INSTITUTION: DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT: EEE

COURSE: BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN TELECOMMUNICATION

AND INFORMATION ENGINEERING

UNIT NAME: ANALOG ELECTRONICS 2

UNIT CODE: ETI 3209

LECTURER’S NAME: MR. KIMANI

TITLE: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

EXPERIMENT DATE:28th Oct 2024

SUBMISSION DATE:17th Dec 2024

GROUP MEMBERS

NAME REG SIGN

KEVIN KIPROTICH E020-01-2712/2021
JOSEPHINE WANGARI MAINA E020-01-1095/2022
NATHAN ROTICH E020-01-2224/2022
WYCLIFF OMONDI E020-01-1163/2022
EDWARD KIPTOO E020-01-2413/2022
ARWA DERRICK E020-01-1160/2022
MACHAVE GAIUS E020-01-1156/2022
 Introduction

The differential amplifier is a fundamental circuit in analog electronics, designed to amplify the
voltage difference between two input signals while suppressing common-mode signals such as
noise or interference. This makes it a critical component in many communication and signal-
processing systems. The experiment aimed to analyze the performance of a differential amplifier
by measuring its differential and common mode gains, calculating the Common Mode Rejection
Ratio (CMRR), and evaluating its effectiveness in rejecting noise. Through practical
implementation and measurements, the experiment provided insights into the functionality and
key characteristics of the differential amplifier.

Objectives

 To become familiar with the characteristics of the differential amplifier

 Measurement of the gain in differential mode

 Measurement of the common mode gain

 Determination of the common mode rejection ratio

Theory

A differential amplifier consists of two transistors with their emitters connected to a single
resistor, as shown in Figure B28.1.
The purpose of a differential amplifier is to amplify the voltage difference between the inputs of
the two transistors. While the circuit typically has two input signals, it produces only one output
signal. The output can be derived from two points:

1. Between the collector of a transistor and the ground:

This output is referred to as the "common mode", where:

V O =V O 2

2. Between the two collectors:

This output is known as the "floating" output because it is not referenced to ground. In
this case:

V O =V O 1−V O 2

Operation

A differential amplifier is typically symmetrical in its connections and the values of its
components. In the circuit shown in Figure B28.1, we assume RC1=RC2, RB1= RB2 and
T1=T2. Due to this symmetry, the two amplifiers' voltage gains are equal when considered
individually. Thus:

V o =A 1 ∙ V 1− A 2 ∙ V 2= Ad ∙(V 1−V 2)

Where Ad is referred to as the differential mode gain.

In practical applications, the two input signals V1 and V2 are not amplified equally due to
imperfections (A1≠A2), as a result, even if the input signals are identical, the output will not be
zero.

To analyze the performance of the differential amplifier, the formula above can be extended to
accommodate different values of A1 and A2. However, when A1≠A2, both the difference and the
average (half sum) of the input signals are amplified. This is expressed as:

v1 + v2
V o =A d ∙ ( v 1−v 2 ) + Ac ∙ = A d ∙ vd + A c ∙ vc
2
Definitions:

 Ad =(A 1 + A 2 )/2: Differential mode gain

 Ac = A 1− A2: Common mode gain

 v c =v 1−v 2: Differential mode signal

 v c =(v ¿ ¿ 1+ v 2 )/2 ¿: Common mode signal

Common Mode Rejection Ratio - CMRR

The closer A1 is to A2, the better the differential amplifier performs (or the greater Ad is
compared to Ac ). The quality of the amplifier is expressed by the ratio between Ad and Ac , which
is called the Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR):

CMRR=| A d / A c|

The higher the CMRR, the more the output signal will depend on the difference between the two
input signals.

Instruments

 Function generator

 Oscilloscope

 Multimeter.
PROCEDURE

Biasing

 All jumpers were disconnected, and all switches S were turned OFF.

 The Vcc adjustable power supply was set to 12V.

 Jumpers J4, J15, J18, J23, J26, J38, J34, J45, and J43 were inserted to produce the circuit
shown in fig.B28.2.

 RV4 was set to the mid-position.

 The voltage between the collectors of the two transistors was measured.

A zero voltage should have been measured; however, due to inevitable asymmetries in the
circuit, the voltage was almost certainly different from zero.

 The trimmer RV4 was adjusted, and the voltage read by the voltmeter was set to zero.

The trimmer RV4 enabled the current through the two transistors to be equalized, which set the
voltage between the collectors to zero.
Differential gain

 Jumpers J27 and J30 were inserted to produce the circuit shown in Figure B28.3.
 The RV5 trimmer was adjusted to measure 0 V between the base and ground of T2.
 The RV4 trimmer was carefully adjusted to balance the differential amplifier, ensuring
the voltage measured between the two collectors was equal to zero.
 By adjusting RV5, the input voltage on transistor T2 was increased to 100 mV.
 Under these conditions, the corresponding voltage value between the two collectors was
measured, and the voltage gain was calculated.
 The last measurement and calculation were repeated for increasing input voltage values
of 150, 200, and 400 mV.

Common mode gain

 Jumper J32 was inserted to obtain the circuit shown in Fig. B28.4.
 The RV5 trimmer was adjusted to set the input voltage of the two transistors T1 and T2 to
0 V.
 The RV4 trimmer was carefully adjusted to balance the differential amplifier, ensuring
the voltage between the two collectors of T1 and T2 was null.
 By progressively adjusting RV5, the input voltage on the two transistors T1 and T2 was
increased, and the output voltage between the two collectors was measured.
 The common mode gain Ac was then calculated.
CMRR

 Using the gain values obtained from the previous steps, the common mode rejection ratio
(CMRR) of the differential amplifier under test was calculated.

The common mode rejection ratio, CMRR, indicated the quality of the differential amplifier. It
was defined by the ratio CMRR=| A d / A c|, where Ad is the differential gain and Ac is the
common mode gain. For an ideal amplifier, this ratio was infinite.
Results.

Input 100 150 200 400

voltage(mV)
Vo1 3.85 1.25 1.52 1.29
Vo2 -0.18 2.09 1.77 2.12
V O =V O 1−V O 2 4.03 0.84 0.25 0.83

Voltage gain table,

Input 100 150 200 400

voltage(mV)
Vo 4.03 0.84 0.25 0.83
Table for finding Ac

Input 0.21 0.27 0.37

T1 1.58 1.54 1.51
T2 1.61 1.58 1.56
Ac 0.05 0.05 0.05
0.03 0.04 0.05
Questions.

Q1.Measured gain

The measured gain is 1.85, this corresponds to Option 2:it is unity because the value is close to1.

Q2. Comparison of the gains

 Common mode gain Ac = 0.05

 Differential gain Ad = 1.85

The correct answer is Option 5: "None of the above describes the result" because the given gains
do not match any of the provided statements.

CMRR calculation;

CMRR=| A d / A c| CMRR=1.85/0.05=37
 Discussion of Results

In this experiment, we measured both the differential mode gain (Ad) and the common mode
gain (Ac) of a differential amplifier circuit. The results obtained were: Ad=1.85 and Ac=0.05.
The differential gain measures the amplifier’s response to differences between the input voltages
applied to the two transistors, while the common mode gain measures the response when the
same voltage is applied to both inputs. The measured values indicate that the circuit effectively
amplifies the differential signal while rejecting the common mode signal.

The small value of Ac=0.05 shows that the amplifier rejects common mode signals, as expected
in a well-designed differential amplifier. This behavior is crucial because differential amplifiers
are intended to amplify the difference between two input signals while rejecting any noise or
interference that appears equally at both inputs. The low common mode gain demonstrates that
the amplifier's common mode rejection is functioning as intended, though the rejection could still
be improved for more sensitive applications.

When comparing the two gains, the differential gain of 1.85 is significantly larger than the
common mode gain, confirming the amplifier’s focus on amplifying differential signals. The
calculated Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR), which is the ratio of differential gain to
common mode gain, is 37, indicating moderate rejection of common mode signals. Given these
results, the experiment confirms that the amplifier behaves as expected, rejecting common mode
signals effectively while amplifying differential signals. However, none of the provided answer
options fully captured the relationship between the two gains, leading to the conclusion that
Option 5: "None of the above describes the result" is the correct choice.

Q5: An ideal differential amplifier amplifies

The ideal differential amplifier is a fundamental building block in analog electronics and
amplifies the difference between two input voltages. This characteristic is essential for
applications where noise rejection and signal differentiation are crucial. In this case, the correct
answer is "the difference between the two input voltages". By amplifying only the difference, the
differential amplifier rejects common-mode signals (signals present on both inputs), which
typically represent external noise or interference.
Q6: How is the "common mode signal" defined?
The common mode signal is defined as the average of the two input voltages. Mathematically, it
v1 + v2
is expressed as V c = .This parameter plays an important role in differential amplifiers
2
because it represents the part of the signal that is common to both inputs. Ideally, a differential
amplifier suppresses this common mode signal to focus solely on the differential signal. Thus,
understanding the definition of Vc helps in analyzing and improving the performance of these
amplifiers.

Q7: How is the differential mode signal defined?

The differential mode signal is defined as the difference between the two input voltages,
expressed as V d =( v 1−v 2 ) .This signal is the primary input that a differential amplifier processes
and amplifies. By focusing on the voltage difference, the differential amplifier can extract useful
information while rejecting noise or interference that appears on both inputs (common mode
signal). Understanding Vd is critical for designing and analyzing amplifiers in communication
systems and other analog applications.

Q8: Which relation defines the output of a differential amplifier?

The output of a differential amplifier depends on both the differential mode signal and the
common mode signal, influenced by their respective gains. The correct relation is

V o =( A ¿ ¿ d+ A c )∙ ( v d −v c ) ¿where Ad is the differential gain and Ac is the common mode gain.

In an ideal case, Ac is zero, and the output solely depends on Vd. However, in practical
amplifiers, Ac is minimized but not eliminated. This equation highlights the importance of
designing amplifiers with high differential gain and low common mode gain to achieve accurate
and noise-resistant signal amplification.

Conclusion

In this experiment, the differential amplifier's performance was evaluated, confirming its ability
to amplify the differential mode signal while effectively suppressing the common mode signal.
The results demonstrate the amplifier's capability to reject noise and interference, ensuring its
effectiveness in applications where precise signal differentiation is required. This behavior
highlights the importance of differential amplifiers in enhancing signal accuracy and reliability in
various analog systems.

Recommendation

 Optimize component matching to further reduce the common mode gain and improve
performance.

 Enhance power supply rejection to minimize noise and interference.

 Use advanced circuit configurations to achieve a higher Common Mode Rejection Ratio
(CMRR).

 Implement precision components for applications requiring high sensitivity and accuracy.

 Regularly test and calibrate the amplifier to ensure consistent and reliable operation.

References;

Sedra, A. S., & Smith, K. C. (2020). Microelectronic Circuits (8th ed.). Oxford University Press.
https://global.oup.com/academic/product/microelectronic-circuits-9780190853450

Razavi, B. (2016). Fundamentals of Microelectronics (2nd ed.). Wiley.

https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Fundamentals+of+Microelectronics%2C+2nd+Edition-p-
9781119237786