Modulo Operation Explanation

1 mod 5 means

The expression "1 mod 5" refers to the modulo operation, which finds the remainder when one
number is divided by another. Specifically:

"1 mod 5" means 1 divided by 5 and the remainder is taken.

Since 1 is smaller than 5, when you divide 1 by 5, it doesn't go in evenly. The remainder is simply
1.

So, 1 mod 5 = 1.

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5) B(0, 1) and f be a function given as,

f: A→ B, where f (x) = x mod 2.

Given the function f : A → B , where A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {0, 1}, and the rule for the
function is f (x) = x mod 2, let's find the output of f (x) for each element of A.

The modulo operation x mod 2 gives the remainder when x is divided by 2. Specifically:

If x is even, x mod 2 = 0.
If x is odd, x mod 2 = 1.

Let's apply this to each element of A:

f (1) = 1 mod 2=1

f (2) = 2 mod 2=0
f (3) = 3 mod 2=1
f (4) = 4 mod 2=0
f (5) = 5 mod 2=1

Thus, the function f maps as follows:

f = {(1, 1), (2, 0), (3, 1), (4, 0), (5, 1)}

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 types of function

Functions can be classified into various types based on their properties. Here are some common types
of functions:

1. Injective (One-to-One) Function

A function f : A → B is injective if every element of the domain A maps to a unique element

in the codomain B .
No two different elements of A map to the same element of B .

Example:
f (x) = 2x for A = R, because every input has a unique output.

2. Surjective (Onto) Function

A function f : A → B is surjective if every element in the codomain B has at least one

corresponding element in the domain A.
The range (actual outputs of the function) is equal to the codomain.

Example:
f (x) = x2 for A = R and B = [0, ∞), because every non-negative number in B has a preimage in
A.

3. Bijective Function

A function is bijective if it is both injective and surjective.

In this case, every element of A maps to a unique element in B , and every element of B has a
preimage in A.

Example:
f (x) = x + 3 for A = B = R, since every real number has a unique corresponding real number.

4. Constant Function

A constant function maps every element of the domain to the same single value in the
codomain.

Example:
f (x) = 5 for all x ∈ A.

5. Identity Function

The identity function maps every element to itself. For a set A, the identity function is denoted
as f (x) = x.

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 Example:
f (x) = x for A = R.

6. Polynomial Function

A polynomial function is of the form f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ⋯ + a1 x + a0 , where

​ ​ ​ ​

an , an−1 , … , a0 are constants.

​ ​ ​

Example:
f (x) = 3x2 + 2x + 1.

7. Even and Odd Functions

A function is even if f (−x) = f (x) for all x ∈ A.

A function is odd if f (−x) = −f (x) for all x ∈ A.

Example (Even): f (x)= x2 .

Example (Odd): f (x) = x3 .

8. Linear Function

A linear function is of the form f (x) = mx + c, where m and c are constants. It graphs as a
straight line.

Example:
f (x) = 2x + 3.

9. Exponential Function

An exponential function is of the form f (x) = ax , where a is a constant and x is the exponent.

Example:
f (x) = 2x .

10. Logarithmic Function

A logarithmic function is the inverse of an exponential function, typically of the form f (x) =
loga (x), where a is the base of the logarithm.
​

Example:
f (x) = log2 (x).
​

11. Trigonometric Functions

Functions based on trigonometric ratios, such as sin(x), cos(x), and tan(x).

Example:
f (x) = sin(x).

12. Inverse Functions

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 A function f has an inverse f −1 if, for every element y ∈ B , there is a unique x ∈ A such that
f (x) = y .

Example:
If f (x) = 2x, the inverse is f −1 (x) = x2 .
​

13. Piecewise Function

A piecewise function is defined by different expressions depending on the input value.

Example:

f (x) = {
x2 if x ≥ 0
−x if x < 0
​ ​

Each type of function has its own characteristics and plays a significant role in different areas of
mathematics.

explain first three in detail

Let’s dive deeper into the first three types of functions: Injective (One-to-One), Surjective (Onto),
and Bijective functions.

1. Injective (One-to-One) Function

A function f : A → B is injective (or one-to-one) if different elements in the domain A map to

different elements in the codomain B . In other words, no two distinct elements of A map to the same
element in B . Formally, f is injective if:

∀a1 , a2 ∈ A, if f (a1 ) = f (a2 ), then a1 = a2

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Visual Explanation:

In a diagram, an injective function will show each element of A mapping to unique elements in B —
there will be no "overlap" in the output values for different inputs.

Examples:

1. Injective Example:
Function: f (x) = 2x
Domain A = {1, 2, 3}, Codomain B = R
Mapping: f (1) = 2, f (2) = 4, f (3) = 6
Here, each element of A maps to a distinct element in B , so f is injective.

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 2. Non-Injective Example:
Function: f (x) = x2
Domain A = {−1, 1}, Codomain B =R
Mapping: f (−1) = f (1) = 1
Here, two distinct elements in A map to the same element in B , so f is not injective.

Key Property:

Injective functions are reversible for their range. If you know the output, you can uniquely determine
the input (within the range).

2. Surjective (Onto) Function

A function f: A → B is surjective (or onto) if every element of the codomain B has a preimage in
the domain A. In other words, the function "covers" the entire codomain B ; nothing in B is left
unmapped. Formally, f is surjective if:

∀b ∈ B, ∃a ∈ A such that f (a) = b

Visual Explanation:

In a diagram, every element of B must have an arrow coming from some element of A, meaning no
element in B is "left out" without a corresponding input from A.

Examples:

1. Surjective Example:
3
Function: f (x) = x
Domain A = R, Codomain B = R
Here, every real number in B has a corresponding cube root in A, so f is surjective.

2. Non-Surjective Example:
Function: f (x) = x2
Domain A = R, Codomain B =R
Mapping: The output values are non-negative, so negative values in B (e.g., -1) are not
mapped by any element of A, meaning f is not surjective.

Key Property:

For a surjective function, every element in the codomain is "hit" by at least one element from the
domain. It guarantees the entire codomain is the range of the function.

3. Bijective Function

A function f : A → B is bijective if it is both injective and surjective. This means:

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 The function is injective, so each element of the domain maps to a unique element of the
codomain.
The function is surjective, so every element of the codomain has a preimage in the domain.

In other words, a bijective function creates a one-to-one correspondence between the elements of A
and B , meaning each element of A is paired with exactly one element of B , and vice versa.

Visual Explanation:

In a diagram, a bijective function will show every element of A mapping to a distinct element of B ,
and every element of B having exactly one preimage in A.

Examples:

1. Bijective Example:
Function: f (x) = x + 3
Domain A = R, Codomain B = R
This function is both injective (no two inputs have the same output) and surjective (every
real number in B has a preimage in A), so it is bijective.

2. Non-Bijective Example:
= x2
Function: f (x)
Domain A = R, Codomain B = R
This function is not bijective because it is neither injective (as f (−1) = f (1) = 1) nor
surjective (as negative values in B are not mapped).

Key Property:

Bijective functions are invertible. Since each element of the domain corresponds to exactly one
element of the codomain (and vice versa), the inverse function f −1 : B → A exists.

Summary of Differences:

Type of
Injective Surjective Bijective
Function
Definition One-to-One Onto Both One-to-One and Onto

Each element of the domain is paired with

Different inputs have Every element in the
Condition one unique element of the codomain, and
different outputs codomain is hit
vice versa
Inverse Not always Not always Always has an inverse function

These functions play a key role in different areas of mathematics, including algebra, calculus, and set
theory, and are important in understanding the structure of mappings between sets.

explain with examples

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 Let’s explore injective, surjective, and bijective functions with detailed examples and step-by-step
explanations.

1. Injective (One-to-One) Function

A function f: A → B is injective if different elements of A map to different elements of B . In other

words, no two elements in the domain A map to the same element in the codomain B .

Example 1:

Consider the function f (x) = 2x with the domain A = {1, 2, 3} and codomain B = {2, 4, 6}.

f (1) = 2
f (2) = 4
f (3) = 6

Here, each element in A has a unique output in B . Since no two different inputs give the same
output, f is injective. The function passes the horizontal line test: no horizontal line crosses the
graph more than once.

Example 2 (Non-Injective):

Now consider f (x) = x2 with the domain A = {−1, 0, 1} and codomain B = {0, 1}.

f (−1) = 1
f (0) = 0
f (1) = 1

Here, f (−1) = f (1) = 1, meaning two different elements in the domain A map to the same element
in B . Therefore, f (x) = x2 is not injective. It fails the horizontal line test because a horizontal line at
y = 1 crosses the graph at two points.

2. Surjective (Onto) Function

A function f: A → B is surjective if every element of the codomain B has at least one preimage in
the domain A. This means the range of the function is equal to the codomain.

Example 1:

Consider the function f (x) = x3 with the domain A = R (all real numbers) and codomain B = R (all
real numbers).

For every real number y ∈ B , there exists a real number x ∈ A such that f (x) = y .
For example, if y = 8, then x = 2 because f (2) = 23 = 8.

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 Since every real number y has a corresponding cube root x, the function f (x) = x3 is surjective. The
range of f covers all of B .

Example 2 (Non-Surjective):

Consider the function f (x) = x2 with the domain A = R and codomain B = R.

The function f (x) = x2 only produces non-negative values (i.e., f (x) ≥ 0).
For instance, there is no x ∈ R such that f (x) = −1, because the square of any real number is
non-negative.

Thus, f (x) = x2 is not surjective, since negative numbers in the codomain B are not hit by any
element in the domain.

3. Bijective Function

A function f : A → B is bijective if it is both injective (one-to-one) and surjective (onto). This means
every element in the domain maps to a unique element in the codomain, and every element in the
codomain has a preimage in the domain.

Example 1:

Consider the function f (x) = x + 1 with the domain A = R and codomain B = R.

Injective: For any two distinct x1 and x2 , f (x1 )

​ ​
= x1 + 1 and f (x2 ) = x2 + 1. If f (x1 ) =
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

f (x2 ), then x1 + 1 = x2 + 1, which implies x1 = x2 . Thus, the function is injective.

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Surjective: For every y∈ B , we can solve y = x + 1 to find x = y − 1. Since y − 1 ∈ R, every

element of B has a preimage in A. Therefore, the function is surjective.

Since f (x) = x + 1 is both injective and surjective, it is bijective.

Example 2 (Non-Bijective):

Consider the function f (x) = x2 with the domain A = R and codomain B = R.

= f (1) = 1, so f (x) = x2 is not injective.

Not Injective: As we saw earlier, f (−1)
Not Surjective: Negative numbers in B are not hit by any element in A, so the function is not
surjective.

Thus, f (x) = x2 is not bijective.

Visual Representation of Injective, Surjective, and Bijective Functions

1. Injective Function:
Diagram: Each element in the domain A points to a unique element in B , with no
"overlaps" in the output.

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 A→B

Example: f (x) = 2x.

2. Surjective Function:
Diagram: Every element in the codomain B is hit by at least one element in the domain A.
Nothing in B is left out.

A↠B

Example: f (x) = x3 .

3. Bijective Function:
Diagram: Every element in the domain A maps to a unique element in B , and every
element in B has exactly one preimage in A.

A↔B

Example: f (x) = x + 1.

Summary of Examples:

Injective: f (x) = 2x with A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {2, 4, 6} is injective, as no two inputs map to the
same output.
Surjective: f (x) = x3 with A = B = R is surjective, as every output in B has a corresponding
input in A.
Bijective: f (x) = x + 1 with A = B = R is bijective, as it is both injective and surjective.

Understanding these types of functions is essential for analyzing mathematical relationships and
mappings between sets.
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