Extensive Survey Project 2024-2025

INTRODUCTION
This extensive survey project is conducted to acquire a practical knowledge and
application of theory and overcome the difficulties that could arise in field during
surveying. We also learn the use of different survey instrument and to develop the team
spirit at work. It also helps to develop the confidence in handling of survey project. We
conducted survey for a New tank project. Highway project, water supply for Village, Town
& Village Planning, Layout Planning etc.

Objects of Extensive Survey Camp

• To impart training in the use of survey instruments and to acquire a comprehensive idea
of the project.
• To train the students under difficult and realistic situation of the surveying project.
• To develop team spirit in practical work.
• To impart confidence in the management of the survey project.

Technical aspects of a project

The design and construction of any project such as dam, road alignment requires a
thorough investigation of the site as regards to its stability and feasibility. The preliminary
investigation starts from the reconnaissance work, study of top sheets, proposal of alternate
sites etc.
The second stage work of investigation includes the survey work at the site in order
to collect the data necessary for the design of project elements, preparation of drawings,
etc.

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Chapter – 1

NEW TANK PROJECT

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1.1 Introduction
Irrigation may be defined as the science of artificial application of water to the soil,
in accordance with the crop requirements throughout the crop period for full-fledged
nourishment of the crops. It is a science of planning and designing an efficient, low cost,
economical irrigation system tailored to fit natural conditions. The importance of irrigation
system is well stated by Sri. N.d. Gulati "Irrigation in many countries is an old art as old as
civilization- but for the whole it is science — the science of survival."

1.2 Necessity of irrigation

▪ India being tropical country, rainfall is available only for 3-4 months of the year.
▪ The rainfall is not uniform over the country.
▪ The rainfall is inadequate.
▪ For cash crops like cotton, sugarcane or tobacco, which takes about 12 months for
maturity.
▪ When controlled w/s is needed like in floriculture.

1.3 Advantages
• Increase in food production – timely and optimum supply of water to the fields
helps in increasing crop yield. This solves food problem of the country.
• Elimination of mixed cropping - means sowing together of two or more crops in the
same field. If the weather conditions are not favourable for one crop the famer will at
least gets yield from the other. If irrigation is assured mixed cropping can be
eliminated or reduced.

• General prosperity of the region- Due to assured supply of water cash crops like
sugarcane, cotton, tobacco can be grown by which prosperous and their standard of
living improves.
• Revenue to state- Increased food production saves foreign exchange spent on import.
Also water charges levied increase revenue of the state.
• ·Generation of hydroelectric power – same projects designed for irrigation can be
used for hydroelectric power generation at cheaper cost.

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• Domestic water supply – irrigation structures constructed can be used for town water
supply schemes.

• Famine protection – Irrigation works helps during famine and drought in two ways.
During construction, employment is carried to the people and after construction
continuous water supply is maintained.
• Transportation – Larger irrigation channels can be used for inland navigation
purposes also embankments and inspection roads make pathway for commuters.
• Afforestation – Due to percolation of water along the banks of canal trees are grown
along the banks of canals which increases timber wealth and reduces soil erosion.

1.4 Source of irrigation

• Rainfall and its distribution: Areas of high rainfall are a good scope for a good
irrigation project.
• Runoff and surface runoff: Runoff includes all the water flowing in the stream channel
at any given section. Surface runoff includes only the water that reaches the stream
channel without first percolation down to the water table.
• Yield of drainage basin: It is same as the runoff, with the only difference that it is
expressed over long periods, while runoff is expressed for a short period.
• Sub-surface runoff: The water that reach stream channel before it percolates down to
the water table.

• Infiltration: When waterfalls a given a small part of it, is first of all, absorbed by the
top thin layer of soil so as to replenish the soil moisture deficiency. This is called
infiltration. The maximum rate at which a soil in any given condition is capable of
absorbing water is called its infiltration capacity.

1.5 Investigation for a new tank project

The design and construction of any dam whether earthen masonry or concrete has
to be preceded by a thorough investigation to select the most suitable and economical site.
The thoroughness of the investigation depends upon the size of the project.

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1.6 Factors considered for selection of site for earthen dam

The following topography and geological features affects the selection of site for
earthen dam.
• The water storage should be largest for the minimum possible height and length. The
site should be located in a narrow valley.

• Good impervious strata [foundation] should be available at moderate depth.

• Good and suitable basin should be available.
• Material for construction should be available locally.
• There should be suitable site available for waste weir.
• Value of the property and land likely to be submerged by the proposed dam should be
sufficiently low in comparison with the benefit expected from the project.
• Dam should be accessible in all season.

1.7 Survey work carried out in the field

1.7.1 Data collection
• Map study
• Reconnaissance Survey
• Preliminary Survey
• Final Location & Detailed Survey
1.7.2 Map study
If the topographic map of the area is available it is possible to suggest the proposal
of the water storage system.
The main features like rivers/natural stream, hills, valleys etc., are identified in these maps
by careful study of such maps, it is possible to have an idea of several proposals. Thus by
studying the map the probable and best proposal can by located.
1.7.3 Reconnaissance survey
The second stage of survey for Tank alignment is the reconnaissance to examine
the general character of the area for deciding the most feasible alignment for detail studies.
1.7.4 Preliminary survey
The main objectives of preliminary survey are:-

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• To survey the various alternate alignments proposed after the reconnaissance & to
collect all the necessary physical information & details of topography.

• To compare the different proposal in view of the requirements of a good alignment.

• To estimate the tank capacity of the alternate proposals.
• To finalize the best alignment from all considerations.
1.7.5 Hydrological investigation
The hydrological investigation is a very important aspect of reservoir planning and it
may be divided into two heads:

• Study of runoff pattern at the proposed dam site, to determine the storage capacity

corresponding to required demand.

• Determination of hydrograph of the worst flood, to determine the spillway capacity

& design.

1.7.6 Longitudinal and cross section of the bund

Longitudinal section of the bund is necessary to set the profile along the bund. It
is by the use of longitudinal section and cross section that we can calculate the volume
of the earth and all other materials required for the construction of the bund.
1.7.7 Specifications
• The length of the proposed bund should be minimum.
• There should be good foundation available.
• A natural subsidiary is desirable at the bund side for locating waste weir.

1.8 Equipment’s required

• Level with stand
• Levelling staff
• 30 m chain and tape
• Arrows
• Ranging rods
• Dumpy Level
• Theodolite

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• Cross-staff, Wooden Pegs

1.9 Capacity contouring

A contour is the line of level surface or it is an imaginary line joining points of
equal reduced levels or elevations. It is the method of taking measurements in the field
so that contour lines can be drawn on a map to give a complete picture of earth's surface.
The vertical distance between any two consecutive is called contour interval. The contour
interval depends on the nature of ground, scale of map, purpose and extent of survey etc.
1.9.1 Uses of contours
• By inspection of a contour map, information regarding the character of the tract of the
country is obtained; whether it is flat, undulating or mountains, etc.

• The most economical or suitable site for engineering works such as a reservoir, canal,
sewer, road, or railway may be approximately selected.

• Quantities of earthwork may be computed from the contour maps.

• Contours may be used to determine the area of the drainage basin and the capacity of
the reservoir.
• The section may be easily drawn in any direction from the contours.

1.10 Method of Locating Contours

By squares method using Total Station
In this method, area is divided into a series of squares, and the corners of the
squares are marked with the pegs. Each separate square is pegged out and elevations of
the ground of the comers of the squares are determined with the Total Station.
Intermediate points within the squares may be taken when required and may be located
on the diagonals squares, or by the measurement from the corners. The system of squares
is plotted and in each comers its elevation is written. The contour lines are then
interpolated using software.
Contour lines can be drawn on a map to give a complete picture of earth's surface. The
vertical distance between any two consecutive is called contour interval. The contour
interval depends on the nature of ground, scale of map. purpose and extent of survey etc.

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1.11 Waste weir design

Weir is a structure constructed to raise the water level on the upstream side of the
observations and thus, to feed the main canals taking off from its upstream side at one or
both of its flanks. It also discharges excess water. If the major part or the entire pounding
of water is achieved by a raised crest, then this barrier is known as a weir.

1.12 Specifications
• There should be a natural diversion to carry the surplus water.
• There should be good soil at the weir site for foundation.
• The length and height of the body wall must be minimum.
• The cost of protective works must be minimum.

1.13 Block levelling for waste weir design

• The blocks of 10m* 10m are made in the reservoir area.

• The reduced levels at every 10m interval are taken.

• It is used to calculate the capacity of the reservoir silt collection, area of the tank,

volume of water collected in the bund.

1.14 Canal alignment

A Canal is an artificial channel, generally trapezoidal in shape constructed on the
ground to carry water to the fields either from the river or from a tank or reservoir. Canals
can be classified in following ways:

1.15 Classification
• Classification based on the nature of source of supply
• Permanent canal.
• Inundation canal.
Classification based on financial output
• Productive canal
• protective canal.

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Classification based on the discharge and its relative importance in a given

network of canals
• Main canal.

• Branch canal.

• Major distributaries Minor distributaries

• Water course
Classification based on the function of the canal
• Irrigation canal.
• Carrier canal.
• Feeder canal.
• Navigation canal.
• Power canal.

1.16 Alignment
A Canal has to be aligned in such a way that it covers the entire area proposed to
be irrigated, with shortest possible length and at the same time its cost including the cost
of cross drainage works is a minimum. A shorter length of canal ensures less loss of head
due to friction and smaller loss of discharge due to seepage and evaporation, so that
additional areas can be brought under cultivation.

According to alignment, the channels may be

• Ridge canal.
• Contour canal.
• Side slope canal.

1.17 General considerations for alignment

The alignment of the canal should be such as to ensure
a) The most economical way of distributing the water to the land,
b) as high a command as possible, and
c) Minimum number of cross drainage works.

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• The alignment of a canal on a watershed, being the most economical, is preferred. As

a general rule, the entire watershed lying in a command should be occupied by
distributaries.

• The length of the main canal from the point where is takes off from a river to a point
where it mounts on a watershed should be minimum.
• The contour alignment should be changed this way or that way in order to reduce the
number of cross-drainage works to a minimum.
• The alignment should avoid villages, roads, cart tracks, cremation places, places of
worship and other valuable properties.
• The alignment should pass through the balances depth of cutting. It not, it should
involve minimum depth of cutting or minimum height of filling.
• The number of kinks and acute curves should be minimum.
• Idle length of canal should be minimum and branches etc. should be economically
planned.
• The alignment should not be made in rocky, brackish or cracked strata

1.18 Types of earthen dams

Earthen dams are earthen leaves are the most the most ancient type of
embankments. They can be built with the natural material with the minimum of
processing and primitive equipment's. Earthen dams are cheaper as they can utilize the
can locally available materials and less skilled labour is required for them. The earthen
dams can be following three types:-
a) Homogenous embankment type.
b) Zoned embankment type.
C) Diaphragm type

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1.19 Methods of construction of earth dams

There are two methods of constructing earthen dams:
a) Hydraulic fill method
b) Rolled fill method

1.20 Design criteria for earth dams

• A Fill of sufficient low permeability should be developed out of the available
materials, so as to best serve the intended purpose, with minimum cost. Borrow pits
should be as to close to the site as possible, so as to reduce the leads.
• Sufficient spillway and outlet capacities should be provided so as to avoid the
possibility of over toping during the design flood.
• Sufficient free board must be provided for wind setup, wave action, frost action and
earthquake motions.
• The seepage line (i.e. phreatic line) should remain well within the downstream face of
the dam, so that no sloughing of the face occurs.
• There is little harm in seepage through a flood control dam, if the stability Of
foundations and embankments is not impaired, by piping sloughing etc. but a
conservation dam must be as water tight as possible.
• There should be no possibility of free flow of water from upstream to the downstream
face.
• The upstream face should be properly protected against wave action and the
downstream face against rains and against waves up to the tail.

• The upstream and downstream slope should be flat enough, as to provide sufficient
base width at the foundation level, such as the Maximum shear stress developed
remains well below the corresponding maximum shear strength of the soil, so as to
provide s suitable of safety.
• After consolidation of the soil, the embankment's height reduces. Hence a suitable
allowance in height of embankment (between 2 to 3 % of dam height, determined by
laboratory test

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1.21 Design of the bund

The preliminary design of earthen dam is done on the basis of performance of the
dams built in the past . The preliminary section of the earthen dam is fixed based on the
necessity of the locality of the items:
• Top width
• Free board
• Casing or outer shells
• Cut-off trench
• D/S drainage system
• Central impervious core

1.22 Design of the proposed bund

Equation I is applicable for only very low dams Equation
2 is for dams lower than 30m.
Equation 3 is given by U.S.B.R for the dams higher than 30m Length of bund Top
bund width= 3m.
Full tank level= 100.72m
Max water level= 101.72m.
Top bund level=103.22m.

1.23 Calculation of yield at site

• The catchment area of the proposed new tank determined from toposheet is 3 Km2.
• The rainfall of a bad year is always taken as % of mean amount of rainfall.
• Average annual rainfall for Satyampet, Shorapur, yadgiri area from meteorological
department data is 46cm.

• Bad year rainfall 2/3x 46 = 30.67 cm.

• Runoff coefficient is usually assumed as 15% to 20%.
• Assuming 20%
• Annual yield =(20/100)x30.67=6.134 =6
• Yield from catchment= 3 x 106 x (6.5/100) = 195x103 cumec/year.

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1.24 Top width

It is the crust width of the earthen dam. Top width depends on then following
considerations:

• Nature of the embankment materials and minimum allowable percolations distance

through the embankment at the normal reservoir level

• Importance of the structure.

• Height of the structure.
• Width of the highway on the top of the dam.
• Practicability of construction.
Following are the some of the empirical expression for the top width of the dam in
terms of the height of the dam. b-(Z/5) + 3 b=0.55z1/2+ 0.2z b=1.65 [z + 1.5]1/3

In general according to Indian standards, no dam should have crest width of less than 6m
The empirical expression for top width is, b=0.55Z l /2 +0.z(when z < 10m)
Where, b=top width
Z=height of dam.
Using the empirical formula for the top width of the earthen dam in terms of height Of
earthen dam
Top bund width= 0.55Gl 9.425 2+0.2G 19= 6.22 m Providing
a minimum width of 3m.

1.25 Free board

• It is the height provided above maximum water level up to top bund level which is
called as net free board and above full tank level up to maximum water level.
• Free board must be sufficient to prevent overtopping of water due to wave action.
• Free board between full tank level and maximum water level 1m
• Free board between maximum water level and top bund level=l m
• Gross free board 2m
.11 Free board is the difference in level b/w the crest (top of the embankment) and
normal reservoir level. Provide min of 0.4m free board.

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1.26 Cut off trench

Is required to reduce the loss of store water through the foundation & abutments &
to prevent surface erosion by piping.

1.27 Design of cut off trench

Provide min width of cut off trench 4m at top and 10% of hydraulic head at bottom.

1.28 C/S drainage system:

The d/s drainage reduces the pore water pressure of the d/s portion of the dam
&hence increases the stability. Generally 3 types of drains are provided in the earthen
dams:
• Toe drains
• Horizontal drains
• Chimney drains
1.29 Central impervious core
A thick core has more resistance to piping which may develop in differential settlements
and cracks.
Sloping of the core in general is 1:1
Top,width of core 2.00 m Providing
slope of l: 1.5.

1.30 Design of escape weir or surplus weir

• Catchment area. A =3Km2
• Assuming Ryves coefficient Ø = 9
• Discharge ,Q = 9X 32/3
• =18.72 m3/sec

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Data obtained from dumpy level:-

Distance

Angle Left Center Right BS IS FS HI RL Remark

TBM=100
0.425 100.4
0 0.415 100.01

3 1.175 99.25

6 1.171 99.254

9 1.163 99.262

3 0.85 99.575

6 1.162 99.263

9 1.575 98.85

15 1.61 98.815

3 1.595 98.83

6 1.63 98.795

9 1.62 98.805

3 1.655 98.77

6 1.575 98.85

9 1.515 98.91

30 1.535 98.89

3 1.56 98.865

6 1.58 98.845

9 1.485 98.94

3 1.41 99.015

6 1.39 99.035

9 1.53 98.895

45 1.485 98.94

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3 1.51 98.915

6 1.61 98.815

9 1.59 98.835

3 1.48 98.945

6 1.475 98.95

9 1.495 98.93

60 1.4 99.025

3 1.46 98.965

6 1.54 98.885

9 1.69 98.735

3 1.385 99.04

6 1.37 99.055

9 1.365 99.06

75 1.75 98.675
3 1.71 98.715
6 1.795 98.63
9 1.66 98.765
3 1.9 98.525
6 1.93 98.495
9 1.81 98.615
90 1.84 98.585
3 1.945 98.48
6 1.96 98.465
9 1.98 98.445
3 1.865 98.56
6 1.895 98.53
9 1.33 1.91 99.85 98.515 CP-1

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105 1.545 98.3

3 1.51 98.335
6 1.555 98.29
9 1.46 98.385
3 1.49 98.355
6 1.43 98.415
9 1.39 98.455
120 1.46 98.385
3 1.415 98.43
6 1.45 98.395
9 1.475 98.37
3 1.39 98.455
6 1.44 98.405
9 1.43 98.415
135 1.395 98.45
3 1.48 98.365
6 1.44 98.405
9 1.49 98.355
3 1.37 98.475
6 1.37 98.475
9 0.755 99.09

ΣBS- ΣFS=Last RL – First RL

-0.915 = -0.92

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Chapter-2
HIGHWAY PROJECT

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2.1 Introduction

Transportation contributes to economic, industrial, social and cultural development

of any country. Transportation is a vital infrastructure for the speedy economic growth of
a developing country, since every commodity produced needs transport at all stages from
production to distribution. In the production stage, transportation is required for carrying
raw materials like seeds, manure, coal, steel etc. In the distribution stage, transportation is
required from the production centre via; farms and factories to the marketing centres and
later to the retailers and consumers for distribution. A resolution was passed of both
chambers of Indian legislature 1927 for the appointment of a committee to examine and
report on the question of road development in India. In response to the resolution, Indian
Road Development Committee was appointed by the government with M.R Jayakar as
chairman in 1927.This is actually the problem in all development countries like India as
the best utilization of available funds has to be made in a systematic and planned way. ln
a new highway project, the engineer has to plan, design and construct either network of
new roads or a road link. Once a highway is constructed, development takes place along
the adjoining land and subsequent changes in alignment or improvements in geometric
standards become very difficult., keeping in view the present day needs as well as the
future developments of the region.

2.2 The objectives of highway planning are given below

• To plan a road network for efficient and safe traffic operation, but at minimum cost.
Here the cost of construction, maintenance and renewal of pavement layers and the
vehicle operation costs are to be given due consideration.
• To arrive at the road system and the lengths of different categories of roads which
could provide maximum utility and could be constructed within the available resources
during the plan period under consideration?
• To fix up date wise priorities for the development of each road link based on utility as
the main criterion for phasing the road development programme.

• To plan for future requirements and improvements in view of anticipated

developments.

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• Incorporated of technical recommendations framed by Indian Roads Congress (IRC)

for various aspect of highway construction.

• Availability of funds and economic considerations.

2.3 Proposal
Highway project deals with the design of roads and can be executed in following
manner,

• A road is selected and detailed surveys including cross section area longitudinal
sections are carried out.
• Plan of road alignment-longitudinal section are drawn to scale and final alignment is
fixed, as per IRC specifications, confirming to village roads.

• Block levelling for the culvert.

2.4 Geometric Design of Highway Pavement

2.4.1 Requirements of ideal alignment:

• The alignment should be as short as possible.

• The road should be easy for construction and maintenance.
• The road should be safe and economical.
2.4.2 Obligatory Points
These are the control points governing the alignment of the highways. These control
points are divided into two categories, namely
• Obligatory points through which the road alignment should pass. These will cause the
alignment to often deviate from the shortest or easiest path.
• Points through which the alignment should not pass. These make it necessary to deviate
from the proposed shortest alignment.
2.4.3 Traffic
The proposed alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Origin and
destination study should be carried out in the area and desire lines be drawn showing
the trend of traffic flow. The new road to be aligned should keep in view the traffic
flow patterns and future trends.

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2.4.4 Geometric Design

Geometric design factors such as gradients, radius of curve and sight distance also
would govern final alignment or highway. If the straight alignment is aimed at, often it
will be necessary to provide very steep gradients. As far as possible while aligning a new
road, the gradient should be flat and less than the ruling or design gradient. Thus it may be
necessary to change the alignment in view of design speed, maximum allowable super
elevation and coefficient of lateral friction. It may be necessary to make the adjustment in
the horizontal alignment of roads keeping view the minimum radius of the curve and
transition curve. The absolute minimum sight distance, which should invariably be
available in every section of the road, is the safe stopping distance for the fast moving
vehicles. Also there should be enough distance visible ahead for safe overtaking operations
of vehicles moving at a design speed on the road. Hence the alignment should be finalized
in such a way that the obstructions to visibility do not cause restrictions to the sight
distance requirements.

2.4.5 Economy
The alignment should be economical. The initial cost, maintenance cost and
vehicle operation cost should be minimum, high embankment are avoided and choose
the balance cutting and filling sight. These factors also control the alignment of road. The
initial cost of construction can be decreased if high embankments and deep cuttings are
avoided and the alignment is chosen in a manner to cutting and filling.

2.5 Engineering survey for highway location

Before a highway alignment is finalized in highway project, the engineering survey
are to be carried out. The stages of engineering surveys are,
2.5.1 Map Study
Map study gives a rough guidance of routes to be surveyed in the field. The
main features like river, hills, and valleys etc are known by map study. By careful study
of maps, the idea of aligning a new highway can be obtained.
2.5.2 Reconnaissance Survey
The second stage of survey for highway location is the reconnaissance to
examine the general character of the area for deciding the most feasible routes for
detailed study. In this survey, the land along the various proposed highway routes are

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inspected. All the relevant details not available in the map study are collected and noted
down. Only very simply instrument like abney level, tangent clinometers, barometer
are used by the reconnaissance party to collect additional details rapidly.
2.5.3 Preliminary Survey
This is carried out to collect all the physical information, which is necessary
with the proposed highway alignment. The quantity of earthwork and cost of
construction are worked out. The best proposal is selected after preliminary survey.
The main objectives of preliminary survey area is to survey the various alternate
alignments proposed after the reconnaissance and to collect all necessary physical
information and details of topography, drainage and soils. To compare the different
proposals in view of the requirements of a good alignment is to estimate the quantity
of earthwork.
2.5.4 Detailed survey
After the preliminary survey, a detailed survey is carried out. Here temporary
benchmark is fixed and levelling works are performed. Here an elaborate and
complete data are collected for preparing plan and estimate of the project.

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2.6 Curves
Curves are usually employed in the lines of communication in order that the
change in direction at the intersection of the straight lines shall be gradual. The curves
are generally circular arcs.
2.6.1 Circular Curves
The circular curves are divided into three types, namely;

• Simple curve: It is the curve which consists of single arc of a circle. It is tangential to
both the straight lines.
• Compound curve: It consists of two or more simple arcs that turn in the same direction,
and join at common tangent points.
• Reverse curve: It is the one which consist of two circular arcs of same or different
radii, having their centre’s to the different sides of common tangent.
2.6.2 Transition Curves
It is a curve of varying radii. A transition curve is introduced between the straight
and a circular curve. It has a radius, which decreases from infinity at the tangent point
to a designed radius of a circular curve. The rate of change of radius of transition curve
will depend on the equation of the curve or its shape.
2.6.3 Vertical Curve
A vertical curve is used to join two intersecting grade lines of rail roads,
highways or other routes to smooth out the changes in vertical motion. There are two
types of vertical curves, namely

• Summit curve: These are the curves with convexity upwards.

• Valley curve: These are also called as sag curves, where the convexity is downwards.

2.7 Super Elevation

In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the tendency of
vehicles to overturn or skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised with respect to its
inner edge, thus providing transverse slope throughout the length of a horizontal curve.
This transverse inclination of the pavement surface is known as super elevation. The super
elevation 'e' is expressed as the height of outer edge with respect to the horizontal width.

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2.8 Design value of super elevation:

𝑉2
e= ( )
225𝑅

Check for coefficient of lateral friction development for full speed

𝑉2
f =( )_0.07
127𝑅

2.9 Design of extra widening

Extra widening = Mechanical widening + Psychological widening

𝑊𝑒 𝑛 ∗ 𝑙2 𝑉

2𝑅 9.5√𝑅
Here;
No. of lanes n=2
Length of wheel base l = 6m
Width of the pavement W = 7m

𝑊𝑒
We = 0.1 + 0.55

We = 0.65m
Provide an extra width of 0.65m, adopt We = 0.65m

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Hence the total width of the pavement

B = W + We
B = 7 + 0.65
B = 7.65m

2.10 Surveying Details

In road survey, the first step is levelling. This is carried out using, instruments
such as dumpy level, cross staff and levelling staff. Other instruments used are
prismatic compass to note the bearings, arrows and ranging rods which are used to
mark the points on the field. The levelling operation starts from the benchmark. A
benchmark is a point of known elevation.

The road is aligned by two operations, namely,

• Longitudinal sectioning
• Cross sectioning
• If there is a necessity of providing a culvert, block levelling is carried out.

2.11 Longitudinal Sectioning of Profile Levelling

Profile levelling is a process of determining the elevation of points at fixed
intervals along the chain line. Here the line is along which the section to be taken is
marked by ranging rods, and the fore bearing of the line is taken with the help of a
prismatic compass. The level is then setup at a point. The telescope is then directed
to a staff, held on the temporary benchmark of RL 100.00m and the reading is taken.
This reading is called as the back sight. R.L. of the change point. The instrument is
then transferred to the second position. Having adjusted the instrument, a back sight
is taken on the change point just established. This reading when added to the change
point gives the R.L. of the new line of collimation. Thus successive intermediate
sights are taken. The horizontal distances are plotted along the
horizontal axis to some convenient scale and the distances are also marked. The
elevations are plotted along the vertical axis. The various points obtained are by
straight lines.

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2.12 Checking the levels

For checking the levels, we use the technique called Fly Leveling. In this, we
start from the last point and go to the first point, taking back sights and fore sights only,
At the end, the last point should be in the vicinity of the bench mark.
2.13 Cross Sectioning
Cross sections arc at tight angles to the horizontal profile ant at either side of it
for the purpose of lateral outline of the round surface. It provides data for estimating
quantities of earth work and other purposes. The cross sections are plotted in the same
manner as the longitudinal sections.

2.14 Contouring
On a plan. the relative altitudes of the points can be represented by contour lines
as they indicate the elevators directly. The area to be surveyed is divided into a number
of squares. The levels on the corner of these squares are determined by direct leveling.
The contour interpolation is done by graphical methods
2.15 Design Speed
It is the most important factor controlling the geometric design elements of
highways. The design speed is decided taking into account the overall requirements of
highway.
In India different speed standards have been designed depending upon the importance
standards are modified depending upon the terrain and topography. It is the speed to
which a road is designed.
Design speed on rural highways.
Design speed in kemps for various terrains.

2.16 Gradients
Gradients are divided into four types
• Ruling gradient: it is the maximum gradient within which the designer attempts to
design the vertical profile of the road

• Limiting gradient: It is the gradient steeper than the ruling gradient.

• Exceptional gradient: It is the unavoidable steeper gradient provided for a smaller road
stretch of the road.

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• Minimum gradient: It is the minimum gradient provided in the roads for the drainage
of rain water as quick as possible.
Table : Gradient according to IRC
Terrain Ruling limiting Exceptional

gradient gradient gradient

Plain and rolling 3.3% (1 in 30) 5% (1 in 20) 6% (1 in 16.7)

Mountain having elevation 5% (1 in 20) 6% (1 in 16.7) 7% (1 in 14.3)

>3000m above MSL
Steep terrain up to 3000m 6% (1 in 16.7) 7% (1 in 14.3) 8% (1 in 12.5)

2.17 Width of Roadway or Formation

Table : Width of roadway recommended by IRC
SI N0. Road Classification Roadway width for plain & rolling terrain
1 NH & SH
i. Single lane 12 ii.
Double lane 12
2 MDR
i. Single lane 9 ii.
Double lane 9

2.18 Camber
Cross slopes or camber is the slope provide to the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain off the rain water from the road pavement surface. Table : IRC
recommended values of camber
SI.NO Types of road surfaces Range of cambers in area of rainfall range
range heavy to light
1 Cement concrete and high 1 in 50 (2%) 1 in 60 (1.7%)
Bituminous surface
2 Thin Bituminous surface 1 in 40 (2.5%) 1 in 50 (2%)
3 WBM & gravel pavement 1 in 33 (3%) 1 in 40 (2.5%)

4 Earth 1 in 25 (4%) 1 in 33 (3%)

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2.19 Kerb
Kerbs indicate the boundary between the pavement and shoulder, or sometimes
islands or foot path or kern parking space. It is desirable to provide kerbs on urban roads.
Kerbs are provided at the edge of road between the road and shoulders. It prevents the
direct entry of road vehicles into the shoulders.

2.20 Shoulders
It is the thin strip of land provided along the road edge for the emergency lane for parking
or to repair the damaged vehicles. The minimum shoulder width recommended by IRC is 2.5m.

2.21 Design of horizontal alignment

2.21.1Horizontal curves
When the centerline of the road changes the direction along the horizontal plane,
horizontal curves are provided and are designated as follows
2.21.2Super Elevation
To counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the tendency of vehicle
to overturn or skid, the outer edge of pavement is raised with respect to the inner edge.
Such provision of transverse slope is provided on horizontal curves.
2.21.3Extra Widening
Extra widening is provided to provide extra space required for mechanical and
psychological reasons along the horizontal curve, which is provided as per the table below
Table 4.14.3 Extra Widening
Sl.N0. Radius of curve (m) Extra width for two lane road (m)
1. Up to 20m 1.5

2 20-20m 1.5

3. 41-60m 1.2

4. 61-100m 0.9

5. 101-300m 0.6

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2.22 Vertical Alignment

Due to changes in grade in the vertical alignment of highway, it is necessary to
introduce vertical curve at the intersections if different grades to smoothen out the vertical
profile and thus ease off the changes in gradients for the fast moving vehicles. The vertical
curves used in highway may be classified in to two categories.

2.23 Summit Curve

A curve with convexity upwards is called summit curve. This occurs when an
ascending intersect a descending gradient or when an ascending meets on other ascending
gradient or an ascending gradient meeting a horizontal path a summit curve is provided as
there is change in gradient matching the requirement of summit curve. The only problem
in designing summit curve is to provide adequate site distances.

2.24 Valley Curve

A vertical curve with concave upwards is called as valley curve. This is formed
when a descending gradient intersect an ascending gradient or when a descending
gradient meets another descending gradient or when a descending gradient gains a
horizontal path, they should he designed for
• Comfort condition
• Head light sight distance condition
There is no problem of restriction to sight distances in valley curves during day
light. However during night driving under head lights of vehicles, the sight distance
available at valley curve is decreased. The most important factors considered in valley
curve design are,

• Impact-free movement of vehicles at design speed or the comfort to the passengers and

• Availability of stopping sight distance under the head lights of vehicles for night
driving. The lowest point in the valley curve may be located from considerations of
cross drainage.

2.25 Pavement Design

For the safety and comfort ability of fast vehicles, road surface should be even
along the longitudinal profile. The surface should also be unyielding in different
conditions and it should allow the heavy traffic to move with the least possible

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resistance. In order to provide a stable and even surface for traffic the road way is
provided with a suitably designed and constructed pavement structure. Pavement is
designed and to distribute wheel load in larger area and the elastic deformation caused
by the load to fall within the permissible limit. The pavement carries the wheel loads
and transfer the load stresses through a wider area on the soil sub grade below.

2.26Conclusion
The highway is designed to serve the people and helps in connecting the nearby
existing roads. The village people therefore can easily access the city. Transportation will
be much easier than before. The people travelling through this road will have a healthy
atmosphere and it gives good aesthetic appearance. Hence there are chances of
development of villages in the future.
Data obtained from Total Station:-

Station
X Y Z
Point
1 10000 10000 100
2 9957.549 9992.971 101.926
3 10061.937 10134.854 101.166
4 10059.063 10135.053 101.149
5 10065.362 10134.646 101.1
6 10055.604 10120.864 101.082
7 10055.628 10120.855 101.083
8 10053.439 10121.773 101.118
9 10057.824 10119.386 101.044
10 10057.8 10119.377 101.048
11 10057.779 10119.334 101.052
12 10057.848 10119.357 101.054
13 10049.107 10106.884 101.085
14 10047.102 10107.952 101.107
15 10051.03 10106.366 101.055
16 10042.677 10092.822 101.088
17 10040.679 10093.622 101.092
18 10044.796 10092.172 101.082
19 10036.244 10078.719 101.176
20 10034.559 10079.587 101.204
21 10038.048 10077.909 101.197
22 10022.507 10051.078 100.964

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23 10020.279 10052.188 100.999

24 10024.599 10049.922 100.905
25 10016.103 10036.965 101
26 10014.401 10037.915 100.996
27 10018.149 10036.447 100.986
28 10009.898 10022.809 101.194
29 10008.008 10023.728 101.136
30 10011.876 10021.983 101.173
31 10003.457 10008.714 101.441
32 10003.308 10009.657 101.398
33 10005.243 10008.158 101.398

Diagram :-

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Chapter 3
NEW LAYOUT

What is setting out:-

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Setting out a building is the process of transferring design proposals from drawings onto
the ground. It establishes the location points for site boundaries, foundations, columns,
centre-lines of walls and other necessary structural parts. It also establishes the building’s
correct extent, angle and level.

The whole structure will be located and constructed according to the initial setting out.
Accurate setting out is therefore a fundamental part of construction works, and errors can
be very expensive and time consuming to correct. It should only be undertaken by
competent persons, and all work should be thoroughly checked, preferably by different
personnel before construction begins.

Setting out is usually undertaken once the site has been subject to a condition survey and
desk study, and has been cleared of any debris, unwanted vegetation or other obstructions.
Works necessary to create the required levels may also have been completed before the
setting out process begins.

The position and orientation of the structure is generally described in an architect's or

engineer’s drawings, defining precisely how the layout should be arranged. Controlling
dimensions and references on the plans will determine the positioning of the building, and
in particular its foundations. These include; overall length and width, distances to road
centre-lines and to other structures, internal structural measurements and so on.

The controlling points of the structure can then be marked so that the construction team
can easily identify them. This usually consists of marking the building’s corners, horizontal
and vertical positions, using stakes, batter boards with string lines, drill holes, cut-and-fill
notations, and other methods.

What is a temporary bench mark (TBM):-

A temporary bench mark is a fixed point with a known elevation, usually ground floor
level. This should be established at an early stage. It is the fixed point to which all levels
are related. Where possible the TBM should relate to an ordnance bench mark. On the site,
it could relate to any permanent fixture, such as a manhole cover or firmlydriven post.
Typically, it is signified by a peg or steel angle that is conveniently located (eg near the site
office) and concreted in or fenced off with low-level timber.

As minus signs are easily misread, the TBM position should enable all other levels to be
positive. The TBM should be clearly indicated on all drawings, with all levels and vertical
dimensions expressed in meters to three decimal places in relation to it.
What is the baseline?

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Typically the first layout task is establishing a baseline to which all the setting out can be
related. The baseline is a straight reference line in respect to which the building’s corners
are located on the ground. It often coincides with the ‘building line’, which is the boundary
of the area, or the outer boundary of a road or curb, often demarcated by the local authority.

Horizontal controls:-

Horizontal controls are points that have known coordinates with respect to a specific point.
Other points such as layout corners can then be located. Numerous control points should
be used so that each point on the plan can be precisely located on the ground.

Vertical controls:-

Vertical controls enable design points to be positioned at their correct levels. The vertical
control points are established relative to specified vertical datum – often a timber post set
in concrete. But it can also be a specific height from a nearby road or land feature.

Horizontal and vertical controls are generally established during the levelling phase using
a theodolite or similar instrument.

Levels on site-layout plans should be denoted in meters to three decimal places, eg 32.350.
Also, intended levels should be written in a box, while existing levels can be written
normally. An 'x' or '+' should be used on plans to denote the exact point to which a level
applies

Building layout:-

For a simple building layout, such as a rectangle, the outline of the building is marked by
a line tied to corner posts - a nail in the top of the post can be used to attach the line to. A
theodolite, site square or builder’s square is used to turn off 90-degree angles for the
remaining corners. Ranging rods may be required to establish a straight line between corner
posts.

Corner posts are usually 50 x 50mm timber posts driven firmly into the ground, with a nail
in the post’s centre. The outline may be marked on the ground with dry lime or similar
powder. Timber profile boards can be used at the corners. Profile boards are typically
between 0.6-1m in height and comprise two 50 x 50mm posts driven at least 600mm into
the ground, with a 150 x 38mm cross board.

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Where the outline of a building is more complex than a simple rectangle, it may be
necessary to establish a range of points in the same way as for laying out a simple rectangle.
However, great care is required, as small errors are more likely to be introduced as more
points are positioned. Often the easiest way of laying out an irregular building shape is to
first lay out a large rectangle which will enclose the entire building or the greater part of it.
Once this is done, deductions and alterations can be made to obtain the precise layout
required.

Trenches:-

The layout of trenches establishes the excavation size, shape and direction, as well as the
width and position of walls. Trenches are excavated once the building outline has been set
out. The width is often marked with a line of dots of dry lime powder for accurate
excavation by hand, whereas the centre line is marked for accurate machine excavation.

Outline profile boards are often used to control trench positioning, width and depth. In
order that they do not obstruct the excavation work, profile boards should be set up at least
2m clear of the trench positions. The level of the profile cross board should be related to
the site datum and fixed at a convenient height above ground level, often with cords strung
between two profiles at either end of the trench. Bands can be painted on the cross board
for identification purposes.

Pegs are often driven into the bottom of the trench to mark the top of the concrete strip that
is subsequently poured.

The corners of walls are transferred from intersecting cord lines to mortar spots on the
concrete foundations, using a spirit level for accuracy.

The cutting of trenches needs to be undertaken with great care, especially if they are to be
left open for an extended period as there is the possibility of the sides caving in.

Reduced level excavations :-

The overall outline of a reduced level area can be set out working from a baseline. Corner
posts are fixed to the outline of the excavation area and the outline marked with dry sand
or similar material. To control the depth of the excavation, sight rails are set up at a
convenient height and at positions which will enable a traveller to be used.

A traveller is a profile board with a fixed height, used for controlling excavated levels
between profile boards. By placing the traveller in the sightline between two level boards,
it is possible to see whether or not the excavation has been carried out to correct levels.

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The height of the traveller is the desired level of the sight rail minus the formation level of
the excavated area.

Framed building:-

Framed buildings are usually related to a grid, often set out from a baseline. The
intersections of the grid lines mark the centre points for isolated or pad foundations.

The layout of the grid is established using a theodolite and the grid intersections marked
using pegs. Once the grid has been set out, offset pegs or profiles can be fixed clear of any
subsequent excavation work. Control of excavation depth can be by means of a traveller
sighted between sight rails or by level and staff related to a site datum.

The Co-Ordinates Points obtain by Total Station :-

Point
X Y Z
Station
1 10000 10000 100
2 10018.361 10000 100.622
3 10012.28 9918.161 99.833
4 9995.448 9977.9 99.592
5 9983.242 9998.375 99.701
6 9964.457 10031.922 99.654
7 9934.112 10111.891 100.353
8 9989.595 10121.004 100.321
9 9998.205 10058.023 99.849
10 10009.553 9994.263 99.922

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Diagram:-

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