CHEMISTRY (9701)

Course book
Google classroom code:
n75cgan

Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Chapter 1
Atomic Structure
 Objectives
1.1. Particles in the Atom

a) Identify and describe protons, neutrons and electrons in terms

of their relative charges and relative masses

b) Describe the distribution of mass and charge within an atom

c) Deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons present

in both atoms and ions given proton and nucleon numbers
(atomic and mass numbers) and charge
Elements and atoms Subatomic Particles

 Every substance in the world is made up of

chemical elements which cannot be broken
down into simpler substances by chemical
means.
 Every element has its own symbol.
 Chemical element contain only one type of
atom.
 An atom is smallest part of an element that can
take part in a chemical change/ chemical
reaction.
What is an Atom ?
 What is an Atom ?

• Fundamental piece of matter that takes

part in chemical reaction.
• Everything is made of atoms.
• Basic unit – The smallest particle of a
chemical reaction.
• Previously, it was thought that atoms
could not be broken up into yet smaller
parts but now we know the roles of
electrons, protons and neutrons.
• Many models of the atom have been
proposed
Structure of Atom

Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

The structure of an atom

 Every atom has nearly all its mass

concentrated in a tiny region at the centre of
an atom called nucleus.
 The nucleus is made up of particles called
nucleons i.e. protons and neutrons.
 Atoms of different elements have different
number of nucleons.
 Electrons move around in the regions called
orbitals.
 In an electrically neutral atom, the number of
protons is equal to number of electrons.
 Subatomic Particles

Subatomic Particles
• What are three kinds of subatomic
particles?
• Three kinds of subatomic particles
are electrons, protons, and neutrons.
 Sub atomic particles
Experiments with sub-atomic particles
 The electric charge of subatomic particles can be
deduced by showing how beams of electrons,
protons and neutrons behave in electric fields.
 If a beam of electrons is fired past electrically
charged plates, the electrons are deflected (bent)
away from the negative plate and towards the
positive plate. This shows us that the electrons are
negatively charged

Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

 Subatomic particles
 A cathode ray-tube can be used for the production of beam of
electrons.
 At one end of the tube, metal wire is heated at high
temperature and a low voltage is applied.
 At the other end of the tube is fluorescent screen, which
glows when electrons hit it.
 The electrons are given off from the heated wire and are
attracted towards two metal plates, which are positively
charged.
 When an electric field is applied across this beam the
electrons are deflected.
 The fact that the electrons are so easily attracted to the
positively charged anode and that they are easily deflected by
an electric field shows us that:
i) electrons have a negative charge
ii) electrons have a very small mass
 Sub-atomic particles
 A proton beam is deflected away from a positively
charged plate; as like charges repel, the protons
must have a positive charge.
 A beam of neutrons is not deflected; this is because
they are uncharged.
 An electron beam is deflected towards a positively
charged plate; as unlike charges attract, the
electrons must have a negative charge
 In these experiments, huge voltages
have to be used to show the deflection
of the proton beam.
 This contrasts with the very low
voltages needed to show the deflection
of an electron beam.
 These experiments show us that
protons are much heavier than
electrons.

Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Electrons, protons and neutrons have characteristic
charges and masses.
These values are too small to be useful while
discussing chemical properties, so we use their
relative masses and charges.
The table below summarizes the
properties of these subatomic particles.
Properties of Subatomic Particles
Relative Relative mass Actual mass
Particle Symbol
charge (mass of proton = 1) (g)
Electron e– 1– 1/1836 9.11  10–28
Proton p+ 1+ 1 1.67  10–24
Neutron n0 0 1 1.67  10–24
 The Atomic Nucleus

The Atomic Nucleus

• How can you describe the structure of
the nuclear atom?
 Summery
Electrons and the Structure of Atoms
Particles in the Atom

a) Identify and describe protons, neutrons and electrons in terms

of their relative charges and relative masses
b) Deduce the behaviour of beam of proton, neutron and electron in
electric fields

c) Describe the distribution of mass and charge within an atom

 Objectives

1. describe the contribution of protons and neutrons to

atomic nuclei in terms of proton (atomic) number and
nucleon (mass) number
2. distinguish between isotopes on the basis of different
numbers of neutrons present
A
3. recognise and use the symbolism Z X for isotopes,
where A is the nucleon (mass) number and z is the
proton (atomic) number
 Pre-requisite Knowledge

The Nuclear Model

of the atom
 THE STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

Atoms consist of a number of fundamental particles,

the most important are

Relative Relative
Mass / kg Charge / C
mass charge

PROTON 1.672 x 10-27 1.602 x 10-19 1 +1

NEUTRON 1.675 x 10-27 0 1 0
1
ELECTRON 9.109 x 10-31 1.602 x 10-19
1836 -1
 PROTON NUMBER AND NUCLEON NUMBER

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called

the proton number (Z). It is also known as the atomic
number.

The nucleon number (A) is the number of protons plus neutrons in

the nucleus of an atom. This is also known as the mass number.

nucleon number = number of protons + number of neutrons Then:

number of neutrons = nucleon number – number of protons
=A–Z
 MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC NUMBER

Atomic Number (Z) Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Mass Number (A) Sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus
 MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC NUMBER

Atomic Number (Z) Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Mass Number (A) Sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus

Mass Number (A)

PROTONS + NEUTRONS

23
Na
11
Atomic Number (Z)
PROTONS
 MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC NUMBER

Atomic Number (Z) Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Mass Number (A) Sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus

Mass Number (A)

PROTONS + NEUTRONS

23
Na
11
THESE ALWAYS GO
Atomic Number (Z) TOGETHER – ANYTHING
PROTONS WITH 11 PROTONS MUST
BE SODIUM
 MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC NUMBER

Atomic Number (Z) Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Mass Number (A) Sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus

Mass Number (A)

PROTONS + NEUTRONS

23
Na
11
Atomic Number (Z)
PROTONS
 MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC NUMBER

Atomic Number (Z) Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Mass Number (A) Sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus

Mass Number (A) THERE WILL BE 12 NEUTRONS

PROTONS + NEUTRONS IN THE NUCLEUS
23 – 11 = 12
23
Na
11
Atomic Number (Z)
PROTONS
 MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC NUMBER

Atomic Number (Z) Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Mass Number (A) Sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus

Mass Number (A)

PROTONS + NEUTRONS

23
Na
11
Atomic Number (Z)
PROTONS
 Mass number, atomic number and number of
electrons in charged particles

Mass number/nucleon
number (A) 24 Charge

Atomic number/
Mg2+2+ gained by
12 losing two
proton number (Z) electrons
Number of neutrons = A – Z = 24 – 12 = 12
Number of electrons = 12 – 2 = 10

In positively charged ions,

Number of electrons = proton number – charge of ion
Nucleon number/
mass number (A)
32
S2- Charge of anion
16 gained by gaining
2 electrons

Number of neutron = A – Z = 32 – 16
Atomic number (Z) =16
Number of electrons = Z + 2 = 16 + 2
= 18

In negatively charged atoms ( anions),

Number of electrons = Atomic number + Charge
 MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC NUMBER

Atomic Mass
Protons Neutrons Electrons Charge Symbol
Number Number

A 19 21 19

B 20 0 40

C + 11 23

D 6 6 0

E 92 0 235

F 6 13

G 16 2- 16

H 27Al3+
 MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC NUMBER

Atomic Mass
Protons Neutrons Electrons Charge Symbol
Number Number

A 19 21 19 0 19 40 40K

B 20 20 20 0 20 40 40Ca

C 11 12 10 + 11 23 23Na+

D 6 6 6 0 6 12 12C

E 92 143 92 0 92 235 235U

F 6 7 6 0 6 13 13C

G 16 16 18 2- 16 32 32S2-

H 13 14 10 3+ 13 27 27Al3+
DEDUCE THE NUMBER OF ELECTRONS IN
CR 2+
24
 ISOTOPES

 Atoms having same atomic number but different mass number

 Atoms having same number of proton but different numbers of neutron

 Example: isotopes of hydrogen

Isotopes No. of No. of No. of Number of

protons electrons neutrons nucleons
(mass
number)
Protium

Deuterium

Tritium
 ISOTOPES

 ISOTOPES HAVE SIMILAR CHEMICAL PROPERTIES BUT DIFFERENT

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES.
 CALCULATION OF RELATIVE ATOMIC
MASS FORM PERCENTAGE ISOTOPIC
ABUNDANCE
•
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
1.3 Electrons, energy levels and atomic orbitals
Objectives
Electronic shell
Electronic shell
Electrons in atoms are arranged outside nucleus in different energy
levels.

These energy levels are known as shell or principle shell

The shell that lie near to nuclei is associated with lower energy and
shell which are far from nucleus are associated with higher energy
Electronic configuration
Elements Atomic number Number of electrons in shell
n=1 n=2 n=3
Hydrogen (H)

Helium (He)

Lithium (Li)

Oxygen (O)

Neon (Ne)

Sodium (Na)

Chlorine (Cl)
Electronic configuration
Elements Atomic number Number of electrons in shell
n=1 n=2 n=3
Hydrogen (H) 1 1

Helium (He) 2 2

Lithium (Li) 3 2 1

Oxygen (O) 8 2 6

Neon (Ne) 10 2 8

Sodium (Na) 11 2 8 1

Chlorine (Cl) 17 2 8 7
Write simple electronic configuration of following
atoms showing principle quantum shell.

1. Sulphur (z=16)

2. Potassium (z=19)

3. Carbon (z=6)
 Sub-shell
Except first principle quantum shell, other electronic shell
splits into different subshell

Subshell are designated as s, p, d and f –subshell

P, d and f- subshell contain more than one orbitals

Shell SubsheLL orbitals
n=1 s S
n=2 s S
p Px, py, pz
N=3 s S
p Px, py, pz
d 5 type of d orbitals

N=4 s S
p Px, py, pz
d 5 type of d orbitals
7 type of d orbitals
f
Atomic orbital
 s-orbitals are
spherically shaped.
Smaller atom

The size of s-orbital increases with increasing shell number.

For eg. The s-orbital of third quantum shell is larger than
the s-orbital of first quantum shell.
 p- orbitals have a
z-axis dumbbell shape.
p-orbitals are
“dumbell” shaped.
x-axis
p-orbitals are
“dumbell” shaped.
y-axis
 p-orbitals together P-orbitals occupy the
x, y, & z axes. x,y and z axis and
point at right angle to
each other

The lobes of p-orbital becomes larger and longer with increasing

shell number.
 Quantum Numbers
 Quantum numbers are required to describe the distribution of electron
density in an atom.

Numbers that are used to describe each electron and its behavior in
different atomic orbitals

There are three quantum numbers necessary to describe an atomic

orbital.

 The principal quantum number (n) – designates size

 The angular moment quantum number (l) – describes shape
 The magnetic quantum number (ml) – specifies orientation
 Principle Quantum Numbers
The Principal quantum number (n) designates
the size of the orbital.

The principal quantum number is used to

number the energy levels or principal quantum
shells.

The lower the principal quantum number, the

closer the shell is to the nucleus and lower is
the energy of the shell.

The higher the value of ‘n’, the farther the shell

is and higher is the energy of the shell.
 Principle Quantum Numbers
Larger values of n correspond to larger
orbitals.

The allowed values of n are integral numbers:

1, 2, 3 and so on.

A collection of orbitals with the same value of

n is frequently called a shell.

Electrons are arranged in principal quantum

shells (K, L, M, N….) , which are numbered by
principal quantum numbers.
 Angular Momentum Quantum Number
 The Angular moment quantum number (l) describes the
shape of the orbital.

 The values of l are integers that depend on the value of the

principal quantum number

 The allowed values of l range from 0 to n – 1.

Example: If n = 2, l can be 0 or 1.
l 0 1 2 3
Orbital designation s p d f
Magnetic Quantum Numbers
The Magnetic quantum number (ml) describes the orientation of the orbital in
space.
The values of ml are integers that depend on the value of the angular moment
quantum number:
– l,…0,…+l
Quantum Numbers

To summarize quantum numbers:

principal (n) – size

Required to describe an
angular (l) – shape atomic orbital

magnetic (ml) – orientation

principal (n = 2)

2px related to the magnetic

quantum number (ml )

angular momentum (l = 1)
Required to describe
an electron in an
electron spin (ms) direction of spin
atomic orbital
 Electronic Configuration
Distribution of electrons in atomic orbitals

Orbitals with lower energy fills first and then orbitals with higher energy.

Energy of orbitals are determined by n+l value

  Subshells consist of one or more atomic orbitals.
 Orbitals exist at specific energy levels and electrons can only be found at these specific
levels and not between them.
 Each atomic orbitals can be occupied by maximum of 2 electrons.

Ground State
 The ground state is the most stable electronic configuration of an atom which has lowest
energy.
 The subshells with lower energy are filled first and then only the subshells of higher energy
are filled.
 The energy of subshells are found simply by adding the principal quantum number and
angular moment quantum number.
 If two subshells have same energy, then one with lower principal quantum number is filled
first
Energy of subshell follow the order as below:
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < and so on
Determining the electronic configuration
 Electronic configuration tells us how the Shorthand
configuration
electrons are arranged in shells, subshells
[Ne] 3s1
and orbitals.
 This can be done by using full electronic [Ne] 3s2
configuration or the shorthand version.
[Ne] 3s2 3p1
i. The full electronic configuration
describes arrangement of all electrons [Ne] 3s2 3p2
from 1s subshell. For example; for Na it
[Ne] 3s2 3p3
would be 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1.
ii. The short hand electronic configuration [Ne] 3s2 3p4
includes the symbol of nearest
preceding noble gas to account for the [Ne] 3s2 3p5

number of electrons that are present in

that noble gas.
For example; for Na it would be [Ne] 3s1
Electrons in boxes notation
An alternative way of showing the electronic structure of an atom is to draw boxes for orbitals
and arrows for electrons.
Electrons in each orbitals are filled up singly at first and then only pairing up of electrons
takes place.
Electronic configuration of ions and charged particles
Negative ions are formed by adding electrons to the outer shell.
Positive ions are formed by removing electrons from their outermost shell.
For Ca2+
Number of electrons = atomic number – 2 = 20 – 2 = 18
Electronic configuration = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

For Cl -
Number of electrons = atomic number + charge = 17 + 1 = 18
Electronic configuration = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
 In our case of 4s and 3d orbitals; the 4s orbital has n=4
and l=0, thus n+l = 4+0 = 4 and the 3d orbital has n=3 and
l=2, thus n+l=3+2=5.

 Thus, 4s has a lower energy of 4 when compared to the

3d orbital which has a higher energy of 5 and for this
reason, 4s will be filled first before moving on to the 3d
orbital.
Write down the electronic configuration of the following ( short hand
and full electronic configuration)

1. Cr
2. Cu
3. Fe3+
4. K+
5. Ni

Draw the electron in box configuration of the following

1. N
2. F
3. P3-
4. Sc+
1.4 Ionization Energy
 Objectives
Compare period and group trends of atomic and ionic radii. Relate
period and group trends in atomic radii to electron configuration.

To define and use the term first ionization energy, second ionization
energy, successive ionization energy and to represent them by
equation.

To explain the factors affecting ionization energy, their periodic

variation, and to deduce electronic configuration using successive
ionization energy.
 Terms for better understanding:
Nuclear charge
The attractive force exerted by nucleus on electrons
Magnitude of nuclear charge is equal to number of proton

Shielding effect (screening effect)

Decrease in nuclear charge on valence electron due to presence of
intervening electrons.

Spin paired repulsion

Repulsion between paired electrons of an orbital with unpaired
outermost electron. This repulsion is greater than repulsion between
unpaired electrons.
 Atomic radius/radii
Atomic radius (covalent radius): covalent atomic radius is half of the
distance between nuclei of two covalently bonded atoms of same
type

This is not only one type of atomic radii but it gives best data on comparing
the elements across the period
 Periodic variation of atomic radius:
Atomic radius increases on down the group. This is because of
Addition of one shell which is farther from nucleus.
Although nuclear charge increases it is counter balanced by increase
in shielding effect.
Decreased nuclear attraction to outermost electron.
 Periodic variation of atomic radius:
Atomic radius decreases along the period. This is due to
Increase in nuclear charge.
Though number of valence electron increases along with nuclear
charge, shielding effect of valence electron is not more significant.
More nuclear attraction to outer electron
 Ionic radius/radii
Cationic radii is always smaller than corresponding atomic radii due
to less number of electrons.

Anionic radii is always larger than corresponding atomic radii due to

higher number of electrons.

For isoelectronic species, species with higher number of proton

(nuclear charge) will have smaller size
 Ionic radius/radii
Ionic radius (having same charge) increases on down the group due to
increase in an extra electronic shell.

Ionic radius across the period

Ionic radius decreases from group 1 to group 14 as they loss electron to
form ion. They contain same number of electron but nuclear charge
increases.
Ionic radius increases from group 14 to group 15 as nuclear charge
increases by 1 and number of electrons increase by 8
From group 15 to 18, ionic radius decreases again due to increase in
nuclear charge.
 Ionization Energy
The energy required to remove 1 mole of electrons from 1 mole of
atoms of an element in gaseous state to form 1 mole of gaseous 1+
ions: first ionization energy.

Unit: KJ/mole

The energy required to remove second electron from 1 mole of 1 +

ions to form 1 mole of gaseous 2 + ion is called second ionization
energy, and so on.
 WHAT IS IONISATION ENERGY?
-
Ionisation Energy is a measure of the amount of energy
needed to remove electrons from atoms.
As electrons are negatively charged and protons in the
nucleus are positively charged, there will be an attraction
between them. The greater the pull of the nucleus, the
harder it will be to pull an electron away from an atom.
Attraction between
the nucleus and
an electron
 WHAT IS IONISATION ENERGY?
-
Ionisation Energy is a measure of the amount of energy
needed to remove electrons from atoms.
As electrons are negatively charged and protons in the
nucleus are positively charged, there will be an attraction
between them. The greater the pull of the nucleus, the
harder it will be to pull an electron away from an atom.
Attraction between
the nucleus and
an electron

FIRST IONISATION ENERGY - Definition

The energy required to remove ONE MOLE of electrons (to infinity) from ONE
MOLE of gaseous atoms to form ONE MOLE of gaseous positive ions.

e.g. Na(g) Na+(g) + e-

Make sure you
Al(g) Al+(g) + e- write in the (g)
 WHAT AFFECTS IONISATION ENERGY?
The value of the 1st Ionisation Energy depends on the electronic structure

Hydrogen Helium Lithium

1310 kJ mol-1 2370 kJ mol-1

519 kJ mol-1

The value for helium is higher than that for hydrogen because there are now two
protons in the nucleus. The nuclear charge is greater so the pull on the outer
electrons is larger. More energy will be needed to pull an electron out of the atom.
 WHAT AFFECTS IONISATION ENERGY?
The value of the 1st Ionisation Energy depends on the electronic structure

Hydrogen Helium Lithium

1310 kJ mol-1 2370 kJ mol-1

519 kJ mol-1

The value for helium is higher than that for hydrogen because there are now two
protons in the nucleus. The nuclear charge is greater so the pull on the outer
electrons is larger. More energy will be needed to pull an electron out of the atom.

Lithium atoms have 3 protons so you would expect the pull on electrons to be
greater. However, the 1st Ionisation Energy of lithium is lower than that of helium
because…
• Filled inner shells exert a SHIELDING EFFECT; lowers the effective nuclear pull
• FURTHER AWAY from the nucleus = lower nuclear attraction for an electron
 Factors Affecting Ionization Energy
1. Nuclear charge
In general, ionization energy increases as the proton number
increases because of the greater the attractive force between the
nucleus and the electrons.

2. Distance of outer electrons from the nucleus (number of shell)

The further the outer electron shell is from the nucleus, the lower
the ionization energy because the force of attraction between
positive and negative charges decreases rapidly as the distance
between them increases.
3. Shielding effect of inner electrons
Full inner shells of electrons prevent the full nuclear charge being felt
by the outer electrons. This is called shielding.
The greater the shielding of outer electrons by the inner electron
shells, the lower the attractive forces between the nucleus and the
outer electrons.

4. Inert pair effect

Electronic configuration [ns2] has higher ionization energy than
electronic configuration [ns2 np1].
This is due to the fact that repulsion between paired s-electron and
p-electron is higher and removal of [np1] electron will be easy.
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy - PERIODS

1st Ionisation Energy shows a ‘general increase’ across a given period

 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy - PERIODS

1st Ionisation Energy values show a periodic

trend. There is a ‘general increase’ across a
period before the value drops dramatically for
the start of another period.
He
The values get smaller down groups as the
electron removed comes from an orbital further
Ne
from the nucleus - there is more shielding.

Ar
Kr
Xe
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy - GROUPS

GROUP I Value decreases down the Group

despite an increased nuclear charge the outer s electron is easier to remove
this is due to increased shielding and greater distance from the nucleus
the outer electron is held less strongly and easier to remove

Li Na K

519 kJ mol-1

494 kJ mol-1 418 kJ mol-1

 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy - GROUPS

GROUP I Value decreases down the Group

despite an increased nuclear charge the outer s electron is easier to remove
this is due to increased shielding and greater distance from the nucleus
the outer electron is held less strongly and easier to remove

Li Na K

519 kJ mol-1

494 kJ mol-1 418 kJ mol-1

GROUP II Similar trend to Group II

Group II values are greater than their Group I neighbours
increased nuclear charge = stronger pull on electron
more energy required to remove an electron
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy

HYDROGEN EXPLANATION
Despite having a nuclear
charge of only 1+,
Hydrogen has a relatively
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
high 1st Ionisation Energy
as its electron is closest to
the nucleus and has no
shielding.

1s

ATOMIC NUMBER
1
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
HELIUM EXPLANATION
Helium has a much higher
value because of the extra
proton in the nucleus. The
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
additional charge provides
a stronger attraction for the
electrons making them
harder to remove.

1s

ATOMIC NUMBER
2
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
LITHIUM EXPLANATION
There is a substantial drop
in the value for Lithium.
This is because the extra
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
electron has gone into an
orbital in the next energy
level. Despite the
increased nuclear charge,
the effective nuclear charge
1s is less because of the
shielding effect of filled
inner 1s energy level. The
2s electron is also further
away from the nucleus. It is
held less strongly and
needs less energy for
1s 2s
removal.

ATOMIC NUMBER
3
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
BERYLLIUM EXPLANATION
The value for Beryllium is
higher than for Lithium due to
the increased nuclear
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
charge. There is no extra
shielding.

1s

1s 2s

1s 2s

ATOMIC NUMBER
4
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
BORON EXPLANATION
There is a DROP in the value
for Boron. This is because
the extra electron has gone
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
into one of the 2p orbitals.
The s-orbitals are closer to
the nucleus than p-orbitals.
The increased shielding
makes the electron easier to
1s
remove
It was evidence such as this
that confirmed the existence
1s 2s of sub-shells. If there hadn’t
been any sub-shell, the value
1s 2s 2p would have been higher than
that of Beryllium.
1s 2s

ATOMIC NUMBER
5
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
CARBON EXPLANATION
The value increases again
for Carbon due to the
increased nuclear charge.
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
The extra electron does not
pair up with the previous one
in the same orbital but
occupies another of the 2p
1s orbitals. This gives a lower
energy configuration
1s 2s 2p because there is less
repulsion between the
1s 2s negatively charged particles.
This is known as Hund’s
1s 2s 2p Rule.

1s 2s

ATOMIC NUMBER
6
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
NITROGEN EXPLANATION
The value increases again
for Nitrogen due to the
increased nuclear charge.
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
As before, the extra electron
goes into the vacant 2p
orbital. There are now three
1s 2s 2p
unpaired electrons.
1s

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

ATOMIC NUMBER
7
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
OXYGEN EXPLANATION
There is a DROP in the value
for Oxygen. The extra
electron has paired up with
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
one of the electrons already
in one of the 2p orbitals. The
repulsive force between
the two paired-up electrons
1s 2s 2p means that less energy is
1s
1s 2s 2p
required to remove one of
them.
1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

ATOMIC NUMBER
8
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
FLUORINE EXPLANATION
The value increases again
for Fluorine due to the
increased nuclear charge.
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
The 2p orbitals are almost
1s 2s 2p full.

1s 2s 2p
1s
1s 2s 2p

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

ATOMIC NUMBER
9
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
NEON EXPLANATION

1s 2s 2p The value increases again

for Neon due to the
increased nuclear charge.
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
The 2p orbitals are now full
1s 2s 2p
so the next electron in will
have to go into the higher
1s 2s 2p
energy 3s orbital.
1s
1s 2s 2p

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

ATOMIC NUMBER
10
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
SODIUM EXPLANATION

1s 2s 2p There is a substantial drop in

the value for Sodium. This is
because the extra electron
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
has gone into an orbital in
1s 2s 2p the next energy level.
Despite the increased
nuclear charge, the effective
1s 2s 2p nuclear charge is less
1s
1s 2s 2p
because of the shielding
effect of filled inner 1s, 2s
1s 2s 2p
and 2p energy levels.

1s 2s

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s
1s 2s 2p 3s

ATOMIC NUMBER
11
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
MAGNESIUM EXPLANATION

1s 2s 2p The value for Magnesium is

higher than for Sodium due
to the increased nuclear
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
charge. There is no extra
1s 2s 2p shielding.
The trend is similar to that at
1s 2s 2p
the start of the 2nd period.
1s
1s 2s 2p

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s
1s 2s 2p 3s
1s 2s 2p

1s 2s
1s 2s 2p 3s

ATOMIC NUMBER
12
 Successive Ionisation Energies

Atoms with more than one electron can have them successively removed.

2nd I.E. The energy required to remove one mole of electrons (to infinity) from one mole
of gaseous unipositive ions to form one mole of gaseous dipositive ions.

e.g. Na+(g) Na2+(g) + e- Make sure you

Al+(g) Al2+(g) + e- write in the (g)

Trends Successive ionisation energies are always greater than the previous one
Reason :- the electron is being pulled away from a more positive species

Large increases occur when there is a change of shell

Reason :- there is a big decrease in shielding

Large increases can be used to predict the group of an unknown element

See next slide for an example

 Successive Ionisation Energies of Calcium

I.E. kJmol-1 Electronic configuration

1 590 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
2 1145 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
3 4912 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
4 6474 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
5 8145 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
6 10496 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
7 12320 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
8 14207 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
9 18192 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
10 20385 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
11 57048 1s2 2s2 2p6
12 63333 1s2 2s2 2p5
13 70052 1s2 2s2 2p4 A
14 78792 1s2 2s2 2p3
15 86367 1s2 2s2 2p2
16 94000 1s2 2s2 2p1
17 104900 1s2 2s2
18 111600 1s2 2s1
19 494790 1s2
20 527759 1s1

A The 3rd I.E. is significantly higher than the 2nd I.E. because the third electron
is coming out of a 3p orbital, nearer the nucleus and subjected to less
shielding. More energy is needed to overcome the attraction of the nucleus.
 Successive Ionisation Energies of Calcium

I.E. kJmol-1 Electronic configuration

1 590 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
2 1145 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
3 4912 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
4 6474 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
5 8145 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
6 10496 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
7 12320 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
8 14207 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
9 18192 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
10 20385 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 B
11 57048 1s2 2s2 2p6
12 63333 1s2 2s2 2p5
13 70052 1s2 2s2 2p4
14 78792 1s2 2s2 2p3
15 86367 1s2 2s2 2p2
16 94000 1s2 2s2 2p1
17 104900 1s2 2s2
18 111600 1s2 2s1
19 494790 1s2
20 527759 1s1

B The 11th I.E. is significantly higher than the 10th I.E. because the eleventh
electron is coming out of the second main energy level, not the third. It is
much nearer the nucleus and is subjected to less shielding.
 Successive Ionisation Energies of Calcium

I.E. kJmol-1 Electronic configuration

1 590 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
2 1145 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
3 4912 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 C
4 6474 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
5 8145 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
6 10496 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
7 12320 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
8 14207 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
9 18192 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
10 20385 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
11 57048 1s2 2s2 2p6
12 63333 1s2 2s2 2p5
13 70052 1s2 2s2 2p4
14 78792 1s2 2s2 2p3
15 86367 1s2 2s2 2p2
16 94000 1s2 2s2 2p1
17 104900 1s2 2s2
18 111600 1s2 2s1
19 494790 1s2
20 527759 1s1

C The 19th I.E. is significantly higher than the 18th I.E. because the electron being
removed is from the first main energy level. It is much nearer the nucleus and is
subjected to no shielding - its value is extremely large.
 Successive Ionisation Energies of Calcium

I.E. kJmol-1 Electronic configuration

1 590 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
2 1145 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
3 4912 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 C
4 6474 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
5 8145 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
6 10496 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
7 12320 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
8 14207 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
9 18192 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
10 20385 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 B
11 57048 1s2 2s2 2p6
12 63333 1s2 2s2 2p5
13 70052 1s2 2s2 2p4 A
14 78792 1s2 2s2 2p3
15 86367 1s2 2s2 2p2
16 94000 1s2 2s2 2p1
17 104900 1s2 2s2
18 111600 1s2 2s1
19 494790 1s2
20 527759 1s1

SUMMARY Wherever there has been a large increase in Ionisation Energy

there has been a change in energy level from which the electron
has been removed.
 QUESTION TIME

Q.1 Which has the higher value, the 3rd I.E. of aluminium or the 3rd I.E. of magnesium?

Ans The 3rd I.E. of magnesium

EXPLANATION
The 3rd I.E. of aluminium involves the following change...
Al2+(g) Al3+(g)
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 1s2 2s2 2p6
The 3rd I.E. of magnesium involves the following change…

Mg2+(g) Mg3+(g)
1s2 2s2 2p6 1s2 2s2 2p5

Despite magnesium having 12 protons in its nucleus and aluminium

having 13, more energy is required to remove the third electron from
magnesium. This is because the electron being removed is coming
from an orbital closer to the nucleus. There is less shielding and
therefore a greater effective nuclear charge. The electron is thus held
more strongly.

Q.2
 QUESTION TIME

Q.2 Which has the higher value, the 1st I.E. of sodium or the 2nd I.E. of magnesium?

Ans The 2nd I.E. of magnesium

EXPLANATION
The 1st I.E. of sodium involves the following change
Na(g) Na+(g)
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 1s2 2s2 2p6
The 2nd I.E. of magnesium involves the same change in electron configuration…

Mg+(g) Mg2+(g)
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 1s2 2s2 2p6

Magnesium has 12 protons in its nucleus, whereas sodium only has 11. The
greater nuclear charge means that the electron being removed is held more
strongly and more energy must be put in to remove it.
 REVISION CHECK

What should you be able to do?

Recall the definition of 1st Ionisation Energy

Understand why energy is needed to remove an electron from an atom / ion
Write equations representing 1st Ionisation Energy
Know the trend in 1st Ionisation Energy across periods
Explain, in terms of electron configuration, the trend across a given period
Know the trend in 1st Ionisation Energy down groups
Explain the trend down a given group
Know, and explain, why successive Ionisation Energies get bigger
Explain why there is sometimes a large jump between successive values
Predict which group an element is in from its Ionisation Energies

CAN YOU DO ALL OF THESE? YES NO