PSEUDOSCIENCE

Pseudoscience(neologismformed from the rootGreekpseudo-false, and the word

The term has pejorative connotations, as it is used to indicate that the subjects like this
labeled are erroneous or misleadingly presented as scientific. For this reason, those
Those who cultivate certain 'pseudoscience' usually reject this classification. The label
it has been applied to disciplines such as certain hypotheses ofquantum physics,the social sciencesthe
psychoanalysistheparapsychologyand thecryptozoologydue to the nature of its objects of study
difficult to apply the same scientific rigor as in other disciplines, however this is
relative and some of these disciplines accused of being pseudoscientific are accepted as
scientific by universities, scientific associations, medical centers, governments, etc., by
example, psychoanalysis.

Philosophers of science who have extensively dealt with this issue, such asKarl Popper,
who initially considered tonatural selectioncbaby metaphysicsfor being unprovable
(although I would later revise this idea, I would maintain that in that case the theory should be
reformulated and would not be strictly universally true), they consider that the character of
pseudoscience depends less on the field or object of study than on the attitude of its followers
towards criticism and, in general, towards thescientific method.Thus, a physicist or a biologist could
behave in a dogmatic way, while a historian or a sociologist can
present their theses in a way that invites refutation (orfalsification, in language
popperian). In general, and to the extent that it may be applicable, themethodology
scientificrequires that theories be subjected to rigorous empirical testing, while to
pseudosciences, either it will not be possible to apply refutation systems to them (due to being
ambiguous formulations), or their supporters will protect the theory (for example, with hypotheses
auxiliaries orfor this, formulatedfrom the latter), instead of subjecting her to tests that can
refute it.

In the absence of an objective and universal delimiting criterion, the definitive classification requires a
argument or fallacy of authority,what is a particular case of thefallacyargument to
shyness, where it is intended to support a belief by its origin and not by its arguments
against and in favor, which turns any claim of science about the classification of
pseudosciences are a pseudoscience in itself.
Characteristics of pseudosciences:
Authors who differentiate between real sciences and pseudosciences point out characteristics
whose simultaneous presence, not necessarily all at once (polythetic definition), helps
to recognize pseudosciences as such

▪ It doesn't havein consistencyinternal and external. That is, they support logical contradictions and
they do not integrate with other sciences.
▪ Not applicablemethodslikethe characteristics of the sciences, those whose validity
it can be accepted regardless of the observer's expectations. Butoh, Norwood
Russell Hansonin his book Patterns of Discovery from 1958 and relying on the work
posthumous ofLudwig Wittgenstein,particularly in theirPhilosophical Investigations,
indicates that the observation of any fact is always subject to the
expectations of the observer.
▪ Sondogmatics.His principles are stated in such terms that they do not admit
refutation, unlike the sciences, where the conditions for refutation of the
hypotheses or theories are determined or can be determined precisely. Although
this last one is not strictly applicable to thesocial sciencesthat often not
they produce (nor intend to produce) accurate results, and they are based on premises that exist.
to interpret with a certain degree of subjectivity. On the other hand, in science, sometimes
it happens that formally falsifiable propositions are practically (in the current state
from the technique), impossible to falsify (for example: "The universe is finite").
▪ Proclaim theories for which they do not provide empirical evidence, which often
openly contradict known observations or experimental results and
accepted. Although this type of problem also occasionally appears in the
sciences (see for example:Horizon problem
▪ They are incoherent with the theoretical framework of related disciplines, invalidating them.
accepted explanations without offering better alternatives for the explanation of the
the same phenomena nor recognizing the need to do so.
▪ They are immutable. Without experimental bases, they do not change even in the face of new ones.
discoveries (with mathematics as a special exception). The maxim
theoretical authority is still attributed to the founder or founders of the discipline, and
Their teachings are treated as sacred scriptures.
▪ They use obscure language in front of the public, or employ terms that have a
precise meaning in science with totally different senses.
▪ They do not comply with the strategy ofOccam's razor(also known as the principle of
parsimony), which is a methodheuristicof creative search for solutions that
it suggests that, under equal conditions, the simplest explanation is the one that should be
consider as the most likely. Or when they fulfill it, it is based on the use
of 'sky hooks' (for eexample of creationismit explains everything based on a single
eNote: god)
▪ They do not seek general laws.
▪ They disqualify criticisms from the sciences, often using fallacies.ad
man, arguingconspiraciesor proclaiming itself as an object ofpersecutionwhen
his proposals are challenged.
 ▪ They invoke immaterial or supernatural beings, such as vital force, divine creation,
unconscious metaphysics,quintessenceetc. from those who proclaim at the same time,
contradictorily, they intervene in observable phenomena, but they are
inaccessible to empirical research. Although there is also speculation in physics with
entities that, as of today, are inaccessible to empirical research, but that
suppose they intervene in observable phenomena (see for example:Boson of
Higgs)and in psychology, immaterial entities such as for example:
intelligence
▪ The proponents of the theory make little effort to develop a theory that goes beyond
the problems it faces. They lack the self-critical vocation characteristic of the
true scientists.
▪ They proclaim and demand that their scientific nature be recognized, but only in front of the public.
general, renouncing or being very reluctant to put their explanations to the test before
the established scientific community. The fact of claiming scientific status the
difference from other fields, such as thereligionor metaphysics.

Some Pseudosciences:
▪ AstrologyDivination by the constellations of the solar ecliptic
▪ Astropsychology (Psychotherapy through Astrology)
▪ Alienology(Study of extraterrestrials or Aliens)
▪ Climate Change(Taken as something extraordinary, caused by human beings)
▪ Angelology (Systematic Study of Angels)
▪ Parallel Science ("systematic" knowledge of the upper, neutral, and lower planes)
▪ Pyramidal Science ("systematic" knowledge of magic)
▪ Biblical Science(systematic knowledge of the Bible)
▪ Egyptian science ("systematic" knowledge of Egyptian religion)
▪ Psychic Surgery (surgeries performed through the mind)
▪ Homeopathy (healing through factors emanating from the disease itself)
▪ Iridology (divination of diseases by reading the iris of the eyes)
▪ Magnetotherapy (healing by magnets)
▪ Holistic Medicine (healing through harmony with universal energy)
▪ Naturism (healing through the four natural "elements")
▪ Pendulogy (Divination and diagnosis by pendulums)
▪ Parapsychology (study of paranormal phenomena, such as ghosts, etc.)
▪ Psychic energy (study and manipulation of mental energy)
▪ Psychotronics (manipulation of brain waves for telekinesis, prophecy, etc.)
▪ Palmistry (Divination by reading the lines of the hand)
▪ Telekinesis (communication and visualization at a distance through the mind)
▪ Therapeutic Touch (healing through the hands, or laying on of hands)
▪ Ufology(study of extraterrestrial spacecraft)