x)
If the rational function f(x) =
h(x )
find the value of the integral, by inventing a closed contour in the complex plane which includes
the required integral. For this we have to close the contour by a very large semi-circle in the
upper half-plane. Suppose we use the symbol “R” for the radius. The entire contour integral
comprises the integral along the real axis from −R to +R together with the integral along the
semi-circular arc. In the limit as R→∞the contribution from the straight line part approaches the
required integral, while the curved section may in some cases vanish in the limit.

47
 g (x)
The poles z1,z2,….,zk of , that lie in the upper half-plane
h(x )
∞ ∞
g(x )
∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ h (x) dx = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk]
−∞ −∞

Example II.1
∞
dx
Using the residue of calculus compute ∫
−∞ ( x + 1 )( x2 + 4 )
2

Solution

1
Consider the integral ∫ f ( z ) dz where f(z) =
C ( z +1 ) ( z 2 +4 )
2

To find the poles of f(z) :

The poles of f(z) = zeros of (z2+1)(z2+4) , these zeros are given by (z2+1)(z2+4) = 0

⇒ z2+1 = 0 or z2+4 = 0

⇒ z2 = -1 = i2 ⇒ z = ± i

Or z2 = -4 = (2i)2⇒ z = ± 2i

Hence the poles of f(z) are ± i, ± 2i (all are simple poles)

And the poles z = i and z = 2i are the only poles lie inside the upper half of semi-circle.

There are no poles on the real axis

48
By Cauchy’s residue theorem, ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] where zk are the singularities(poles) of
C
f(z).
R

Now ∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( z ) dz ------------- (a) ( on the real line –R to R (L )+ R the upper

C −R CR

half of the semi circle CR)

To find the residue of f(z):

1 1
Res[f,i] = lim ¿ z → i(z −i)f (z ) = lim ¿ z → i(z −i) = = lim ¿ z → i(z −i) ¿
( z +1 ) ( z + 4 )
2 2
( z +i ) ¿ ¿
1 1 1 1 i
= lim ¿ z → i = = = =-
( z+i ) (z+2 i)( z−2i) ( i+ i ) (i+ 2i)(i−2i) (2 i)(3 i)(−i) 6 i 6

1
Res[f,2i] = lim ¿ z → 2i( z−2 i) f (z) = lim ¿ z → 2i( z−2 i) ==
( z +1 ) ( z 2 +4 )
2

1
lim ¿ z → 2i( z−2 i) ¿
( z+ i ) ¿ ¿
1 1 1 −1 i
= lim ¿ z → 2i = = = =
(z−i) ( z +i ) (z +2i) ( 2i−i ) (i+2 i)(2 i+2i) (i)(3i)(4 i) 12i 12

dz ≤ ∨¿≤
Consider
|∫ f ( z ) dz
CR
|| = ∫
CR
1
( z +1 ) ( z + 4 )
2 2 | ∫¿
CR
dz
( z +1 ) ( z 2+ 4 )
2

¿
∫ ¿ dz∨ ¿¿
CR ¿ ( z +1 ) ( z 2 +4 )∨¿
2

49
≤ ∫ ¿ dz∨ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ---------(b)
¿
CR

Let z = Reiθ, dz = iReiθdθ

⇒ |dz| = |iReiθdθ| = R dθ (∵ |i| =1 =|eiθ|)

If z = -R, then Reiθ = -R ⇒ eiθ = -1⇒ θ = π

If z = R, then Reiθ = R ⇒ eiθ = 1⇒ θ = 0

Hence (b) ⇒ ∫ f ( z ) dz ≤ ∫
| |
π π
Rdθ R Rπ
=
( R2−1 ) ( R2−4 ) ( R −1 ) ( R −4 )
2 2 ∫ dθ =
( R −1 ) ( R2−4 )
2
CR 0 0

As R → ∞, → 0 ⇒ ∫ f ( z ) dz → 0
Rπ
( R −1 ) ( R2−4 )
2
CR

Now as R→ ∞, (a) ⇒ ∫ f ( z ) dz =
∞ ∞

∫ f ( x ) dx + 0 = ∫ f ( x ) dx
C −∞ −∞

1
Where f(x) =
( x +1 ) ( x 2 +4 )
2

∞ ∞
1
Hence ∫ dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk]
−∞ ( x 2+ 1 )( x2 + 4 ) −∞ C

−i i −i π
= 2πi{Res[f,i] + Res[f,2i]} = 2πi{ + }=2πi( ¿=
6 12 12 6

Example II.2
∞
dx
Using the residue of calculus compute ∫ 3
−∞ (x +4)
2

Solution

1
Consider the integral ∫ f ( z ) dz where f(z) = 3
C ( z + 4)
2

To find the poles of f(z):

Poles of f(z) = zeros of (z2+4)3, these zeros are given by (z2+4)3 = 0

50
⇒ z2 +4 = 0 ⇒ z2 = -4 ⇒ z2 = (2i)2

⇒ z = ±2i ⇒ z = 2i or z = -2i

Hence the poles of f(z) are z = 2i , z = -2i , both of order 3

The only pole lie inside the upper half of the semi-circle is z = 2i of order 3

There are no poles on the real axis

By Cauchy’s residue theorem, ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] where zk are the singularities(poles) of

C
f(z).
R

Now ∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( z ) dz ( on the real line –R to R (LR)+ the upper half of the semi
C −R CR

circle CR)

To find the residue of f(z):

2 2
1 d 1 d 3 1
z−2 i ) f ( z ) = lim ¿ z →2 i 2 ( z−2 i ) 2
3
2(
Res[f,2i] = lim ¿ z →2 i 3
( 2) ! dz 2 dz (z +4)

1 d
2
3 1 1 d2 3 1
= lim ¿ z →2 i 2 ( z−2 i ) ¿ = lim ¿ z →2 i 2 ( z−2 i )
2 dz ¿¿¿ 2 dz 3
( z−2 i ) ( z +2 i )
3

( ) ( )
2 2
1 d 1 1
lim ¿ z →2 i
d d 1 1 d −3 ( z +2i )
= lim ¿ z →2 i 3 = 3 = lim ¿ z →2 i
2 2
d z ( z +2 i ) 2 d z d z ( z+2 i ) 2 d z ( z+ 2i )
6

( ) ( ) ( )
3
1 d −3 1 3 ( 4 )( z +2 i ) 12 1
= 2 lim ¿ z →2 i 4 = lim ¿ z →2 i = 2 lim ¿ z →2 i 5
d z ( z +2 i ) 2 ( z+ 2i )
8
( z+ 2i )

51
 ( )
1 6 6 3
=6 5 = 5 = =
( 2 i+2 i ) (4 i ) 1024 i 512i

Consider
|∫ | |∫
CR
f ( z ) dz =
CR ( z +4 )
2
1
3
|
dz ≤ ∫¿
CR
dz
( z +4 )
2 3
∨¿≤ ∫ ¿ dz∨
CR
2
¿
3
¿ ( z + 4 ) ∨¿
¿¿

≤ ∫ ¿ dz∨ ¿ ¿¿ ¿ ¿ ---------(b)
¿
CR

Let z = Reiθ, dz = iReiθdθ

⇒ |dz| = |iReiθdθ| = R dθ (∵ |i| =1 =|eiθ|)

If z = -R, then Reiθ = -R ⇒ eiθ = -1⇒ θ = π

If z = R, then Reiθ = R ⇒ eiθ = 1⇒ θ = 0

Hence (b) ⇒ ∫ f ( z ) dz ≤ ∫
| |
π
Rdθ R π
Rπ
0 ( R2−4 )
3 = ∫ dθ = ( R2−4 )3
( R2−4 ) 0
3
CR

As R → ∞, → 0 ⇒ ∫ f ( z ) dz → 0
Rπ
3
( R −4 )
2
CR

Now as R→ ∞, (a) ⇒ ∫ f ( z ) dz =
∞ ∞

∫ f ( x ) dx + 0 = ∫ f ( x ) dx
C −∞ −∞

1
Where f(x) = 3
( x + 4)
2

∞ ∞
1
Hence ∫ 3
dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,z ] k
−∞ ( x 2+ 4 ) −∞ C

3 3π
= 2πi{Res[f,2i]} = 2πi{ }=
i512 256

Example II.3
∞
(x ¿¿ 2−x +2)dx 5π
Prove that ∫ ¿ =
12
−∞ ( x +10 x +9 )
4 2

52
Solution

( z ¿¿ 2−z +2)
Consider the integral ∫ f ( z ) dz where f(z) = ¿
C ( z 4 +10 z 2 +9 )
To find the poles of f(z):

Poles of f(z) = zeros of z4+10z2+9 , these zeros are given by z4+10z2+9 =0

⇒ z4+z2+9z2+9=0 ⇒ (z2+1)(z2+9) = 0

⇒ z2 = -1 = i2 or z2 = -9 = (3i)2

⇒ z = ±i or z = ±3i

Hence the poles of f(z) are i,-i,3i,-3i (all are simple poles)

The poles that are lying the upper half of the semi-circle are i,3i

There are no poles on the real axis

By Cauchy’s residue theorem, ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] where zk are the singularities(poles) of

C
f(z).
R

Now ∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( z ) dz ( on the real line –R to R (L )+ the upper half of the

R
C −R CR

semi-circle CR)

To find the residue of f(z):

(z¿ ¿ 2−z +2)

Res[f,i] = lim ¿ z → i(z −i)f (z ) = lim ¿ z → i(z −i) ¿ =
( z 4 +10 z 2+ 9 )
(z¿ ¿ 2−z +2)
lim ¿ z → i(z −i) ¿
( z−i ¿ (z+ i)(z +3 i)(z−3 i)

53
 (z ¿¿ 2−z +2) (i¿¿ 2−i+2) 1−i 1−i
= lim ¿ z → i ¿ = ¿= =
(z+ i)(z +3 i)(z−3 i) (i+i)(i+3 i)(i−3 i) (2 i)( 4 i)(−2 i) 1 6 i

(z ¿¿ 2−z+2)
Res[f,3i] = lim ¿ z → 3i( z−3i)f (z ) = lim ¿ z → 3i( z−3i) ¿
( z 4 + 10 z 2 +9 )
(z ¿¿ 2− z+2) (z¿ ¿2−z+ 2)
= lim ¿ z → 3i(z−3i) ¿ = lim ¿ z → 3i ¿ =
( z−i ¿(z +i)(z+ 3i)(z−3 i) ( z −i ¿ (z +i)(z +3 i)
((3 i)¿¿ 2−(3 i)+2)
¿
( 3 i−i ¿ (3 i+ i)(3 i+ 3i)
−7−3 i −(7+ 3i) 7+3 i
= = =
( 2i¿(4 i)(6 i) −48 i 48i

f ( z ) dz = ¿≤ ∨¿ ¿≤
Consider
|∫ |
CR
∫¿
CR
( z¿¿ 2−z+ 2)dz
( z 4 +10 z 2+ 9 )
¿
∫ ¿(z ¿¿ 2−z +2)∨¿ dz∨ ¿¿¿
CR ¿ ( z +10 z 2+ 9 ) ∨¿
4

≤ ∫ ¿(z ¿¿ 2−z +2)∨¿ dz∨ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ≤ ∫ (¿ z∨¿ −¿ z∨+2)∨dz∨ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿

¿ 2 ¿
---------(b)
CR CR

Let z = Reiθ, dz = iReiθdθ

⇒ |dz| = |iReiθdθ| = R dθ (∵ |i| =1 =|eiθ|)

If z = -R, then Reiθ = -R ⇒ eiθ = -1⇒ θ = π

If z = R, then Reiθ = R ⇒ eiθ = 1⇒ θ = 0

Hence (b) ⇒ f ( z ) dz ≤
|∫ |
π 2 π π
R dθ Rdθ 2dθ
∫ - ∫ +∫ 2 =
CR 0 ( R −1 ) (R 2−9)
2
0 ( R −1 ) (R −9) 0 ( R −1 ) (R 2−9)
2 2

2 π π π
R
∫ dθ - 2 R 2 ∫ dθ + 2 2 2 ∫ dθ
( R −1 ) (R −9) 0
2 2
( R −1 ) (R −9) 0 ( R −1 ) (R −9) 0
2
R π Rπ 2π
= - 2 + 2
( R −1 ) (R −9) ( R −1 ) (R −9) ( R −1 ) (R 2−9)
2 2 2

54
As R → ∞, 2 →0 , 2 → 0 and →0 ⇒ ∫ f ( z ) dz
2
R π Rπ 2π
( R −1 ) (R −9)
2
( R −1 ) (R −9)
2
( R −1 ) (R 2−9)
2

→0
CR

Now as R→ ∞, (a) ⇒ ∫ f ( z ) dz =
∞ ∞

∫ f ( x ) dx + 0 = ∫ f ( x ) dx
C −∞ −∞

( x ¿¿ 2−x +2)
Where f(x) = ¿
( x 4 +10 x 2 +9 )
∞ ∞
(x ¿¿ 2−x +2)
Hence ∫ dx ¿ = ∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,z ]
k
−∞ ( x 4 + 10 x 2 +9 ) −∞ C

= 2πi {1−i +
7+3 i
1 6 i 48 i } = 2 πi {
3−3i+7+ 3i
48i } =
10 π
24
=
5π
12

Example II.4
∞
dx
Evaluate ∫ 44
0 x +a

Solution
∞

Let us take ∫ x 4dx

+a
4
−∞

1
Consider the integral ∫ f ( z ) dz where f(z) = 4 4
C z +a

To find the poles of f(z):

Poles of f(z) = zeros of z4+a4 , these zeros are given by z4+a4 =0

⇒ z4 = - a4 ⇒ z4 = a4eiπ (∵ eiπ = -1)

⇒ z4 = a4eiπ ei2nπ (∵ ei2nπ = 1)

⇒ z4 = a4eiπ+2nπi = a4ei(2n+1)π

⇒ z = a ei(2n+1)π/4 , n = 0,1,2,3

55
If n=0, z = a eiπ/4 = a( cos +i sin ¿ = a(
π π 1 i
+ ¿ = α (say)
4 4 √2 √2

If n = 1, z = a ei3π/4 = a( cos
3π 3π −1 i
+i sin ¿ = a( + ¿ = β (say)
4 4 √2 √2

If n = 2, z = a ei5π/4 = a( cos
5π 5π 1 i
+i sin ¿ = -a( + ¿ = γ(say)
4 4 √2 √2

If n=3, z = a ei7π/4 = a( cos ¿ = a(

7π 7π 1 i
+i sin − ¿ = δ(say)
4 4 √2 √ 2

The poles lying inside the upper hemi circle are aeiπ/4 =α , aei3π/4 = β (both are simple
poles)

There are no poles on the real axis

By Cauchy’s residue theorem, ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] where zk are the singularities(poles) of

C
f(z).
R
Now ∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( z ) dz ( on the real line –R to R (LR)+ the upper half of the
C −R CR

semi-circle CR)

To find the residue of f(z):

Res[f,α] =lim ¿ z → α (z −α ) f ( z ) = lim ¿ z → α (z −α )

1
4 4
z +a

It is difficult to solve while factoring 4 and taking limit, so we will use

1

L’Hospital rule (that is differentiating Nr and Dr separately w.r.to z)

4
z +a

= lim ¿ z → α = 3 =
1 1 α
3 4
4z 4α 4α
56
Now α = a eiπ/4 ⇒ α4 = a4eiπ ⇒ α4 =- a4 (∵eiπ = -1)

∴ Res [f,α] = 4 = -
ae 4 = - e 4
iπ iπ
−α
4a 4a
4
4a
3

Now β = a ei3π/4 ⇒ β4 = a4ei3π ⇒ β4 =- a4 (∵ei3π = -1)

Similarly , Res [f,β] = = = - ae =- e

3iπ 3iπ
1 β 4 4
3 4
4β 4β 4a
4
4a
3

dz ≤ ∨¿≤ ∫ ¿ dz∨ 4 ¿ 4
Consider
|∫ | |∫
CR
f ( z ) dz =
CR
4
1
z +a
4
| ∫ ¿ z 4dz
CR +a
4
¿ z + a ∨¿
CR
¿¿

≤ ∫ ¿ dz∨
¿ ¿¿
4 4 ---------(b)
CR ¿ z ∨¿ −a

Let z = Reiθ, dz = iReiθdθ

⇒ |dz| = |iReiθdθ| = R dθ (∵ |i| =1 =|eiθ|)

If z = -R, then Reiθ = -R ⇒ eiθ = -1⇒ θ = π

If z = R, then Reiθ = R ⇒ eiθ = 1⇒ θ = 0

Hence (b) ⇒ f ( z ) dz ≤ ≤ ≤
|∫ |
π π
Rdθ R Rπ
∫ ∫ dθ
( R −a 4 )
4
CR 0 ( R4 −a4 ) ( R4 −a 4 ) 0

As R → ∞, → 0 ⇒ ∫ f ( z ) dz → 0
Rπ
( R −a 4 )
4
CR

Now as R→ ∞, (a) ⇒ ∫ f ( z ) dz =
∞ ∞

∫ f ( x ) dx + 0 = ∫ f ( x ) dx
C −∞ −∞

1
Where f(x) =
( x 4 +a 4 )
∞ ∞
1
Hence ∫ dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk]
−∞ ( x +a 4 )
4
−∞ C

57
= 2πi { - e - e } =- 3 { e 4 +¿ e 4 } = - 3 {(
iπ i3π
4 2 πi
4 iπ i3π πi 1 i −1 i
+ ¿ +( + ¿ }
4a
3
4a
3 4 a 2 a √ 2 √ 2 √ 2 √2

3 =
2π π
= 3
2√2a √2a
∞ ∞
1 1
We know that ∫ dx = 2∫ 4 4 dx
−∞ ( x +a )
4 4
0 (x +a )

⇒∫
∞ ∞
1 1 1 π
dx = ∫ 4 4 dx = 3
0 (x +a )
4 4
2 −∞ ( x + a ) 2√2a

Type III.
∞ ∞

Evaluation of the integral ∫ f ( x ) sin mx dx , ∫ f ( x ) cos mx dx where m > 0 and f(x) is a real
−∞ −∞

rational function of the real variable x.

, then degree of h(x) exceeds that of g(x) and g(x) ≠ 0.

g (x)
If the rational function f(x) =
h(x )

where q ≥ p+1.
Let g(x) and h(x) be polynomials with real coefficients, of degree p and q, respectively,

If h(x) ≠0 for all real x, and m is a real number satisfying m > 0, then
∞ R ∞ R
g(x ) g (x) g(x ) g (x)
∫ h (x)
cos mx dx= lim ∫
R → ∞ − R h(x )
cos mx dx and ∫ h (x)
sinmx dx= lim ∫
R → ∞ − R h(x )
sin mx dx
−∞ −∞

We know that Euler’s formula e imx = cos mx + i sin mx , where cos mx = Re[e imx ]

and sin mx = Im[e imx] , m is a positive real.

∞ ∞ ∞
g(x ) imx g(x ) g(x )
We have ∫ h (x)
e dx = ∫ h (x)
cos mx dx + i ∫ sinmx dx
−∞ −∞ −∞ h (x)

58
 g (z) imz
Here we are going to use the complex function f(z) = e to evaluate the given integral.
h(z )
∞
g(x )
∫ h (x) cos mx dx = Re {2πi ∑ Res[f,zk]} and
−∞

∞
g(x )
∫ h (x) sinmx dx = Im {2πi ∑ Res[f,zk]}, where z1,z2,…..zk are the poles lies on the upper half
−∞
of the semi-circle.

Lemma III.1.(Jordan’s Lemma)

If f (z) → 0 uniformly as z →∞, then Rlim ∫e imz

f ( z ) dz = 0, (m > 0) where C denotes the semi-
→∞ 1
C1
circle |z| = R, I(z) > 0.

Proof.

Given f (z) → 0 uniformly as z →∞

⇒ given 𝜀 > 0 , ∃ a R0 > 0 such that | f(z) – 0| < 𝜀 , ∀ R ≥ R0

That is | f(z)| < 𝜀 , ∀ R ≥ R0 --------(a)

Let |z| = R which is the semi-circle

Put z = Reiθ ⇒ dz = R eiθ i dθ ⇒ dz = izdθ, 0≤ θ ≤ π

iθ
Now e
imz
= eℑ e = e imR(cosθ+isinθ) = e imRcosθ−mRsinθ = e imRcosθ e−mRsinθ

⇒ ¿ e imR(cosθ+isinθ) | = ¿ e imRcosθ∨¿ ¿ e−mRsinθ∨¿ = e−mRsinθ ( ∵¿ e imRcosθ∨¿ = 1) ----- (b)

59
 is monotonically decreases as θ increases from 0 to .
sinθ π
We know that
θ 2

π
If 0 ≤ θ ≤ , then ≤
sin ⁡( )
π 2 sinθ
2 π θ
2

⇒ π ≤ ⇒ ≤ ⇒ sinθ ≥
1
sinθ 2 sinθ 2θ
θ π θ π
2

⇒- ≥ - sinθ
2θ
π

⇒ - ≥ - mRsinθ
mR 2 θ
π

⇒ e ≥ e−mRsinθ
−mR 2 θ
π ------ ( c)

From (a), (b) and (c),

f ( z ) dz ≤
|∫ e | ∫ ¿ eimz f ( z ) dz ∨¿
imz

C1 C1

≤∫ ¿ e ∨|f ( z )|∨dz∨¿
imz

C1

≤ ε∫e ( ∵ |dz| = |izdθ| = |z|dθ = Rdθ)

π
−mRsinθ
R dθ
0

≤ 2𝜀R
π
2
−mRsinθ
∫e dθ
0

≤ 2𝜀R ∫ e
π
2 −mR 2 θ
π
dθ
0

[ ]
−mR 2 θ

≤ 2𝜀R −2 mR 2
π π
e
0
π

60
 ≤ 2𝜀R{(e ¿¿−mR ) ¿ - (e0) }
π π
−2 mR −2 mR

≤ {¿ ¿
2 εRπ
2 mR

≤ {−e−mR +1 } ≤ (∵{−e−mR +1 }<1¿

επ επ
m m

|
∫ e imz f ( z ) dz | ≤ = 𝜀’ (say)
επ
C1 m

As lim R → ∞ , | |
∫ e imz f ( z ) dz−0
C1
≤ 𝜀’

⇒ ∫ eimz f ( z ) dz → 0 as R → ∞
C1

Example III.1.

Use the method of contour integration to prove that

∞ −ma
∫ cosmx dx = π e and
0
2
(x +a )
2
2a
∞
sinmx
∫ dx =0
0 ( x 2 + a2 )
Solution.
imz
e
Consider the integral ∫ f ( z ) dz where f(z) = 2 2
C (z +a )
To find the poles of f(z):

Poles of f(z) = zeros of z2+a2 , these zeros are given by z2+a2 =0

⇒ z2 = - a2 ⇒ z = (ai)2 ⇒ z = ± ai ⇒ z = ai or z = -ai

Poles of f (z) are ai, -ai (both are simple poles)

There are no poles on the real axis

61
The only pole lie inside the upper half of semi-circle is z = ai

By Cauchy’s residue theorem, ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] where zk are the singularities(poles) of

C
f(z).
R
Now ∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( z ) dz ( on the real line –R to R (LR)+ the upper half of the
C −R CR

semi-circle CR).

To find the residue of f(z):

imz
e
Res[f,ai] = lim ¿ z → ai (z−ai )f (z ) = lim ¿ z → ai(z−ai) =
( z 2 + a2 )
imz
e
lim ¿ z → ai (z−ai )
( z−ai ¿ (z+ ai)
imz imai −ma
e e e
= lim ¿ z → ai = =
(z+ ai) (ai+ai) 2 ai

1
Now lim ¿ z → ∞ =0
( z + a2 )
2

∴ by Jordan’s lemma , lim ¿ R → ∞ ∫

imz
e
dz = 0
CR ( z +a 2 )
2

As R → ∞ ,
∞ imz ∞ imx
e e
∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫ f ( x ) dx + lim ¿ R → ∞∫ ( z2 +a 2 ) dz = ∫ ( x 2+ a2 ) dx +0
C −∞ C R −∞

∞ imx
e
= ∫ dx
−∞ ( x 2 + a2 )

62
 ∞ imx −ma −ma
e e πe
Hence ∫ dx = ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,z k ] = 2πi =
−∞ ( x 2 + a2 ) C 2 ai a

⇒
∞ −ma
∫ cosmx2+isinmx dx =
πe
−∞ (x +a )
2
a

⇒
∞ ∞ −ma
cosmx sinmx πe
∫ dx + ∫ 2 2
i dx =
−∞ ( x 2 + a2 ) −∞ ( x + a ) a

Equating real and imaginary parts,

∞ −ma ∞
cosmx πe sinmx
∫ dx = and ∫ dx = 0
−∞ ( x 2 + a2 ) a −∞ ( x 2 + a2 )

⇒ ∫ 2 2 dx = ∫ 2 2 dx =
∞ ∞
−ma
cosmx 1 cosmx πe
0 (x +a ) 2 −∞ ( x +a ) 2a

Example III.2.

Apply the calculus of residue to evaluate dx , (a > b > 0)

∞
cosx
∫
−∞ ( x + a2 ) (x 2 +b 2)
2

Solution.
iz
e
Consider the integral ∫ f ( z ) dz where f(z) =
C ( z + a ) (z 2 +b2 )
2 2

To find the poles of f(z):

Poles of f(z) = zeros of (z2+a2) (z2+b2), these zeros are given by (z2+a2) (z2+b2) =0

⇒ z2 = - a2 or z2 = - b2 ⇒ z = (ai)2 or z = (bi)2 ⇒ z = ± ai or z = ± bi

⇒ z = ai or z = -ai or z =bi or z = -bi

Poles of f (z) are ai,-ai, bi,-bi (all are simple poles)

There are no poles on the real axis.

63
The poles lie inside the upper half of semi-circle are z = ai , z = bi

By Cauchy’s residue theorem, ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] where zk are the singularities(poles) of

C
f(z).
R

Now ∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( z ) dz ( on the real line –R to R (LR)+ the upper half of the

C −R CR

semi-circle CR).

To find the residue of f(z):

iz
e
Res[f,ai] = lim ¿ z → ai (z−ai )f (z ) = lim ¿ z → ai (z−ai )
( z + a ) ( z 2 +b 2)
2 2

e iz e iz
=lim ¿ z → ai(z−ai) = lim ¿ z → ai
( z+ ai ) (z−ai)(z +bi)(z −bi) ( z+ ai ) (z +bi)(z −bi)

iai −a −a
e −e e
= = =
( ai+ai ) (ai+bi)(ai−bi) 2 ai( a −b ) 2 ai( b2−a2)
2 2

Similarly,
−b
e
Res[f,bi] = lim ¿ z → bi(z−bi) f (z) = 2 2
2bi( a −b )

1
Now lim ¿ z → ∞ =0
( z + a ) (z 2 +b2 )
2 2

By Jordan’s Lemma,
iz
e
lim ¿ R → ∞ ∫ 2 2 2 2 dz = 0
C ( z +a ) (z + b )
R

As R → ∞ ,

64
 ∞ iz ∞ ix
e e
∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫ f ( x ) dx + lim ¿ R → ∞∫ ( z2 +a 2 )( z 2 +b 2 ) dz = ∫ ( x 2+ a2 ) ( x 2+ b2 ) dx +0
C −∞ CR −∞

∞ ix
e
= ∫ dx
−∞ ( x 2 + a2 ) ( x 2 + b2 )
∞ ix −b
e e
Hence ∫ dx = ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] = 2πi ¿ + 2 2
¿
−∞ ( x 2 + a2 ) ( x 2 + b2 ) C 2bi( a −b )
−a −b −a −b
2 πi(b e −a e ) π (b e −a e )
= =
2 abi (b2−a2) ab(b 2−a2 )

⇒
∞ −a −b
cosx+isinx π (b e −a e )
∫ dx =
ab(b 2−a2 )
−∞ (x +a )(x +b )
2 2 2 2

Equating real and imaginary parts,

∞ −a −b ∞
cosx π (b e −a e ) sinx
∫ dx = 2 2 and ∫ 2 2 2 2 dx = 0
−∞ (x +a )(x +b )
2 2 2 2
ab(b −a ) −∞ ( x + a ) ( x + b )

Example III.3
∞ ∞
xcosx xsinx
Evaluate ∫ 2
x +4
dx and ∫ 2 dx
−∞ −∞ x +4

Solution
iz
ze
Consider the integral ∫ f ( z ) dz where f(z) = 2
C z +4

To find the poles of f(z):

Poles of f(z) = zeros of (z2+4), these zeros are given by (z2+ 4) =0

⇒ z2 = - 22 ⇒ z = (2i)2 ⇒ z = ± 2i

⇒ z = 2i or z = -2i

Poles of f (z) are 2i,-2i (both are simple poles)

There are no poles on the real axis.

65
The only pole lie inside the upper half of semi-circle is z = 2i

By Cauchy’s residue theorem, ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] where zk are the singularities(poles) of

C
f(z).
R

Now ∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( z ) dz ( on the real line –R to R (LR)+ the upper half of the

C −R CR

semi-circle CR).

To find the residue of f(z):

iz
ze
Res[f,2i] = lim ¿ z → 2i( z−2 i) f (z) = lim ¿ z → 2i( z−2 i) 2 =
z +4
iz
ze
lim ¿ z → 2i( z−2 i)
(z +2 i)( z−2 i)
iz −2 i 2i
ze 2 ie e
=lim ¿ z → 2i = =
(z+ 2i) (2 i+ 2i) 2

z
Now lim ¿ z → ∞ =0
( z + 4)
2

By Jordan’s Lemma,
iz
ze
lim ¿ R → ∞ ∫ dz = 0
CR ( z2 + 4 )
As R → ∞ ,
∞ iz ∞ ix
ze xe
∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫ f ( x ) dx + lim ¿ R → ∞∫ ( z + 4)
dz = ∫ 2 dx +0
−∞ ( x + 4 )
2
C −∞ CR

dx = ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] = 2πi ¿ ¿ = e-2πi

∞ ix
xe
Hence ∫
−∞ (x +4)
2
C

66
 ⇒ = e-2πi
∞

∫ xcosx+ixsinx dx
−∞
2
( x +4 )
Equating real and imaginary parts,

dx = e-2π
∞ ∞
xcosx sinx
∫ dx = 0and ∫ 2
−∞ (x +4)
2
−∞ ( x + 4 )

Example III.4
∞
cosmx
Evaluate ∫ 4 2
dx (m > 0)
0 x + x +1

Solution
imz
e
Consider the integral ∫ f ( z ) dz where f(z) = 4 2
C z + z +1

To find the poles of f(z):

Poles of f(z) = zeros of (z4+z2+1), these zeros are given by z4+z2+1=0

z4+- z2 + z2+ z2 +1=0 ⇒z2 (z2 +1) + z2 +1 = z2

⇒ (z2 +1)2 - z2 = 0 ⇒ (z2 +1-z)( z2 +1+z) = 0

⇒ z2 +1-z = 0 or z2 +1+z = 0

⇒z=
1+ √ 3 i 1−√ 3i −1+ √ 3 i −1−√ 3i
,or z = , or z = ,or z =
2 2 2 2

Poles of f (z) are , (all are simple poles)

1+ √ 3 i 1−√ 3i −1+ √ 3 i −1−√ 3i
, ,
2 2 2 2

There are no poles on the real axis.

67
 = α (say) and z =
1+ √ 3 i −1+ √ 3 i
The poles lie inside the upper half of semi-circle is z =
2 2
= β(say)

By Cauchy’s residue theorem, ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] where zk are the singularities(poles) of

C
f(z).
R

Now ∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( z ) dz (on the real line –R to R (LR) + the upper half of the
C −R CR

semi-circle CR).

To find the residue of f(z):

imz
e
Res[f,α] = lim ¿ z → α (z −α ) f ( z ) = lim ¿ z → α (z −α ) =
(z−α )(z −β)(z +α )(z + β )
imz
e
lim ¿ z → α
(z−β )(z+ α )(z + β)
ℑ (1+ √ 3 i )
2
e
imα
e e
imα e imα
= = = =
(α −β )(α + α )(α + β) (α −β )(2 α )(α + β) (α −β )(2 α )(α + β) [ 1+ √ 3 i −−1+ √ 3 i ]¿ ¿
2 2
ℑ (1 + √ 3i )
2 ℑ (1+ √3 i ) ℑ −√ 3 m
e 2 2
= e e
2
= 2 ( 1+ 3 i ) = e
(
2
√ )
2 √3 i
2 ( )
( √ 3 i−3) ( √ 3 i−3)

Similary,
ℑ (−1+ √ 3 i ) ℑ (−1 + √ 3 i )
2
e 2 e
Res[f,β] = ( = (−1 ) ( 2 (−1+ √ 3 i ) )
−1+ √ 3 i ) 1+ √ 3 i 2 (−1+ √ 3 i ) ( 1+ √ 3 i ) (−1+ √ 3 i )
[ − ]( )[ + ] ( 2 √ 3i )
2 2 2 2 2 2

ℑ (−1 + √ 3i )
ℑ (−1+ √ 3 i ) −ℑ −√ 3 m
e 2 2 2
=e e
2
e
2 (−1+ √ 3 i ) 2 √ 3 i =
(−1)(
2
)
2 (
( √3 i+3) ) ( √ 3 i+3)

68
 1
Now lim ¿ z → ∞ =0
( z + z 2+ 1 )
4

By Jordan’s Lemma,
imz
e
lim ¿ R → ∞ ∫ dz = 0
CR ( z + z 2+1 )
4

As R → ∞ ,
∞ imz ∞ imx
e e
∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫ f ( x ) dx + lim ¿ R → ∞∫ ( z 4 + z 2+1 ) dz = ∫ ( x 4 + x 2 +1 ) dx +0
C −∞ C −∞ R

[ ]
∞ ℑ − √3 m −ℑ −√ 3 m
imx
e
∫
2 2
Hence dx = ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] = 2πi e e e2 e 2
+
−∞ ( x + x +1 )
4 2
C ( √3 i−3 ) ( √3 i+3 )

[ {( 3+√ 3 i) e }
]
−√ 3 m ℑ −ℑ

= 2πi e
2 2
+ ( √ 3i−3 ) e 2

( √ 3i−3 )( √3 i+3 )

=
2 πi [
e
− √3 m
2 { ( ( ) ( )) ( √
( 3+ √ 3 i ) cos
m
2
+ isin
m
2
+ 3 i−3 ) cos

(−3−9 )
m
2
−isin
m
2 ( ( ) ( ))}
]
=
[
2 πi
e
−12
− √3 m
2 { ( ( ) ( )) ( √
( 3+ √ 3 i ) cos
m
2
+ isin
m
2
+ 3 i−3 ) cos
m
2
−isin
m
2 ( () ( ))}
]
[ {√ ( ) ( )}
]
m m
− √ 3m 2 3 i cos +6 isin
= e 2 2 2
2 πi
−12
−√ 3 m −√3 m
= −4 πe 2
¿ ¿ = πe 2
¿¿

⇒
∞
+isinmx
∫ cosmx
−√3 m
dx = πe 2
¿¿
−∞
4 2
( x + x +1 )
Equating real and imaginary parts,
69
∞
cosmx −√3 m
∫ dx = πe 2 ¿ ¿
−∞ ( x + x +1 )
4 2

∞
sinmx
and ∫ dx = 0
−∞ ( x + x 2 +1 )
4

∞ ∞
cosmx 1
∫ cosmx dx
−√3 m
Hence ∫ 4 2 dx = = πe 2
¿¿
0 ( x + x +1 ) 2 −∞ ( x 4 + x 2 +1 )

Example III.5
∞
cosmx π
Prove that ∫ 2 2
dx= 3
(1+ ma) e−ma (m > 0, a > 0)
0 (a + x )
2
2a

Solution
imz
e
Consider the integral ∫ f ( z ) dz where f(z) = 2
C ( a2 + z 2 )
To find the poles of f(z):

Poles of f(z) = zeros of (z2+a2 )2, these zeros are given by (z2+a2 )2=0

⇒ z2 = - a2 ⇒ z = (ai)2 ⇒ z = ± ai ⇒ z = ai (twice)or z = -ai(twice)

Poles of f (z) are ai, -ai (both are order 2)

There are no poles on the real axis

The only pole lie inside the upper half of semi-circle is z = ai (order 2)

70
By Cauchy’s residue theorem, ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] where zk are the singularities(poles) of
C
f(z).
R

Now ∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( z ) dz ( on the real line –R to R (L )+ the upper half of the R

C −R CR

semi-circle CR).

To find the residue of f(z):

imz
d d 2 e
Res[f,ai] = lim ¿ z → ai ( z−ai )2 f (z) = lim ¿ z → ai ( z−ai ) 2 2 2
dz dz (a + z )
imz imz
d ( 2 e d e
= lim ¿ z → ai z−ai ) 2 2=
lim ¿ z → ai =
dz ( z+ ai ) ( z−ai ) dz ( z+ ai )2

lim ¿ z → ai
[ ( z +ai )2 ℑ e imz−eimz 2 ( z +ai ) ]
( z +ai )4

[ ( z +ai ) ℑ e imz −eimz 2 ] [ ( ai+ai ) ℑ e imai−eimai 2 ] [−2 ame−ma−2 e−ma ]

= lim ¿ z → ai = = =
( z +ai )3 ( ai+ ai )3 ( 2 ai )3
−ma
−2 e ( ma+1 )
−8 a3 i
−ma
e ( ma+1 )
=
4 a3 i

1
Now lim ¿ z → ∞ 2 =0
( z + a2 )
2

∴ by Jordan’s lemma , lim ¿ R → ∞ ∫

imz
e
2
dz = 0
CR ( z2 +a 2 )

As R → ∞ ,
∞ imz ∞ imx
e e
∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫ f ( x ) dx + lim ¿ R → ∞∫C ( 2
dz = ∫ 2
dx +0
C −∞ R z2 +a 2 ) −∞ ( x 2 + a2 )
∞ imx
e
= ∫ 2
dx
−∞ ( x 2 + a2 )
71
 ∞ imx
e −ma
e ( ma+1 ) π e−ma (ma+1)
Hence ∫ 2 2
dx = ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] = 2πi =
−∞ ( x 2+ a ) C 4 a3 i 2 a3

⇒
∞ −ma
∫ cosmx2 +isinmx
2 2
dx =
πe (ma+1)
−∞ ( x +a ) 2 a3

⇒
∞ ∞ −ma
cosmx sinmx πe (ma+1)
∫ 2 2
dx + i ∫
2 2
dx =
−∞ ( x 2+ a ) −∞ ( x 2+ a ) 2 a3

Equating real and imaginary parts,

∞ −ma ∞
cosmx πe (ma+1) sinmx
∫ 2 2
dx = and ∫ 2
dx = 0
−∞ (x +a )
2
2 a3 −∞ ( x 2 + a2 )

⇒ ∫ 2 2 2 dx = ∫ 2 2 2 dx =
∞ −ma ∞
cosmx
1 cosmx π e (ma+1)
0 (x +a ) 2 −∞ ( x +a ) 4 a3

Note:III.1

z = reiθ ⇒ r = |z| and θ= arg (z)

logz = Log r+i arg(z)

If z = x+iy , r = (x2+y2)1/2 , θ= arg (z) = arg (x+iy) = tan-1(y/x)

log(x+i) = log (x2+1)1/2 + iarg(x) = log (x2+1)1/2 +0 = log (x2+1)1/2

Example III.6
∞
log ⁡(1+ x 2)
Prove that ∫ 2
dx =πlog 2
0 1+ x

Solution

log ⁡( z +i)
Consider the integral ∫ f ( z ) dz where f(z) =
C z 2 +1

To find the poles of f(z):

Poles of f(z) = zeros of (z2+1 ), these zeros are given by (z2+1 )=0

72
⇒ z2 = - 1 ⇒ z = (i)2 ⇒ z = ± i ⇒ z = i or z = -i

Poles of f (z) are i, -i (both are simple poles)

There are no poles on the real axis.

The only pole lie inside the upper half of semi-circle is z = i

By Cauchy’s residue theorem, ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] where zk are the singularities(poles) of

C
f(z).
R

Now ∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( z ) dz ( on the real line –R to R (LR)+ the upper half of the

C −R CR

semi-circle CR).

To find the residue of f(z):

log ⁡( z +i) log ⁡(z +i)

Res[f,i] = lim ¿ z → i(z −i)f (z ) =lim ¿ z → i(z −i) 2 = lim ¿ z → i(z −i)
z +1 (z−i)(z +i)
1
log ⁡(z +i) log ⁡(i+i) log ⁡2 i log ( 22 ) 2 + i tan−1 ( 2 ) −1
log 2+itan (∞ )
= lim ¿ z → i = = = 0 =
(z +i) (i+i) 2i 2i
2i
(using Note III.1)

iπ
log 2+
= 2
2i

log ( z +i) log (z +i) 1

Now lim ¿ z → ∞ = lim ¿ z → ∞ = lim ¿ z → ∞
2
z +1 (z +i)(z−i) (z −i)
log( z +i)
lim ¿ z → ∞
( z +i)

73
 1
Consider lim ¿ z → ∞ =0
(z −i)

log ⁡(z+i)
Consider lim ¿ z → ∞ it is undetermined, so we have to use L’Hospital’s rule
( z+i)

1
1
z +i = lim ¿ z → ∞ =0
lim ¿ z → ∞ z+ i
1

log ( z +i)
Hence lim ¿ z → ∞ =0
z 2+1

⇒ lim ¿ z → ∞ ∫ = 0 ⇒ lim ¿ R → ∞ ∫
log (z +i) log (z+i)
2 2 =0 (∵ |z| = R)
CR z +1 C z +1 R

As R → ∞ ,
∞ ∞
log ⁡(z +i) log ⁡(x+i)
∫ f ( z ) dz = ∫ f ( x ) dx + lim ¿ R → ∞∫ 2
z +1
dz = ∫ 2
x +1
dx +0
C −∞ CR −∞

1 1 2
∞
log ( x + 1 )
2 2 ∞ log ⁡( x +1)
= dx = 2 (By using the Note III.1)
∫ 2
x +1
∫ dx
−∞ −∞ x 2+ 1
∞ 2 ∞
1 log ⁡(x + 1) log ⁡(x 2+1)
= ∫
2 −∞ 2
x +1
dx = ∫ 2
x +1
dx
0

2∞ iπ
log ⁡(x +1) log 2+
Hence ∫ 2
dx = ∫ f ( z ) dz = 2πi∑ Res[f,zk] = 2πi 2
0 x +1 C 2i

=πlog2 +i
2
π
2

dx = πlog2
∞ 2
log ⁡(x +1)
Equating real part ∫ 2
x +1
0

Case of poles are on the real axis.

Type IV

74
 , then degree of h(z) exceeds that of g(z) and g(z) ≠ 0.
g (z)
If the rational function f(z) =
h(z )

Suppose h(z) has simple zeros on the real axis ( that is simple poles of f(z) on the real axis) , let it
be a1,a2,…ak

and h(z) has zeros inside the upper half of semi-circle ( that is poles of f(z) inside the upper half
of semi-circle), let it be b1,b2,…bs,
∞

then ∫ f ( x ) dx = πi∑ Res[f,ak] + 2πi∑ Res[f,bs] , where k = 1,2,….k and s = 1,2,…s

−∞

Where C1,C2,….Ck are the semi circles and b1,b2,…bs are lie upper half of these semi circles.

Example IV.1.
∞

Evaluate ∫ x 3x−8 dx
−∞

Solution.

z
Consider the integral ∫ f ( z ) dz where f(z) = 3
C z −8

To find the poles of f(z):

Poles of f(z) = zeros of (z3- 8 ), these zeros are given by (z3- 8)=0

⇒ z3 = 8 ⇒ z3 = (2)3 ⇒ z = 2

Since z-2 is a factor of z3- 8 , z3- 8 = (z-2)(z2+2z+4) = 0

⇒ z2+2z+4 = 0 ⇒ z =
−2± √ 4−16 −2± √−4∗3 −2± 2 i √ 3
= = = -1±i√3
2 2 2

Poles of f (z) are 2 , -1+i√3 and -1-i√3 (all are simple poles)

75
Pole lie on the real axis z =2

Pole lie inside the upper half of semi-circle z = -1+i√3

To find the residue of f(z):

z
Res[f,2] = lim ¿ z → 2(z−2)f (z) = lim ¿ z → 2(z−2) 3 =
z −8
z
lim ¿ z → 2(z−2)
(z−2)(z +1−i √ 3)(z +1+i √ 3)

z 2 2
= lim ¿ z → 2 = =
(z +1−i √ 3)( z+1+i √ 3) (2+1−i √ 3)(2+1+ i √ 3) (3−i √ 3)(3+i √ 3)

2 1
= =
(9+ 3) 6

Res[f, -1+i√3] = lim ¿ z →−1+i √ 3 (z−(−1+ i √ 3))f (z )

z
= lim ¿ z →−1+i √ 3 (z+ 1−i √ 3) 3 =
z −8
z
lim ¿ z →−1+i √ 3 (z+ 1−i √ 3)
(z −2)(z +1−i √ 3)(z+1+i √ 3)

z −1+i √ 3
=lim ¿ z →−1+i √ 3 = =
(z−2)(z +1+i √ 3) (−1+i √ 3−2)(−1+ i√ 3+1+i √ 3)
−1+ i√ 3 −1+i √ 3
=
(−3+i √ 3)(2 i √ 3) (−6 i √ 3−6)

−1+i √ 3 (−1+i √3)(1−i √ 3) −(−1+i √ 3)(−1+i √ 3) (1−3−2 i √ 3) (−2−2i √ 3)

= = = = =
−6(i √ 3+ 1) −6(i √3+ 1)(1−i √ 3) −6(1+3) 24 24
−2(1+i √ 3) −(1+i √ 3)
= =
24 12

76
 ∞

We know that ∫ f ( x ) dx = πi∑ Res[f,ak] + 2πi∑ Res[f,bs] where ak ‘s are the poles lie on real
−∞
axis and bs ‘s are the poles lie inside the upper half of semi-circle.
∞
1 −(1+i √ 3)
∫ x 3x−8 dx = πi∑ Res[f,ak] + 2πi∑ Res[f,bs] = πi( ¿ + 2πi(
6 12
¿
−∞

πi πi πi √ 3 i √3 π
= - - =
6 6 6 6

Type V

, then degree of h(z) exceeds that of g(z) and g(z) ≠ 0.

g (z)
If the rational function f(z) =
h(z )

Suppose h(z) has simple zeros on the real axis ( that is simple poles of f(z) on the real axis) , let it
be a1,a2,…ak

and h(z) has zeros inside the upper half of semi-circle ( that is poles of f(z) inside the upper half
of semi-circle), let it be b1,b2,…bs,
imz
e g (z)
Let m be a positive real number and if f(z) = , then
h(z)
∞ ∞
g(x)
∫ cosmx h(x)
dx = Re ∫ cosmx f ( x ) dx
−∞ −∞

[ ] [ ]
s k
= ℜ 2 πi ∑ Res [ f , bi ] + ℜ πi ∑ Res [ f , aj ]
i=1 j=1

And
∞ ∞
g(x)
∫ sinmx h (x )
dx = Img ∫ sinmx f ( x ) dx
−∞ −∞

[ ] [ ]
s k
= Img 2 πi ∑ Res [ f , bi ] + Img πi ∑ Res [ f , aj ]
i=1 j=1

Where b1,b2,…bs, are the poles of f(z) that lie in the upper half of the semi-circles

C1,C2,….Ck .

77
Example V.1.
∞
cosx π −1
Prove that ∫ (x−1)(x 2
+4 )
dx= ( 2 −2 sin 1) and
10 e
−∞

∞
sinx π −1
∫ (x−1)(x 2
+4 )
dx= ( 2 + cos 1)
5 e
−∞

Solution.
iz
e
Consider the integral ∫ f ( z ) dz where f(z) = 2
C ( z−1)(z + 4)

To find the poles of f(z):

Poles of f(z) = zeros of (z-1)(z2+4), these zeros are given by (z-1)(z2+4) =0

⇒ z-1 = 0 or z2+4 =0 ⇒ z = 1 or z2 = -4 = (2i)2

⇒ z = 1 or z = 2i or z = -2i

Poles of f(z) are z = 1 , z = 2i , z = -2i (all are simple poles)

The only pole lie on the real axis is z = 1

The only pole lie inside the semi-circle is z = 2i

To find the residue of f(z):

iz iz
e e
Res[f,1] = lim ¿ z → 1(z−1)f (z) = lim ¿ z → 1(z−1) 2 = lim ¿ z → 1 2
(z−1)(z + 4) (z +4 )
i i
e e
= =
(1+ 4) 5

78
 iz
e
Res[f,2i] = lim ¿ z → 2i( z−2 i) f (z) = lim ¿ z → 2i( z−2 i)
(z−1)( z +2i)(z−2 i)
iz i2i −2
e e e
= lim ¿ z → 2i = =
(z−1)( z+2 i) (2 i−1)(2i+2 i) (2 i−1)(4 i)

We know that
∞
g(x)
∫ cosmx h ( x ) dx =
−∞

[ ] [ ]
∞ s k
ℜ ∫ cosmx f ( x ) dx = ℜ 2 πi ∑ Res [ f , bi ] + ℜ πi ∑ Res [ f , aj ]
−∞ i=1 j=1

∞
g(x)
And ∫ sinmx h ( x ) dx =
−∞

[ ] [ ]
∞ s k
Img ∫ sinmx f ( x ) dx = Img 2 πi ∑ Res [ f , bi ] + Img πi ∑ Res [ f , aj ]
−∞ i=1 j=1

Where ak’s are the poles lie on the real axis and bs’s are the poles lie inside the upper half of the
semi-circle.
∞ ∞ ∞ ix
cosx e
∫ (x−1)(x 2
+4 )
dx = Re ∫ cosx f ( x ) dx = Re ∫ cosx
(x−1)(x 2 +4 )
dx = ℜ [ 2 πi Res [ f , 2i ] ] +
−∞ −∞ −∞

ℜ [ πi Res [ f , 1 ] ]

[ ] [ ]
−2 i
e e
= ℜ 2 πi + ℜ πi
(2 i−1)(4 i) 5

[ ] [ ]
−2
e cos 1+isin 1
=ℜ π + ℜ πi( )
(2 i−1)(2) 5

[
e−2 (2 i+1)
] [ e−2(2i+1)
] [ ] [ ]
−2
πicos1−πsin 1 πsin 1 e (2i+1)
=ℜ π + ℜ =ℜ π - =ℜ π -
2(2i−1)(2 i+ 1) 5 2(−4−1) 5 −10
πsin 1
5

[ ]
−2
πe πsin 1 −π −2
= - = [ e +2 sin1 ]
−10 5 10

79
 ∞ ∞ ∞ ix
sinx e
∫ (x−1)( 2
x +4 )
dx = Img ∫ sinx f ( x ) dx = Img ∫ cosx 2
(x−1)(x +4 )
dx
−∞ −∞ −∞

[ ] [ ]
s k
= Img 2 πi ∑ Res [ f , bi ] + Img πi ∑ Res [ f , aj ]
i=1 j=1

[ ] [ ]
−2
e (2 i+ 1) πicos 1−πsin1
= Img π + Img
2(2 i−1)(2i+1) 5

[ ]
−2 −2 −2
e (2 i+ 1) πcos 1 e 2 πcos 1 e πcos 1 π
= [−e +cos 1 ]
−2
= Img π + = π + =π +
−10 5 −10 5 −5 5 5

Example V.2.
∞
sinmx π
Prove that ∫ dx=
0 x 2

Solution.
imz
e
Consider the integral ∫ f ( z ) dz where f(z) =
C z

To find the poles of f(z):

Poles of f(z) = zeros of (z), this zero is given by z =0

The only pole of f(z) is z = 0 simple and lie on real axis

To find the residue of f(z):

izm
e
Res[f,0] = lim ¿ z → 0(z−0)f ( z) = lim ¿ z → 0 z = e0 = 1
z

80
 ∞
g(x)
We know that ∫ cosmx h ( x ) dx =
−∞

[ ] [ ]
∞ s k
ℜ ∫ cosmx f ( x ) dx = ℜ 2 πi ∑ Res [ f , bi ] + ℜ πi ∑ Res [ f , aj ]
−∞ i=1 j=1

∞
g ( x)
And ∫ Sinmx h ( x ) dx =
−∞

[ ] [ ]
∞ s k
Img ∫ sinmx f ( x ) dx = Img 2 πi ∑ Res [ f , bi ] + Img πi ∑ Res [ f , aj ]
−∞ i=1 j=1

Where ak’s are the poles lie on the real axis and bs’s are the poles lie inside the upper half of the
semi-circle.

∴
∞ ∞ ∞ imx
sinmx e
∫ x
dx = Img ∫ sinmx f ( x ) dx = Img ∫ sinmx
x
dx
−∞ −∞ −∞

[ ] [ ]
s k
= Img 2 πi ∑ Res [ f , bi ] + Img πi ∑ Res [ f , aj ]
i=1 j=1

= Img [ πi Res [ f , 0 ] ] = Img [ πi(1) ] = π

∞ ∞
sinmx 1 sinmx π
Hence ∫ dx = ∫ dx =
0 x 2 −∞ x 2

81
1.REFRENCES
2. "Complex Analysis" – Lars V. Ahlfors
o A classic text covering residues, contour integration, and
applications.
3. "Complex Variables and Applications" – James Ward Brown & Ruel V.
Churchill
o A widely used textbook with clear explanations on residues and their
applications.
4. "Functions of One Complex Variable" – John B. Conway
o A rigorous treatment of complex analysis, including residue
calculus.
82
 5. "Introduction to the Theory of Complex Functions" – Wolfgang Tutschke
o Covers residues in the context of analytic functions.
6. "Advanced Engineering Mathematics" – Erwin Kreyszig
o Includes practical applications of residue calculus in engineering
problems.
7. "Complex Analysis for Mathematics and Engineering" – John H.
Mathews & Russell W. Howell
o Good for applied approaches to residue theorem.
8. "Applied Complex Variables" – John W. Dettman
o Discusses residue calculus with physical applications.
9. "The Theory of Functions" – E. C. Titchmarsh
o A more advanced reference on complex analysis, including residues.

Online Resources:

 MIT OCW (Complex Variables):

[https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/mathematics/18-04-complex

83