The functional design of surface mine

haul roads
by R.J. Thompson* and A.T. Visser†

total costs incurred by a surface mine, it is of

paramount importance that these costs are
Synopsis minimized. This becomes all the more critical
as tonnage increases and larger haul trucks
The functional design of a pavement relates to the selection of are deployed. Not only do the maintenance
appropriate wearing course materials which optimise the traffica- costs of existing roads of inadequate design
bility of a pavement. Trafficability is dictated to a large degree by
increase but, vehicle operating and
the choice, application and maintenance of locally available
maintenance costs also increase prohibitively.
wearing course materials. Poor functional performance results in
decreased safety and operational efficiency and increasing road
The operating performance of a pavement
and vehicle maintenance requirements. An optimal functional can be subdivided into three distinct design
design will include a certain amount and frequency of maintenance categories as defined in Figure 1. The
(watering, grading etc.) and thus maintenance itself can be structural design of surface mine haul roads
planned, scheduled and optimized within the limits of required road has been addressed previously (Thompson and
performance and minimum vehicle operating and road maintenance Visser)1,2. Just as important as the structural
costs. Since no wearing course material selection guidelines, strength of the design, is the functional
tailored to the specific needs of surface mines, were available, there trafficability of the pavement. This is dictated
was the need to identify appropriate selection guidelines for the to a large degree through the choice,
range of materials commonly encountered for road building on
application and maintenance of wearing course
South African mines.
materials. The current functional performance
The aim of this paper is to present an overview of the
functional design method for mine haul roads and, through an analysis methods are subjective and localised
analysis and quantification of existing wearing course material in nature and any deterioration in pavement
performance, to recommend appropriate wearing course material condition is consequently hard to assess. Poor
selection guidelines. The functional design technique has been functional performance is manifest as poor ride
applied at a number of mines and is illustrated by an application quality, excessive dust, increased tyre wear
case study which demonstrates the potential reduction in total and damage and an accompanying loss of
transportation operating costs associated with the optimal productivity. The result of these effects is seen
functional design. as an increase in overall vehicle operating and
maintenance costs.
The maintenance aspect of haul road
design cannot be considered separately from
the structural and functional design aspects
Introduction since the two are mutually inclusive. Design
and construction costs for the majority of haul
Surface mining in South Africa accounts for roads represent only a small proportion of the
over 70% of copper, 80% of ferrous metals and total operating and maintenance costs. Whilst
95% or 65 million tons of the land’s industrial it is possible to construct a mine haul road that
mineral mining. In the coal mining industry in requires no maintenance over its service life,
1997, over 40% or 106 million tons run-of- this would be prohibitively expensive—as
mine coal which requires inter alia, the would the converse, the latter in terms of
transport of raw coal from the pit to the operating and maintenance costs. An optimal
loading or transfer point, was produced by
opencast methods. In any surface mining
operation, the transport of ore, and to a lesser
extent waste, is accomplished by large haul
* Department Mining Engineering, University of
trucks running on haul roads that have, at
Pretoria, 0002.
best, been empirically designed with little or no † Department of Civil Engineering, University of
recognition of the consequences of inadequate Pretoria, 0002.
design on cost per ton hauled, operational © The South African Institute of Mining and
efficiency or safety. Considering that truck Metallurgy, 2000. SA ISSN 0038–223X/3.00 +
haulage costs can account for up to 50% of the 0.00. Paper received Feb. 1999.
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The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy MAY/JUNE 2000 169
The functional design of surface mine haul roads
layers. The functional design of a haul road is the process of
selecting the most appropriate wearing course natural gravel
or crushed stone and gravel mixtures that are commensurate
with safety, operational, environmental and economic
considerations.
Most mines use cost per ton material moved as an
immediate measure of haulage efficiency and in general
terms the contribution of haulage costs to total mining
working costs may vary between 10-50%. When considering
those factors influencing the cost per ton hauled and the
truck/road interaction, those with most significant impact on
the functional performance of the road are rolling resistance
and trafficability. These two factors can have a significant
impact on both immediate and long term performance and
Figure 1—Three components of a total haul road design strategy cost. Recent work by Paige-Green4 has illustrated that the
choice of wearing course material is critical to optimal
functional performance, not only in terms of rolling
resistance and trafficability, but also in terms of numerous
functional design will include a certain amount and other defects which, in combination, will greatly affect user
frequency of maintenance (watering, grading etc.) and thus costs or the cost per ton hauled.
maintenance can be planned, scheduled and optimised within Kaufman and Ault5 provide an early insight into haul
the limits of required road performance and minimum vehicle road functionality through a limited consideration of general
operating and road maintenance costs. The major problem road performance. They stated that the primary
encountered when analysing maintenance requirements for characteristics to be considered were road adhesion and
haul roads is the subjective and localised nature of the rolling resistance and the most practical construction
problem—levels of functionality or serviceability being user- materials recognised were asphaltic concrete, crushed stone
and site-specific. No guidelines exist for maintenance or gravel and stabilized earth. The concept of functionality
management and scheduling for specific levels of was not specifically introduced but rather alluded to in terms
functionality, nor for the cost implications thereof, both in of some of the defects reported with these various
terms of vehicle operating and road maintenance. construction materials. Large rocks were seen to lead to
Geometric design refers to the layout and alignment of excessive tyre replacement costs, whilst excessive fines or
the road, in both the horizontal (curve radius, etc.) and poor compaction led to dust problems. The impact of the dust
vertical (incline, decline, ramp gradients, cross-fall, super- problem on haulage operations was related to excessive
elevation etc.) plane, stopping distances, sight distances, vehicle maintenance costs and reduced visibility. Dust control
junction layout, berm walls, provision of shoulders and road by watering was associated with adhesion problems and
width variation, within the limits imposed by structural, erosion of the road surface, especially where poorly
functional and maintenance design parameters. The ultimate compacted or unstabilized earth was employed. In
aim is to produce an optimally efficient and safe geometric conclusion, they recommended crushed stone or good quality
design and considerable data already exists pertaining good natural gravel as wearing course materials, together with
engineering practice in geometric design. Suffice it to say that specifications for gradation and Atterberg limits.
an optimally safe and efficient design can only be achieved
Off-highway vehicles were until recently considered
when sound geometric design principles are applied in
‘rugged’ and the quality and condition of a mine haul road
conjunction with the optimal structural, functional and
were not sensitive factors in the application of surface mine
maintenance designs (Thompson et al)3.
transport. Recently, due to the increasing size and variation
The aim of this paper is to present an overview of the
in the design of haul trucks and the changing economic
functional design method for surface mine haul roads,
climate (altering the balance in the trade-off between haul
specifically the development of wearing course material
route quality, productivity and haul truck maintenance costs)
selection criteria. The results of a functional performance
more attention has been given to these factors. Kondo6
survey of existing wearing course materials are presented,
suggested that haul trucks are more sensitive to haul road
from which modelling and categorization of material
conditions when travelling at speed than are standard
performance and the derivation of optimal selection
vehicles with a more responsive suspension. This has been
parameters follows. The functional design technique has
attributed, in part, to the generation of harmonics in the
been applied at a number of mines and is illustrated by an
vehicle frame. Combined with high impact stresses produced
application case study which demonstrates the potential
by irregularities in the road, these vibrations can lead to
improvements in wearing course trafficability and the
metal fatigue, often manifest as failure of the goose neck
associated reduced maintenance requirements.
connections on bottom dump trucks. More recent work by
Deslandes and Marshall7 recognised haul road surface
Current State of Mine Haul Road Functional Design
quality as being an important factor influencing structural
Compacted natural gravel and crushed stone and gravel fatigue damage of haul truck frames. Recommendations were
mixtures have been widely used in strip coal mines for haul made with regard to road maintenance and construction
road construction, especially for base and wearing course practices generally in geometric terms, but also including
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170 MAY/JUNE 2000 The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
The functional design of surface mine haul roads
reference to the reduction of road surface roughness where maintenance costs. Improved functional performance implies
laden travel occurs and at bends and intersections. a reduction in pavement defects and since functional
performance is based almost entirely on qualitative measure,
Wearing Course Materials
it is useful to review typical unpaved road defects.
Work by Kaufman and Ault5 concerning the choice of McInnes9 introduced the concept of wearing course
wearing course materials highlighted the most appropriate trafficability in which a number of ideal requirements were
material characteristic design parameters, namely rolling alluded to. Building on and updating this approach, an ideal
resistance and adhesion. The most common wearing course wearing course for mine haul road construction can also be
material for haul roads remains compacted gravel or gravel considered by modifying public unpaved road requirements
and crushed stone mixtures. In addition to their low rolling following Netterberg14 and Paige-Green4;
resistance and high coefficient of adhesion, their greatest
• The ability to provide a safe and vehicle-friendly ride
advantage over other wearing course materials is that
without the need for excessive maintenance.
roadway surfaces can be constructed rapidly and at relatively
low cost. As with structural designs, if local mine material • Adequate trafficability under wet and dry conditions.
can be used for construction, the costs are all the more • The ability to shed water without excessive erosion.
favourable. This cost advantage is, however, not apparent in • Resistance to the abrasive action of traffic.
the long term if the characteristics of the wearing course • Freedom from excessive dust in dry weather.
material result in sub-optimal functional performance.
• Freedom from excessive slipperiness in wet weather.
Wearing course gravel characteristics have been
described additionally by Fung8, McInnes9, Atkinson and • Low cost and ease of maintenance.
Walton10 and Taylor and Hurry11. These specify, in general, The relative importance of the various characteristics
a good quality natural gravel or crushed stone. Whilst these comprising overall functional performance needs to be
limited characteristics broadly define the suitability of assessed, as they apply to mining operations. The effect of
materials used for wearing course construction, they are haul road functional performance and maintenance on mine
generally lacking in their ability to predict the functional economics and safety is not well defined at present. However,
performance of haul roads. Numerous material selection it is clear that a strong relationship exists between road
guidelines for unpaved public roads have been developed, structural and functional performance and safe, economically
including those of the Committee of State Road Authorities optimal mining operations.
(CSRA) TRH1412 and TRH2013, illustrated in Figure 2, which For existing operations, which may not have optimally
are based on performance or defect-related specifications. designed and maintained systems, the problem of identifying
The suitability of these guidelines needed to be investigated existing deficiencies, quantifying their impact and assigning
in terms of the required functionality of the haul road and the priorities within the constraints imposed by limited capital
performance of existing pavements. As a first step in and manpower, is problematic. Assessing the impact of
isolating typical haul road functional performance defects, it various haul road functional deficiencies in order to identify
is necessary to review ideal wearing course requirements. the safety and economic benefits of taking corrective actions
such as more frequent maintenance, regravelling or
Ideal Wearing Course Requirements betterment, is hampered by the lack of a problem-solving
Whilst immediate measures are useful to a mine in assessing methodology which can address the complex interactions of
short-term road functional performance, the definitive various components in a haulage system. This is reflected in
economic analysis of haul road functionality is based on the the fact that most surface mine operators agree good roads
comparison of the benefits and costs of providing other are desirable, but find it difficult to translate this into
alternatives. Benefits are seen as overall cost savings proposed betterment activities.
through increased productivity and reduced fuel, tyre and
Functional performance survey

A functional performance survey of existing wearing course

materials was undertaken to establish the trafficability of
existing wearing course materials used for haul road
construction and to ascertain the validity and applicability of
published (unpaved public road) selection guidelines. The
most efficient approach entailed the analysis of a number of
in-service mine roads which covered the greatest range of the
major factors influencing functional performance. This was
achieved through use of a designed factorial experiment
where a number of dependent (D) and independent (I)
variables (factors) were analysed at various levels. Table 1
summarizes these variables.
Choice of wearing course materials was limited to those
weathering products (as defined by Weinert15) typically
Figure 2—Wearing course gravel material selection guidelines for encountered in strip coal mining areas and included
public roads (after CSRA TRH2013) pedocretes, argillaceous, arenaceous, basic crystalline and
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The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy MAY/JUNE 2000 171
The functional design of surface mine haul roads

Table I indicated by a number where Extent 1 indicates an isolated

occurrence and Extent 5 an extensive occurrence of a
Summary of dependent and independent variables
particular type of distress. The descriptions of extent are not
and measuring systems
associated with a specific functional defect and the rating of
Variable Measurement System extent was applied only to those defects related to the
wearing course material. Defects relating to formation and
Traffic volume (D) Production statistics
function (drainage, erosion and skid resistance) are analysed
Wearing course material (I) Laboratory classification
Days since last maintenance (D) Mine records only in terms of degree. The general descriptions of degree
Moisture conditions of Functional assessment and extent are given in Addendum 1.
surface layer (D) methodology
Surface drainage conditions (D) Functional assessment methodology
By summing the product of each wearing course defect
Surface erosion (D) Functional assessment methodology degree and extent, formation and function (degree only), a
Functional performance (D) Functional assessment methodology total functional defect score could be found for each surveyed
Road geometry (I) Survey plans
Rut depth and corrugation geometry (D) Straight edge section of road. Figure 3 shows how individual and total
functional defect scores were characterised for one mine test
site.
acid crystalline, together with mixtures of these. Climate was
discounted as an independent variable since most strip coal Modelling haul road functional performance
mines were situated within the same physiographical (N-
value) region (following Weinert15) and thus the weathering A functional performance assessment of the mine test sites in
products used as levels for the independent variable of terms of individual defect score variations with time, does
wearing course material were unique and limited to that not enable predictions to be made regarding the effect of
physiographical region (N=2 to N=5). Sixteen test sites which traffic volume, wearing course material type, material
covered the greatest number of factors were established and properties or maintenance intervals on the functional
the functional performance of these sites was monitored over performance of the haul road; nor can the propensity of a
a 12-month period. particular material property to contribute to a particular haul
Since existing mine haul road functional performance road defect be analysed.
analysis methods were subjective and localized in nature, a The development of a predictive model for defect score
new visual assessment methodology was developed, based progression with time is critical both in terms of the
on recorded defects on unpaved public roads13,16 and the development of a maintenance design model for mine haul
Standard Visual Assessment Manual for Pavement roads and as a measure of pavement condition that can be
Management Systems17, suitably modified to accommodate directly associated with vehicle operating costs. The defect
the requirements of mine haul road operators. score at a particular point in time is a reflection of the type of
The condition of the pavement was considered from the wearing course material used and its engineering properties,
point of view of the road user and incorporated appraisal in the level of maintenance, season and traffic volumes. Whilst
terms of those characteristics that affect the quality of travel. a slight seasonal fluctuation in functionality was observed,
The assessment is entirely qualitative and to reduce the the comparatively frequent watering and blading activities on
amount of subjectivity involved, distress characteristics are mine haul roads obscured any significant seasonal
recorded in terms of degree and extent. The degree of a variations. Thus in the analysis of the effect of maintenance
particular type of distress is a measure of its severity. Degree on defect scores which follows, a combination of defect
is indicated by a number where Degree 1 indicates the first scores and maintenance interval data over both seasons was
evidence of a particular type of distress and Degree 5 very adopted and seasonality ignored.
severe distress. The extent of distress is a measure of how A defect score progression model was hypothized as
widespread the distress is over the test section. Extent is shown in Figure 4, based on four distinct traffic,
maintenance and wearing course material interactions;
(A) Immediately following maintenance there will be a
traffic induced reduction of loose material and dust
defect scores such that the post-maintenance defect
scores decrease overall.
(B) A minimum defect score will be acheived where the
progression changes from decreasing to increasing.
(C) The increasing traffic volumes and dynamic loadings
imposed on the road, together with an increase in
abrasion result in an increase in the defect scores until
traffic speed slows and wheel paths change to avoid
damaged sections.
(D) At this point the defect score would remain essentially
constant.
In the selection of a model for defect score progression, a
Figure 3—Typical functional performance assessment results over a 12- piecewise combination of two exponential curves was chosen
month monitoring period to represent the decreasing and increasing rate of change of
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172 MAY/JUNE 2000 The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
The functional design of surface mine haul roads
variables, as illustrated in Figure 4. The rate of change in
defect scores was calculated over a maintenance cycle and
these values used as the dependent variables in a multiple
correlation analysis in order to identify the significant factors
affecting defect progression. The independent variables listed
in Table 2 were evaluated.
The following models were proposed to describe the
defect score progression18;
LDD = 1,261 + DM(0,000121.CBR.KT-
0,02954.GC + 0.009824.SP.DR) [1]
LDDI = 1,7929 + D(0,002276.KT + GC(O,01029.
DR - 0,010887)) [2]
DSMAX = 35,0249 + 26,7827.M - 0,5672.KT +
1,6508.GC + 0,4464.SP - 10,9393.PI [3]
Since no statistically reliable model could be derived for
DM (days since last maintenance), recourse was made to the
Figure 4—Schematic illustration of the development of functional modal value of DM=2 days to locate the position of DSMIN.
defects on a haul road
The regression of DSMIN on the independent variables
rendered the following model:
DSMIN = 37,9146 - 0.15799.KT + 12.7093.M +
defect score with time (or traffic volume). Using a logarithmic 1,3836.GC - 0,08752.SP [4]
transformation of defect scores, a regression function was These predictive models, together with the assumption of
developed based on a linear combination of the independent the modal time since maintenance for the location of the
variables for the rate of defect score decrease (LDDD) and minimum defect score, enable the functional response of a
increase (LDDI). In addition, an expression for the minimum mine haul road to be modelled in terms of rates of decrease
defect score after maintenance (DSMIN) was sought together and, more importantly, rates of increase in defect score with
with its location in terms of days since maintenance (DM), time and traffic volumes. Figure 5 compares the prediction
both assumed to be a linear combination of the independent model with typical mine site defect score progression data,
using Equations [1] and [2] bounded by Equations [3] and
Table II [4], whilst Figure 6 illustrates the effect of traffic volume (kt
Independent variables used in the Defect Score per day) variation on defect score progression for one
particular set of material property and minimum defect score
Progression Model
values. As can be seen, if an intervention level (or maximum
Independent Description acceptable defect score) of 70 is used, given a monthly
Variable production of 230 000t a maintenance interval of 13 days is
KT Average daily tonnage hauled (kt) advocated. When the monthly tonnage hauled increases to 1
M Wearing course material type; 150 000t a maximum maintenance interval of seven days is
0=ferricretes implicated for the given wearing course material parameters
1=mixtures of materials used in the model.
P075 Percentage of material passing 0,075mm sieve Whilst a model of defect score progression is useful to
DR Dust ratio, defined as;
predict and compare the functional performance of a
P075
particular wearing course material (in terms of its
P425
where P425=percentage of material passing the 0,425mm sieve

PI Plasticity index
CBR 100% Mod. California Bearing Ratio of wearing
course material
GC Grading coefficient, defined as;
(P265 - P2)xP475
100
where P265=percentage of material passing the 26,5mm sieve
P2 =percentage of material passing the 2,0mm sieve
P475=percentage of material passing the 4,75mm sieve

SP Shrinkage product, defined as;

LSxP425
where LS= Bar linear shrinkage

PL Plasticity limit
D Days since last maintenance
DM Days between last maintenance and minimum
cycle defect score
DSMIN Minimum defect score in cycle Figure 5—Estimation characteristics of prediction model for rate of
increase in functionality defect score
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The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy MAY/JUNE 2000 173
The functional design of surface mine haul roads
upper limit of unacceptability for each defect.
The second area was quantified using an approach
developed by the United States Bureau of Mines Minerals
Health and Safety Technology Division (USBM)19, suitably
modified to accommodate those conditions or characteristics
previously identified as important in the functional
performance of wearing course materials. Respondents were
asked initially to decide if a given condition or characteristic
can affect either the truck, the tyres or the operation’s
productivity and the degree to which this occurs was scored.
The safety impact was estimated by scoring the accident
potential of each condition and characteristic. Respondents
were asked to consider each item in a broad sense, ie. scoring
in terms of its impact on average or typical daily operating
conditions on the haul road. Full details are presented
Figure 6—Effect of increasing traffic volume on defect score elsewhere18.
progression rates and associated maintenance interval In order to quantify these parameters various mines were
invited to complete a functionality rating questionnaire in
which both production and engineering personnel had
engineering properties and the effect of traffic volume on the inputs. To further quantify the limits of acceptability
road) with the acceptability requirements of the road-user, it respondents were also invited to categorize each defect in
is also useful to determine the propensity of a particular terms of its impact on the components of the hauling system,
material to form specific functional defects, through namely the truck, tyres or operation. In addition, haul truck
consideration of the material’s engineering properties. One of manufacturers were also invited to respond so as to qualify
the major objectives of defect score prediction was to compare mine operators’ functionality requirements with those of the
the proclivity of various types of materials to deteriorate over manufacturers. The results of the questionnaires represented
time. Results of the study are presented by Thompson18, over 169 years of operating experience with mine haul roads.
from which it is seen that, in keeping with other such In addition, the data was representative of nearly 70% of the
analyses, such deterioration models showed low R-squared total coal tonnage transported on mine haul roads in South
values with statistically significant correlations by virtue of Africa.
the large sample size, with the exception of material
Road-user Assessment of Functional Performance
properties which were defined over a much smaller inference
space than the previous studies, which may limit the
Limits
applicability of the models where materials significantly Figure 7 presents a summary of the responses in terms of the
different from those encountered during testwork are to be average acceptability limits for each functional defect, upon
assessed. which is superimposed results from one mine test site
Despite these limitations it may be concluded that showing the average range of defect score variation. From
wearing course geotechnical properties, especially the particle the figure it is evident that potholes, corrugations, loose
size distribution and plasticity, together with traffic volume, material, dustiness, loose stones and wet and dry skid
are the most important material parameters with regard to resistance are considered undesirable when the defect score
the prediction of deterioration progression. exceeds 3-4 (for skid resistance wet and dry, the assumed
extent of 5, representing conditions affecting the whole road,
Acceptability criteria for haul road functional artificially exaggerates the lower limit of desirability). It is
performance
Functional defect progression models and wearing course
parameter properties cannot be used to assess the
applicability of current material selection guidelines for
unpaved road construction without some measure of
acceptability limits for the various material, formation and
functional defects previously analysed. In this assessment of
acceptability the following areas were assessed;
1. Road-user assessment of desirable, undesirable and
unacceptable limits of performance for each functional
defect previously identified
2. The impact of these defects on the safety and
economics of a mining operation.
The first area was assessed by using the standard
descriptions of degree and extent for each wearing course,
formation and function defect referred to in Addendum 1. Figure 7—Range and annual average values for mine test site functional
Respondents classified the lower limit of desirability and the performance in relation to established performance limits
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174 MAY/JUNE 2000 The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
The functional design of surface mine haul roads
also seen that the defects of loose material, dustiness and
stoniness (fixed and loose) seldom exhibit desirable
performance, demonstrating the need for improved wearing
course material selection parameters.
Whilst establishing the acceptability limits for each
functional defect provides an insight into the ideal levels of
performance expected for a wearing course material, an
appraisal of the impact of these defects on the hauling
operation is necessary to qualify the extent to which defects
may affect economics and safety.
Road User Assessment of Defect Impact and
Accident Potential
The impact of a particular functional defect was quantified on
the questionnaire using the impact ranking scale which
reflects that common functional defects, resulting from a less Figure 9—Ranking of haul road functional defects from the combined
accident potential and impact scores
than optimal wearing course material (or maintenance
program) are not catastrophic. Results were compiled for
average annual functionality of a mine’s road. The results
echoed the road user assessment of functionality, with ranking aspects of functional performance that should enjoy
dustiness and wet skid resistance perceived as being primary priority when considering opposing selection criteria. The
defects affecting the operation, each accounting for an 11- methodology for ranking defects involved summing the
15% reduction in productivity. Impacts on the truck centred product of impact and accident potential for each defect to
on the defects of potholes, corrugations and skid resistance, give a cumulative score for each defect. The product of
accounting for downtimes of less than one shift. Impacts on cumulative impact score, cumulative defect score and
the tyre were similar, including, in addition, loose material accident potential then gave the overall ranking of the defect.
and stoniness, which account for a 5-10% decrease in tyre Figure 9 shows the actual ranking scores from which it is
life. Cracks were considered almost irrelevant in terms of evident that wet skid resistance has the greatest impact and
their impact on the hauling components. accident potential, followed by dustiness, dry skid resistance
The accident potential was determined in a similar and loose material. The formational aspects of drainage, both
fashion, in this case irrespective of which component of the on and off the road, are also significant in the ranking of
hauling it affected. The accident-potential scale assigned functional defects.
probabilities that the impact will occur, following USBM
guidelines. The average accident potential scores are given in Derivation of wearing course material specifications
Figure 8, from which it is seen that the defects of dust and
skid resistance are the functional factors most likely to cause The derivation of wearing course material selection
accidents. The formational defect associated with drainage on guidelines was based on the identification, characterization
the side of the road was recognised as having a high accident and ranking of haul road functional defects, as previously
potential, which also implicates the functional defect of loose discussed. Prior to the development of the specifications, a
material or in more general terms, wearing course material reference framework was developed within which suitable
erodibility, in accidents. specifications should fall.
The acceptability criteria were derived by combining Two approaches were adopted in deriving suitable
defect impact and accident potential, thus identifying and specifications. Initially, the important material property
parameters controlling both functional performance and
individual defect score progression rates, were assessed in
relation to the overall haul road functional performance
classification in order to identify likely trends and limits for
individual parameter values. Secondly, the suitability of the
wearing course material selection guidelines proposed in
TRH2013 as a source for mine haul road material
specification were analysed. This enabled specifications to be
developed which, whilst stipulating individual parameter
limits, also have predictive capabilities which contribute to an
understanding of the consequences when materials outside
the specified ranges are used as wearing course materials.

Haul Road Wearing Course Specification

Requirements
The development of suitable specifications for wearing course
materials should ideally encompass both individual wearing
Figure 8—Accident potential of haul road functional defects course material parameter specifications and a broader
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The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy MAY/JUNE 2000 175
The functional design of surface mine haul roads
indication of likely functional defects associated with individual defect contribution to overall performance. In
departure from the established guidelines. Ideal specification addition, the utility of existing guidelines was assessed in
requirements following Paige-Green4 are described below, terms of the extent to which such guidelines accommodate
modified for mine haul road operation and design; and reflect the various overall and individual defect rankings.
(i) They should be simple with as few requirements or test Assessment of Material Property and Performance
methods as possible. Relationships
(ii) They should be inexpensive, reproducible, necessitate
the minimum of sophisticated equipment and operator From the statistical analysis and modelling of overall road
training. and individual defect functional performance, the material
(iii) The limits should not be restricted to a narrow range of parameters of plasticity and grading were identified as
a significant property, but must also be adequately primarily controlling the functional performance of a haul
comprehensive in order to recognise and reject road. Specifically, the grading coefficient (GC), dust ratio
unsuitable materials. (DR), shrinkage product (SP), plasticity index (PI) and liquid
(iv) The specifications should not be unduly restrictive and (LL) and plastic (PL) limits were found to contribute to the
accommodate mine haul road construction cost and rate of defect score increase or decrease. Accordingly, these
material volume considerations. An indication of wearing course material property values were classified
the likely consequences of employing local mine according to the overall road or individual defect acceptability
material which falls outside the recommended levels (between A-C2) in an attempt to determine wearing
parameter range is useful. course material property limits.
The relative significance of each critical defect analysed is
Material selection guidelines must thus take cognisance
important when an overall classification of performance and
of the road-user functional performance requirements and
associated material properties is attempted. Greater
the limitations imposed by material availability, cost and
importance should be attached to those material properties
volume considerations. Since some defect/material property
associated with the more critical functional defects. This was
trade-off is inevitable when local mine construction materials
achieved by incorporating the defect weighting factors
are used, it is important to establish a performance ranking
derived from the assessment of acceptability criteria and
system in which material properties associated with critical
defect accident potential. In this manner, overall performance
defects enjoy priority over less significant defects, especially
was related to the criticality of a defect, those with high-
where opposing material selection parameters are
ranking scores contributing proportionally more to the overall
encountered.
ranking.
In the road-user assessment of defect acceptability
criteria, a number of defects which critically affect Derivation of Selection Guidelines
functionality were identified and considered to represent the
The TRH2013 wearing course material selection guidelines
critical defects which should be addressed in the derivation of
were developed from functional performance considerations
material specifications. Limits of acceptability were also
of unpaved public roads as described by Paige-Green4 in his
determined in terms of desirable, undesirable and
development of the guidelines, and thus were selected as the
unacceptable levels of defect score. These acceptability limits
most suitable basis for mine haul road wearing course
are categorized in Table 3. Since those mine sites exhibiting a
material selection. Figure 10 illustrates the location of each
reasonable level of functional performance were not
mine test site in terms of shrinkage product (SP) and grading
adequately differentiated from noticeably poorer sites, a
coefficient (GC) values and the overall functional
further sub-division of performance classification was
performance ranking (A-C2). From the figure it is clear that
developed in order to adequately differentiate between these
the majority of the mine sites lie within the recommended
sites and defects (upper B1 and C1) and lower (B2 and C2)
material selection limits (a’b’c’d’ in Figure 2). Of those sites
sub-groups.
lying outside the recommended limits (R1, R3, N1 and N3),
Using these acceptability levels (A-C2) it was possible to
only sites R1 and N3 exhibited the predicted excessive
investigate material property and performance relationships,
ravelling and corrugation defects.
both in terms of overall test site performance and the

Table III
Acceptability limits for critical functional defects
Acceptability Acceptability limits of Description of Operability
level defect score acceptability limits limits
• Corrugation • Wet skid
• Loose resistance
material • Dry skid
• Dustiness resistance
• Loose
stoniness

A <5 <5 Desirable Operable

B1 5-7 5 - 10 Undesirable (upper) Operable
B2 8 - 10 11 - 15 Undesirable (lower) Marginal
C1 11 - 17 16 - 20 Unacceptable (upper) Inoperable
C2 >17 >20 Unacceptable (lower) Inoperable Figure 10—Overall mine site functional performance classification in
relation to TRH20 specifications
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176 MAY/JUNE 2000 The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
The functional design of surface mine haul roads
The overall functional classification shown in Figure 10 individual defect performance is optimised (Area 1).
reveals that most of the test sites exhibited undesirable Extending this region to encompass poorer (but nevertheless
(lower B2) to unacceptable (upper C1) performance, albeit operable) performance enables an additional area (Area 2) to
operable. Of those sites lying outside the recommended limits be defined as given in Table 4 and Figure 11.
(R1, R3, N1 and N3), only sites R1 and N3 exhibited The suitability of the modified TRH20 technique of
unacceptable performance (upper C1) and were excluded wearing course material selection based on grading
from the modified recommended selection range for mine coefficient and shrinkage product parameters has been
haul road wearing course materials. Since all the mine test established, together with a range over which optimal
sites lie within or close to the recommended material performance is assured. This approach should be tempered
selection limits, points outside this area are ideally required through the consideration of the other material properties
to confirm the selection parameters. It is apparent that the identified as important in functional performance, but not
TRH20 specifications provide a suitable base for material directly assessed in the TRH20 technique. Table 4 presents a
specification and in addition, reflect the typical defect summary of these property limits, derived from the statistical
associated with departure from the specifications. If the three analysis of wearing course material defect progression rates.
most critical defects are considered in the light of the TRH20 Wearing course material specifications associated with
specifications, it appears that road-user preference is for the structural design of mine haul roads have been
much reduced wet skid resistance, dust and dry skid proposed1,2 in terms of TRH1412. In addition, haul road
resistance defects, at the expense of an increase in the other design work often specifies material requirements in terms of
defect scores. This alters the focus point of the specifications TRH14 and it is thus useful to consider the equivalence of
to an area bounded by a grading coefficient of 25-32 and a the latter to the modified specifications established in Table
shrinkage product of 95-130 in which the overall and 4. Material available on South African surface coal mines for
the construction of the wearing course, is derived from
borrow pits comprising, generally, ferricrete or similar
Table IV
materials and is classified (following TRH14) as G4-G7.
Using G4 material specifications, a location range can be
Recommended parameter ranges for mine haul determined for the equivalent TRH20 specification. The range
road wearing course material selection of grading coefficient lies between 12 and 52 and that of
Material Parameter Range Impact on Functionality shrinkage product between 30 and 90 (for the full allowable
Min Max grading variability specified in TRH14). Whilst the grading
coefficient parameter encompasses materials liable to erode
Shrinkage Product 85 200 Reduce slipperiness but prone to
ravelling and corrugation and to ravel, the shrinkage product lies in the range of
Grading Coefficient 20 35 Reduce erodibility of fine materials, material types associated with ravelling and corrugation only.
but induces tendency to ravel
If poorer quality materials are considered (G5-G7), although
Dust Ratio 0,4 0,6 Reduce dust generation but induces
ravelling no specific grading requirements are given in TRH14, the
Liquid Limit (%) 17 24 Reduce slipperiness but prone to increase in allowable linear shrinkage should improve the
dustiness
location range of these materials in terms of the optimum
Plastic Limit (%) 12 17 Reduce slipperiness but prone to
dustiness haul road material selection parameter ranges given in Table
Plasticity Index 4 8 Reduce slipperiness but prone to 4. It is clear that TRH14 alone does not provide sufficient
dustiness and ravelling
differentiation between material parameters and haul road
CBR at 98% Mod AASHTO 80 Resistance to ersosion, rutting and
improved trafficability defects to enable it to be used as a specification for mine haul
Maximum Particle size (mm) 40 Ease of maintenance, vehicle- road wearing course material selection.
friendly ride and no tyre damage

Wearing course material selection case study

The wearing course material as presently used at a mining

operation (M1) is depicted in Figure 12 in terms of the
proposed selection guidelines, together with two other
materials that could be used for blending with the current
wearing course (BS and ASH). When the wearing course
material is considered in relation to the recommended
optimal material selection ranges, besides being prone to
dustiness when dry, it may also present a skid resistance
hazard when wet (typically a slippery surface after rain or
watering).
If the wearing course material is modelled in terms of
how its functional defect score progression varies with the
interval between maintaining the road, the unsuitability of
the wearing course material is evident from the high defect
score and rate of deterioration, as shown in Figure 13. These
Figure 11—Optimum mine haul road wearing course material selection defect scores and optimum maintenance intervals may
ranges (1, 2) and general trends of increasing functional defect scores change, depending on the specific model parameters adopted.
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The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy MAY/JUNE 2000 177
The functional design of surface mine haul roads
In this case a daily production of 15kt was used; as tonnage commensurate with maximized safety and productivity. A
hauled increases, the rate of defect score increase also maintenance interval of 4 days would give the same
increases, as illustrated in Figure 6. minimum defect score as the unimproved wearing course
In order to improve the functional performance of the when a 2-day maintenance regime is applied. When
wearing course at the mine, some blending of materials was considering total haulage costs, the cost components
necessary. Using the recommended material specifications, in associated with operating the haul truck (fuel, tyres,
conjunction with the defect score progression model, it was maintenance parts and labour) and maintaining the road
possible to determine the optimal mix associated with the (grader and water-car operating costs) need to be analysed
best functional performance. In this case, 40% BS and 30% systematically in conjunction with the wearing course
ASH was added to the original wearing course, to achieve a materials.
mix within the specified selection range. Figure 13 shows the
much reduced predicted functional defect progression rate for Conclusions
the new wearing course when subjected to the same traffic
Functional design aspects refer to the ability of the haul road
volumes as previously. If maintenance is delayed, the defect
to perform its function, i.e. to provide an economic, safe and
score eventually stabilises at a much lower value than for the
vehicle-friendly ride. This is dictated to a large degree
original wearing courses. In terms of the optimal
through the choice, application and maintenance of wearing
maintenance interval required for the roads, it may be seen
course materials. The commonality between typical defects
that the materials are not as sensitive to over- or under-
reported for unpaved public roads and the functionality
maintenance as the original materials.
requirements for mine haul roads, indicated that existing
For the new wearing course material mix, a maximum
specifications for unpaved public road wearing course
maintenance interval of two days is recommended, this
construction materials would form a suitable base for the
maintenance interval giving the lowest average defect score,
development of specifications for mine haul roads. A
qualitative functional performance assessment methodology
was developed, based on typical haul road wearing course,
formation and function defects, in order to assess the utility
of established performance-related wearing course selection
guidelines and as a basis for revised functional performance
parameter specifications.
From the functionality assessment exercise it was found
that the major haul road functional defects encountered were
dustiness, loose material and fixed and loose stoniness. A
statistical analysis of deterioration and maintenance effects
associated with these key defects revealed that wearing
course material properties, especially grading and plasticity
parameters, together with traffic volume, could be used to
adequately model the functional performance of these key
defects. However, the applicability of the model was limited
by the relatively small inference space of the data and where
materials are encountered which differ significantly from
those assessed during the test work, judgement and care
should be exercised when applying the predicted results. In
Figure 12—Location of case-study mine 1 wearing course material in
comparison to recommended selection range determining suitable wearing course material selection
guidelines, this work confirmed qualitative observations that
grading and plasticity parameters would adequately
anticipate the functional performance of a wearing course
material.
The development of acceptability criteria for haul road
functionality fulfilled a requirement for a structured approach
to the assessment of mine haul road functionality. In
addition to assigning acceptability ranges to each type of
defect, the impact and accident potential of each defect was
categorized and ranked according to the total impact and
accident potential on the components of hauling, namely
operation, truck and tyre. It was concluded from the ranking
exercise that wet skid resistance, dustiness, erodibility and
ravelling and corrugating are critical defects which control
the functionality of mine haul roads and that the
consequences, in terms of the possible generation of these
defects, should therefore be incorporated into any suitable
Figure 13—Predicted variation of functionality for original and optimised selection criteria established for mine haul road wearing
wearing course materials course materials.
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178 MAY/JUNE 2000 The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
The functional design of surface mine haul roads

Addendum 1 Classification of haul road functionl defects

Characteristic Description

Degree 1 Degree 2 Degree 3 Degree 4 Degree 5

Potholes Surface is pock-marked Potholes 50-100mm diameter. Potholes 100-400mm diameter Potholes 400-800mm diameter, Potholes >800mm diameter,
<50mm diameter. and influence riding quality. influence riding quality and influence riding quality and
obviously avoided by most require speed reduction or
total vehicles. avoidance.

Corrugations Slight corrugations, difficult to Corrugations present and Corrugations very visible and Corrugations noticeable in haul Corrugations noticeable in haul
feel in light vehicle. noticeable in light vehicles. reduce riding qual;ity noticeably. truck and causing driver to ruck and causing driver to
reduce speed. reduce speed significantly.
Rutting Difficult to discern unaided, Just discernible with eye 20- Discernible, 50-80mm. Obvious from moving vehicle, Severe, affects direction
<20mm. 50mm. >80mm. stability of vehicle.
Loose material Very little loose material on Small amount of loose material Loose material present on road Significant loose material on Considerable loose material,
road, <5mm depth. on road to a depth of 5-10mm. to a depth of 10-20mm. road to a depth of 20-40mm. depth >40mm.
Dustiness Dust just visible behind vehicle. Dust visible, no oncoming Notable amount of dust, Significant amount of dust, Very dusty, surroundings
vehicle driver discomfort, good windows closed in oncoming windows closed in oncoming obscured to a dangerous level.
visibility. vehicle, visibility just vehicle, visibility poor.
acceptable, overtaking difficult.
Stoniness - fixed in Some protruding stones, but Protruding stones felt and Protruding stones influence Protruding stones occasionally Protruding stones require
wearing course barely felt or heard when heard in light vehicle. riding quality in light vehicle require evasive action of light evasive action of haul truck.
travelling in light vehicle. but still acceptable. vehicle.
Stoniness - loose on Occasional loose stone Some loose stone, 2-4/m2 Loose stone 4-6/m2, occasional Considerable loose stone on Large amounts of loose stone
road (>75mm diameter), <2/m2 discomfort felt. surface, >6/m2, reduce riding causing significant reduction in
quality. riding quality.
Cracks - longitudinal Faint cracks discernible when Distinct, mostly closed, easily Distinct, mostly open, Open cracks, >3mm separation Extensive open cracks, >3mm
surface cleaned. discernible when walking. discernible from vehicle. or wide open cracks >10mm separation together with
separation, in travelling lanes. secondary cracks or extensive
wide open cracks >10mm
separation, in travelling lanes.
Cracks - slip Faint cracks discernible when Distinct, mostly closed, easily Distinct, mostly open, Open cracks, >3mm separation Extensive open cracks, >3mm
surface cleaned. discernible when walking. discernible from vehicle. or wide open cracks >10mm separation together with
separation, in travelling lanes. secondary cracks or extensive
wide open cracks >10mm
separation, in travelling lanes.
Cracks - crocodile Very faint cracks in wheel Faint cracks discernible when Distinct cracks upto 2mm wide, Open cracks (>2mm) with Open cracks with severe
path. walking, closed. no apparent deformation. some deformation and/or deformation and/or spalling of
spalling of cracked areas. edges.
Skid resistance - wet Wearing course material of Wearing course strength and PI Wearing course strength low, Wearing course strength low, Wearing course strength very
good quality, road properly acceptable, road cambered PI fairly high, unsatisfactory PI high, water standing on low, PI very high, road very
cambered, little loose material loose material acceptable. camber and loose material. surface when raining, loose slippery when wet, loose
present. material influences skid material reduces skid
resistance significantly. resistance unacceptably.
Skid resistance - dry Wearing course material of Wearing course strength and PI Wearing course strength low, Wearing course strength low, Wearing course strength very
good quality, road properly acceptable, road cambered PI fairly high, unsatisfactory PI high, loose material low, PI very high, loose
cambered, little loose material loose material acceptable. camber and loose material. influences skid resistance material reduces skid
present. significantly. resistance unacceptably.
Drainage on road Very little water accumulates Shallow depressions may retain Water may be retained in ruts Water retained over a Water ponding on road to
on road, no surface erosion is water for a limited time, most and potholes, some surface significant portion of the road, depths >50mm and erosion
evident. water drains away rapidly. erosion evident. surface erosion <50mm deep channels deeper than 50mm.
in channels.
Drainage at roadside Side drains very effective, well Slightly irregular, some loose Drains irregular in shape, Drains irregular or eroded and Side drains deeply eroded or
shaped with no obstructions. debris or occasional erosion, blocked or eroded, road above blocked over >25% road non existent along 75% of
road well above side drain side drain level. length, road and side drain at road length or road surface
level. same elevation. below side drain.

The derivation of wearing course material selection addition, from analysis of the range of material property
guidelines was based on the identification, characterization parameters assessed and their association with the functional
and ranking of haul road functional defects. A reference defects analysed, parameter ranges were additionally
framework was developed within which suitable specified for density, dust ratio, Atterberg limits, CBR and
specifications should fall, based on an assessment of the maximum particle size. By analysing the trends evident in
requirements of good specifications in the light of functional the individual defect rankings, the predictive capability of the
defect ranking and acceptability limits. The TRH20 wearing specification was enhanced by depicting the variation in
course material selection guidelines were found to be a functional defects which would arise when departures are
suitable source for the specification of mine haul road made from recommended parameter limits.
wearing course material parameter requirements. A revised
range of parameters was derived based on the road-user Acknowledgments
preference for much reduced wet slipperiness, dustiness and The permission of Anglo Coal to publish this paper, together
dry skid resistance defects. The specification included the with their financial support for the research is gratefully
parameters of shrinkage product and grading coefficient and acknowledged, as is the assistance and co-operation received
limits of 85-200 and 20-35 respectively, were proposed. In from mine personnel.
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The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy MAY/JUNE 2000 179
The functional design of surface mine haul roads
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