PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY

Project

●​ BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

Made by : akansha jha

2024-2025
Class- xi ‘b’
Sign of the subject teacher :
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that akansha

jha of Class-XI has successfully
completed the project on the
topic bernoulli's principle
under the guidance
of Mrs. Soraj the year 2024-25
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my immense gratitude

to my physics teacher Mrs.saroj for the help

and guidance she provided for the completion of

this project.I also thank my friends who gave

me their ideas and inputs in making this

project. Most of all I thank my school

management for providing me the facilities and

opportunity to do this project.

 Index
(I) PRESSURE

(II) EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

(III) DANIEL BERNOULLI

(IV).INTRODUCTION TO ;

1.​BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

2. BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

(V) EXPERIMENT

(VI) APPLICATIONS
(VII) CONCLUSION

(VIII) BIBLIOGRAPHY
Pressure

●​Pressure, in the physical sciences, is the

perpendicular force per unit area, or the

stress at a point within a confined fluid.

●​In SI units, pressure is measured in

pascals; one pascal equals one newton per

square metre.
●​Absolute pressure of a gas or liquid is the

total pressure it exerts, including the effect

of atmospheric pressure.

●​ An Absolute pressure of zero corresponds

to empty space or a complete vacuum.

●​Pressure is a scalar quantity.

Equation of continuity
According to the equation of continuity, AV

=constant. Where a is cross sectional area and

we is velocity with which the fluid flows

It means that if any liquid is Flowing in a

streamline flow in a pipe of non uniform cross

section area then rate of flow of liquid across

any cross section area remains constant.

Consider a liquid flowing through the tube off

varying thickness .

Let The cross sectionol area at one end I= A

And no sectional area of another and II =A2

The velocity and density of the fluid at one end

(I)=v1,ρ1 respectively, velocity and density

of fluid at other end (II)=v2,ρ2

Volume covered by the fluid in a small interval

of time ∆t,

across left cross-sectional is Area

(I)=A1xv1x∆t
Volume covered by the fluid in a small interval

of time ∆t,

across right cross-sectional Area

(II)=A2xv2x∆t

Fluid inside is incompressible (volume of fluid

does not change by applying pressure ) that is

density remains

same.{ρ1=ρ2(equation1)}Along

(I) mass=ρ1 A1 v1∆t and along second point

(II) ,mass = ρA2 v2∆t

By using equation (1), we can conclude that

A1v1 = A2 v2
This is the equation of continuity.From

Equation of continuity we can say that

Av=constant.

This equation is also termed as “

Conservation of mass of incompressible fluids”.

 DANIEL BERNOULLI

Daniel Bernoulli

(8February1700–17March1782) was a Swiss

mathematician and physicist and was one of the

many prominent mathematicians in the

Bernoulli family. H e is particularly

remembered for his applications of mathematics

to mechanics, especially fluid mechanics, and for

his pioneering work in probability and

statistics. His name is commemorated in

Bernoulli's principle, a particular example of

the conservation of energy, which describes the

mathematics of the mechanism underlying the

operation of too important technology of

twenty century the carburetor and the airplane

wing.

Together Bernoulli and Euler tried to discover

more about the flow of fluids. It was known

that a moving body exchanges its kinetic energy

for potential energy when it gains height.

Daniel Realised that in a similar way, a

moving fluid exchanges its specific kinetic

energy for pressure, the former being the

kinetic energy per unit volume.

 Introduction to
bernoulli's principle

In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states

that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs

simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a

decrease in the fluid's potential energy. The

Principle is named after Daniel Bernoulli, as

mentioned before, who published it in his book

Hydrodynamica in1738. Although Bernoulli

deduced that pressure decreases when the flow

speed increases, it was Leonhard Euler who

derived Bernoulli's equation in its usual form in

1752. The Principle is only applicable for

isentropic flow when the effects of irreversible

processes(like turbulence ) and non-adiabatic

processes(e.g. heat radiation) are small and

can be neglected.Bernoulli's principle can be

applied to various types of fluid flow, resulting

in various forms of Bernoulli's equation;

There are different types of bernoulli's

equations for different types of flow.

The simple form of burnalis equation is valid

for incompressible flows(e.g. most liquid

flows and gases moving at low Mach number

). More advanced forms may be applied to

compressible flow at higher Mach numbers.

Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the

principle of conservation of energy.

This states that, in a steady flow, the sum of

all forms of energy in a fluid along a

streamline is the same at all points on that

streamline. This requires that the sum of

kinetic energy, potential energy and internal

energy remains constant. Thus an increase in

the speed of the fluid– implying an increase in

its kinetic energy (dynamic pressure )– occurs

with a simultaneous decrease in (the sum of)

its potential energy (including the static

pressure ) and internal energy. If The fluid is

flowing out of a reservoir, the sum of all forms

of energy is the same on all streamlines because

in a reservoir the energy per unit volume (the

sum of pressure and gravitational potential

ρgh) is the same everywhere.

Bernoulli's principle can also be derived

directly from IsaacNewton's Second Law of

Motion. If a small volume of fluid is flowing

horizontally from a region of high pressure to a

region of low pressure, then there is more

pressure behind than in front this gives a net

force on the volume, accelerating it along the

streamline

fluid particles are subject only to pressure and

their own weight; it's II a fluid flowing

horizontally and along a section of streamline.

Where is speed increase

Bernoulli's equation
The eq is given as :

P+1/2pv² + pgh = 0

When P is pressure,

p is the density of the fluid, v is its velocity,g is

the acceleration due to gravity and h is the

height of the fluid from the ground.

DERIVATION
 ●​Finding the Work Done

First, we will calculate the work done (W1)

on the fluid in the region BC .Work done is

W1 = P1A1 (v1∆t ) = P1∆V

Moreover, if we consider the equation of

continuity, the same volume of fluid will pass

through BC and DE . Therefore, work done by

the fluid on the right-hand side of the pipe or

DE region isW2 = P2A2 (2∆t ) = P2∆V

Thus, we can consider the work done on the

fluid as – P2∆V. Therefore, the total work

done on the fluid is W1 – W2

=(P1−P2)∆V

The total work done helps to convert the

gravitational potential energy and kinetic

energy of the fluid. Now, consider the fluid

density as ρ and the mass passing through the

pipe as ∆m in the ∆t interval of time.

H ence,

∆m = ρA1 v1∆t = ρ∆V

Change in Gravitational Potential and

Kinetic Energy

Now, we have to calculate the change in

gravitational potential energy ∆U .

Similarly, the change

in ∆K or kinetic energy can be written as

 ●​Calculation ofBernoulli’s Equation :

Applying work-energy theorem in the volume

of the fluid, the equation

Dividing each term by ∆V, we will obtain the

equation

Rearranging the equation will yield

The above equation is Bernoulli's equation.

H owever, the 1 and 2 of

both the sides of the equation denotes two

different points along the pipe.Thus, the

general equation can be written as

 EXPERIMENT
This experiment is aimed at investigating the

validity of

Bernoulli’s equation when applied to a steady

flow of water in tapered duct and to measure

the flow rate of steady flow rates.

Based on Bernoulli’s theorem relates the

pressure, velocity, and elevation in a moving

fluid the compressibility and viscosity (internal

friction) of which are negligible and the flow

of which is steady, or laminar.

For this experiment, by using the FM 24

Bernoulli’s ApparatusTest Equipment is to

demonstrate Bernoulli's theorem.

The experiment was conducted in order to find

the time taken to collect 3L of water, the

volumetric flow rates of the water, the

pressure difference at all manometer tubes at

different cross sections.

The time to collect 0.003 m3 water is recorded

based on the different flow rate for each

experiment.
The combination of venturi meter complete

with manometer tube and hydraulic bench were

used. During the experiment,

water is fed through a hose connector and the

flow rate can be adjusted at the flow regulator

valve at the outlet of the test section. The

venture can be demonstrated as a means of flow

measurement and the discharge coefficient can

be determined; the results show the reading of

each manometer tube increases when the

pressure difference increases. From the reading

of height can be calculated the data by applying

theBernoulli equation to find the velocity of the

fluid moving.The pressure level and velocity

reading for part A to E of the tube is recorded.

From Bernoulli theory, the relation between

the increase and decrease in the pressure value

is inversely proportional to its velocity.

Bernoulli's Principle tells that as the fluid

flows more quickly through the narrow

sections, the pressure actually decreases rather

than increases.

Thus, it proves the validity of Bernoulli’s

theorem.
 APPLICATIONS
In modern everyday life there are many

observations that can be successfully explained

by application of Bernoulli's principle, even

though no real fluid is entirely inviscid and a

small viscosity often has a large effect on the

flow

●​An injector on a steam locomotive(or static

boiler).
●​A De Laval nozzle utilizes Bernoulli's

principle to create a force by turning

pressure energy generated by the

combustion of propellants into velocity.

This then generates thrust by way of

Newton's third law of motion.

●​The pilot tube and static port on an

aircraft are used to determine the airspeed

of the aircraft. These two devices are

connected to the airspeed indicator, which

determines the dynamic pressure the

airflow past the aircraft. Dynamic

 pressure is the difference between

stagnation pressure and static pressure.

Bernoulli's Principle is used to calibrate

the airspeed indicator so that it displays

the indicated airspeed appropriate to the

dynamic pressure.

●​Bernoulli's principle can be used to

calculate the lift force on an airfoil, if the

behaviour of the fluid flow in the vicinity of

the foil is known. For example, if the air

flowing past the top surface of an aircraft

wing is moving faster than the air flowing

past the bottom surface, then Bernoulli's

principle implies that the pressure on the

surfaces of the wing will be lower above

than below. This pressure difference results

in an upwards lifting force. Whenever the

distribution of speed past the top and

bottom surfaces of a wing is known, the lift

forces can be calculated (to a good

approximation)using Bernoulli's

equations– established by Bernoulli over a

century before the first man-made wings

were used for the purpose of flight.

Bernoulli's principle does not explain why

 the air flows faster past the top of the

wing and slower past the underside.

●​The bernoulli's grip relies on the principle

to create a not contact adhesive between a

surface and the gripper

●​ The carburetor used in many reciprocating

engines contains a venturi to create a region

of low pressure to draw fuel into the

carburettor and mix it thoroughly with the

incoming air. The low pressure in the

throat of a venturi can be explained by

Bernoulli's Principle; in the narrow

throat, the air is moving at its fastest

speed and ) therefore it is at its lowest

pressure.

●​The flow speed of a fluid can be measured

using a device such as a Venturi meter or an

 orifice plate, which can be placed into a

pipeline to reduce the diameter of the flow.

For a horizontal device,the continuity

equation shows that for an incompressible

fluid, the reduction in diameter will cause

an increase in fluid flow speed

●​Subsequently, Bernoulli's principle then

shows that there must be a decrease in the

pressure in the reduced diameter region.

Thisphenomenon is known as the Venturi

effect.
●​The maximum possible drain rate for a

tank with a hole or tap at the base can be

calculated directly from Bernoulli's

equation, and is found to be proportional to

the square root of the height of the fluid in

the tank. This is Torricelli's law, showing

that Torricelli's law is compatible with

Bernoulli's principle. Viscositylowers this

drain rate. This is reflected in the

discharge coefficient, which is a function of

the Reynolds number and the shape of the

orifice.
CONCLUSION

Bernoulli's law states that if a non-viscous

fluid is flowing along a pipe of varying cross

section, then the pressure is lower at

constrictions where the velocity is higher,

and the pressure is higher where the pipe

opens out and the fluid stagnates.

Manypeople find this situation paradoxical

when they first encounter it (higher

velocity, lower pressure ). Venturimeter,

atomiser and filter pump Bernoulli’s

principle is used in venturimeter to find the

rate of flow of a liquid. It is used in a

carburettor to mix air and petrol vapour in

an internal combustion engine. Bernoulli’s

principle is used in an atomiser and filter

pump. Wings ofAeroplane Wings of an

aeroplane are made tapering. The upper

surface is made convex and the lower

surface is made concave.Due to this shape

of the wing, the air currents at the top have

a larger velocity than at the bottom.

Consequently the pressure above the

surface of the wing is less as compared to

the lower surface of the wing. This

difference of pressure is helpful in giving a

vertical lift to the plane.

BIBLIOGRAPHY ;
-​www.sciencefare.com

-​www.mycbseguide.com

-​PHYSICS NCERT CLASS XI