STRUCTURE – I, AP – 121

UNIT – II

Elasticity, ability of a deformed material body to return to its original shape and size when the forces
causing the deformation are removed. A body with this ability is said to behave (or respond) elastically.
To a greater or lesser extent, most solid materials exhibit elastic behavior, but there is a limit to the
magnitude of the force and the accompanying deformation within which elastic recovery is possible for
any given material. This limit, called the elastic limit, is the maximum stress or force per unit area within
a solid material that can arise before the onset of permanent deformation. Stresses beyond the elastic limit
cause a material to yield or flow. For such materials the elastic limit marks the end of elastic behavior and
the beginning of plastic behavior. For most brittle materials, stresses beyond the elastic limit result in
fracture with almost no plastic deformation.

STRESS

Stress is defined as force per unit area within materials that arises from externally applied forces, uneven
heating, or permanent deformation and that permits an accurate description and prediction of elastic,
plastic, and fluid behavior. Stress is given by the following formula:

σ =FA, where, σ is the stress applied, F is the force applied and A is the area of the force application.

The unit of stress is N/m2.

Stress applied to a material can be of two types as follows:

Tensile Stress: The external force per unit area of the material resulting in the stretch of the material is
known as tensile stress.

Compressive Stress: - Compressive stress is the force that is responsible for the deformation of the
material, such that the volume of the material reduces.

STRAIN

Strain is the amount of deformation experienced by the body in the direction of force applied, divided by
the initial dimensions of the body.The following equation gives the relation for deformation in terms of
the length of a solid:

ϵ=δlL, where ε is the strain due to the stress applied, δl is the change in length and L is the original length
of the material. The strain is a dimensionless quantity as it just defines the relative change in shape.

Types of Strain, Strain experienced by a body can be of two types depending on stress application as
follows:

Tensile Strain: The deformation or elongation of a solid body due to applying a tensile force or stress is
known as Tensile strain. In other words, tensile strain is produced when a body increases in length as
applied forces try to stretch it.

Compressive Strain: Compressive strain is the deformation in a solid due to the application of
compressive stress. In other words, compressive strain is produced when a body decreases in length when
equal and opposite forces try to compress it.

Stress-Strain Curve: When we study solids and their mechanical properties, information regarding
their elastic properties is most important. We can learn about the elastic properties of materials by studying
the stress-strain relationships, under different loads, in these materials.

The material’s stress-strain curve gives its stress-strain relationship. In a stress-strain curve, the stress and
its corresponding strain values are plotted. An example of a stress-strain curve is given below.
Explaining Stress-Strain Graph

The different regions in the stress-strain diagram are:

(i) Proportional Limit: It is the region in the stress-strain curve that obeys Hooke’s Law. In this limit,
the stress-strain ratio gives us a proportionality constant known as Young’s modulus. The point OA in the
graph represents the proportional limit.

(ii) Elastic Limit: It is the point in the graph up to which the material returns to its original position when
the load acting on it is completely removed. Beyond this limit, the material doesn’t return to its original
position, and a plastic deformation starts to appear in it.

(iii) Yield Point: The yield point is defined as the point at which the material starts to deform plastically.
After the yield point is passed, permanent plastic deformation occurs.

There are two yield points (i) upper yield point (ii) lower yield point.
(iv) Ultimate Stress Point: It is a point that represents the maximum stress that a material can endure
before failure. Beyond this point, failure occurs.

(v) Fracture or Breaking Point: It is the point in the stress-strain curve at which the failure of the material
takes place.

HOOKE’S LAW

In the 19th-century, while studying springs and elasticity, English scientist Robert Hooke noticed that
many materials exhibited a similar property when the stress-strain relationship was studied. There was a
linear region where the force required to stretch the material was proportional to the extension of the
material, known as Hooke’s Law.

Hooke’s Law states that the strain of the material is proportional to the applied stress within the elastic
limit of that material, Mathematically, Hooke’s law is commonly expressed as: F = –k.x, Where F is the
force, x is the extension in length, and k is the constant of proportionality known as the spring constant in
N/m.

ELASTIC MODULI OF MATERIALS

The following table lists young’s modulus, shear modulus and bulk modulus for common materials.

Material Young’s modulus (E) in Shear modulus (G) in Bulk modulus (K) in
GPa GPa GPa

Glass 55 23 37

Steel 200 84 160

Iron 91 70 100

Lead 16 5.6 7.7

Aluminum 70 24 70
YOUNG'S MODULUS

The hooks law state that when the material is loaded within the elastic limit the stress is directly
proportional to the strain. To remove the proportionality sign we use a constant known as Young's
modulus or modulus of elasticity.

The modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus is denoted by letter E.

Stress = modulus of elasticity or young's modulus × strain

Mathematically,

σαε
σ=Eε
σ = stress

ε = strain

E = modulus of elasticity.

Where E is a constant of proportionality and it is known as Young's modulus for modulus of elasticity.

The unit of modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus is Nm-2 or Pascal.

Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity: -

A shear modulus is found experimentally that within the elastic limit, the shear stress is directly
proportional to the shear strain. To remove the proportionality sign we use a constant known as shear
modulus or modulus of rigidity.

he modulus of rigidity or shear modulus is denoted by letter G.

Mathematically,

Ꞇ αꬾ
Ꞇ=G× ꬾ
Ꞇ = shear stress

ꬾ = shear strain

G = shear modulus or modulus of rigidity.

Where G is a constant of proportionality and it is known as shear modulus or modulus of rigidity.

Bulk Modulus: -

When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular stresses that are equal in intensity and the ratio
of direct stress to the corresponding volumetric strain is called as bulk modulus.

The bulk modulus is denoted by letter K., Bulk modulus = direct stress / volumetric strain
Mathematically,

K = σ / εV
K = Bulk modulus

σ = direct stress

εV = volumetric strain.

The unit of modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus is Nm-2 or Pascal.

The poison's ratio is defined as the ratio of lateral strain to the linear strain. This ratio called as poison's
ratio. he poison's ratio denoted by Greek letter μ.

Poison's ratio = lateral strain (ε)/ linear strain (ε)

Mathematically,

μ = ε (lateral) / ε (linear)

μ = poison's ratio

Poisons ratio has no units.

Modular Ratio: -

It is the ratio of elasticity modulus of two different materials. For example, let the value of elasticity
modulus of two different material is E1 and E2. Then the value of modular ratio “m” is:

m=E1/E2

In the case of reinforced concrete structure modular ratio is the ratio of elasticity modulus
of steel and concrete. The value of of stresses in concrete and steel is related using modular ratio. As the
strain in the reinforcing steel and concrete is linear in nature.

It is very much important to consider the value of modular ratio when we want to analyze the composite
sections like reinforced concrete structures.

The fundamental assumptions in flexural theory are that plane cross section remains plane, even after
bending. This is only valid when we can ensure the proper bonding between both the materials
(reinforcement and concrete) to act as an integral unit.

For analysis we express the stress of material1 in terms of the corresponding stress of material 2.
 m is the modular ratio used to relate stress in reinforcement and concrete. Reinforced concrete beam is
extremely durable and requires little maintenance. It is also fire resistant, and mostly the reinforced bar
has a good scrap value. In the initial go it is costly but yes in the long run it becomes economical to use.

CONCEPT OF TRANSFORMED OR EQUIVALENT SECTION

Consider an R.C.C. section shown in Fig. 2.2(a) subjected to a compressive load P.

Let A = Area of cross-section

Ast = Area of steel

m = Modular ratio

ss = Stress in steel

sc = Stress in concrete

es = Strain in steel

ec = Strain in concrete

Ps = Load carried by steel

Pc = Load carried by concrete

Aeqc = Equivalent area of section in terms of concrete

Es = Yong’s modulus of elasticity of steel

Ec = Young’s modulus of elasticity of concrete

P = Ps + Pc

P=σsAst+σcAc

The bond between steel and concrete is assumed to be perfect so the strains in steel and the surrounding
concrete will be equal

εs=εc

σsEs=σcEc

σs=EsEc.σc

σs=m.σc
 or

σc=σsm

It means that stress in steel is m times the stress in concrete or load carried by steel is m times the load
carried by concrete of equal area. Using Eqns. (i) and (ii)

Undefined control sequence \therefore

σc=P(Ac+m.Ast)=PAeqc

The expression in the denominator

(Ac+m.Ast)

is called the equivalent area of the section in terms of concrete. It means that the area of steel Ast, can be
replaced by an equivalent area of concrete equal to m.Ast as shown in Fig. 2.2(b)

Aeqc=Ac+m.Ast

=A−Ast+m.Ast

becauseAc=A−Ast

=A+(m−1)Ast

Therefore, the concept of modular ratio makes it possible to transform the composite section into an
equivalent homogeneous section, made up of one material.

MOHR CIRCLE

Mohr’s circle is one of the most important concepts in Civil Engineering, which is used in the domain of
stress and strain. Mohr’s circle represents stress and strain at different planes for a stressed body in a two-
dimensional space. The concept of Mohr’s circle is used in Soil Mechanics and the Strength of Materials
to find the stress and strains at different planes.
Mohr’s Circle Equation

And according to Force equilibrium, stresses on opposite planes are equal and opposite in direction.
Hence, Shear stress will be equal on two mutually perpendicular planes.
Mohr’s Circle Diagram

Variations of Normal stress and Shear stress value concerning angle Θ represent a form of a circle, which
is known as Mohr’s Circle. Mohr’s circle is the circle in which each point represents a plane in a stressed
body in which the x-coordinate of the point represents the Normal stress, and the y-coordinate represents
the Shear stress acting on the plane.