Italian Spelling & Pronunciation - Key Points

Italian pronunciation is generally very consistent and phonetic, meaning words are pronounced
as they are written. This makes it easier to learn once you understand the basic rules.

I. The Italian Alphabet

●​ Italian uses the Latin alphabet, with only 21 letters.

●​ The letters j, k, w, x, y are not native to Italian and only appear in words imported from
other languages (e.g., English).

II. Vowels

Italian has 5 vowels: a, e, i, o, u. Their pronunciation is crucial and consistent:

●​ a: Like 'ah' in "bah" (e.g., cane - dog)

●​ e:
○​ Like 'eh' in "bet" (open 'e', e.g., bene - well)
○​ Also can be a closed 'e' like 'ay' in 'bay' but shorter and tenser (e.g., cena -
dinner)
●​ i: Like 'ee' in "beet" (e.g., vino - wine)
●​ o:
○​ Like 'oh' in "bought" (open 'o', e.g., oro - gold)
○​ Also can be a closed 'o' like 'oa' in 'boat' but shorter and tenser (e.g., sono - I am)
●​ u: Like 'ooh' in "boot" (e.g., uso - use)

Note on 'i' and 'u' acting as semi-consonants:

●​ i can sometimes sound like 'y' in "yes" (e.g., ieri - yesterday) or 'y' in "say" (e.g., mai -
never).
●​ u can sometimes sound like 'w' in "way" (e.g., uomo - man) or 'w' in "cow" (e.g., causa -
cause).

III. Single Consonants

Most single consonants are pronounced similarly to English, but with important distinctions:

●​ b: like 'b' in "bat" (e.g., bene)

●​ c:
○​ Before a, o, u: like 'k' in "cat" (hard 'c', e.g., cane)
○​ Before e, i: like 'ch' in "chin" (soft 'c', e.g., cena)
○​ ch (before e, i): like 'k' in "kid" (hard 'c' sound, e.g., chi - who)
○​ ci (before a, o, u): creates a 'ch' sound followed by the vowel (e.g., ciao - hi/bye)
●​ d: like 'd' in "dip" (e.g., dopo)
●​ f: like 'f' in "fair" (e.g., fare)
 ●​ g:
○​ Before a, o, u: like 'g' in "gas" (hard 'g', e.g., gatto)
○​ Before e, i: like 'j' in "gym" (soft 'g', e.g., gente)
○​ gh (before e, i): like 'g' in "go" (hard 'g' sound, e.g., ghiaccio - ice)
○​ gi (before a, o, u): creates a 'j' sound followed by the vowel (e.g., giacca - jacket)
○​ gli: a distinct 'ly' sound, like in "million" (e.g., figlio - son)
○​ gn: like 'ny' in "canyon" (e.g., bagno - bathroom)
●​ h: Silent (e.g., hotel). Used to distinguish verb forms (e.g., io ho - I have).
●​ l: like 'l' in "love" (e.g., latte)
●​ m: like 'm' in "man" (e.g., mano)
●​ n: like 'n' in "name" (e.g., nome)
●​ p: like 'p' in "pen" (e.g., pane)
●​ q: typically followed by 'u', sounding like 'k(w)' in "quick" (e.g., qui - here)
●​ r: a rolled 'r' (like a Spanish 'r' or Scottish 'r', e.g., rosso - red)
●​ s:
○​ Voiceless: like 's' in "sip" or "spin" (e.g., sale, specchio)
○​ Voiced: like 'z' in "zip" (often between vowels or before voiced consonants, e.g.,
casa, sbaglio)
●​ sc:
○​ Before a, o, u: like 'sk' in "skill" (e.g., scuola)
○​ Before e, i: like 'sh' in "shave" (e.g., scena)
○​ sch (before e, i): maintains the 'sk' sound (e.g., schema)
○​ sci (before a, o, u): creates a 'sh' sound followed by the vowel (e.g., sciarpa -
scarf)
●​ t: like 't' in "tent" (e.g., tanto)
●​ v: like 'v' in "vine" (e.g., vino)
●​ z: can be either 'ts' (like in "cats") or 'ds' (like in "lads") (e.g., zio - uncle). The exact
sound depends on the word.

IV. Double Consonants

●​ Italian double consonants are pronounced distinctly from single consonants.

●​ They are held for approximately twice as long as single consonants and pronounced
with more intensity.
●​ They occur between vowels or between a vowel and 'l' or 'r'.
●​ Examples: mamma, pizza, bello, caffè, occhio. This distinction is important for meaning
(e.g., casa vs. cassa).

V. Spelling Peculiarities & Capitalization

●​ Accent Marks: Used on the final vowel of words with a stressed final vowel (usually a
grave accent, e.g., città). They also distinguish between homographs (words spelled the
same but with different meanings), like e (and) and è (is).
●​ Capitalization:
 ○​ Standard English rules apply: beginning of sentences, proper nouns (names of
people, countries).
○​ Exceptions (not capitalized in Italian):
■​ The pronoun io (I)
■​ Titles (e.g., dottore, professore, signora)
■​ Months of the year, days of the week
■​ Adjectives and nouns referring to languages and nationalities (e.g.,
cinese, inglese, italiano)
○​ Polite forms: The polite pronoun Lei (you - formal) and its corresponding polite
Italian Nouns & Cognates - Key Points

I. Italian Nouns

●​ Gender: All Italian nouns have a gender: masculine or feminine. This is arbitrary;
there's often no logical reason why a chair (sedia) is feminine and a table (tavolo) is
masculine.
●​ Article Agreement: The article (e.g., "the") preceding a noun must agree with its
gender. For example, la sedia (feminine) and il tavolo (masculine).
●​ General Categories of Nouns (with Exceptions!):
○​ -o ending: Nouns ending in -o are usually masculine.
■​ Exceptions: Some abbreviated feminine words, like la foto (from
fotografia) and la moto (from motocicletta), are feminine.
○​ -a ending: Nouns ending in -a are usually feminine (singular forms).
■​ Exceptions: Some nouns, particularly those of Greek origin like il
problema, il clima, il panorama, are masculine.
○​ -e ending: Nouns ending in -e can be both masculine or feminine. This
category requires more memorization.
●​ Other Useful Guidelines (with Exceptions):
○​ Nouns ending with -ore, -one, or -ale are usually masculine.
○​ Nouns ending with -ione are usually feminine, especially abstract nouns (e.g.,
operazione).
○​ Most nouns ending in -tore form the feminine by changing the suffix to -trice
(e.g., attore - actor, attrice - actress; scrittore - writer, scrittrice - writer).
○​ Nouns ending with -e are often used for professions.
○​ Nouns ending with -ista and -cida have the same form for masculine and
feminine in the singular but different forms in the plural (e.g., la giornalista / il
giornalista in singular, le giornaliste / i giornalisti in plural).
●​ Importance of Gender: The gender of a noun can sometimes completely change its
meaning (e.g., il capitale - capital city vs. la capitale - capital).
●​ Memorization: A significant amount of memorization and immersion is required to grasp
all the exceptions and specific rules for noun genders.

II. Cognates
 ●​ Definition: Cognates are words that are frequently understood in another language
because they are similar in appearance, meaning, and sometimes pronunciation, due to
a common linguistic origin (often Latin, for Italian and English).
●​ Benefits: Cognates are an excellent shortcut for building vocabulary quickly when
learning Italian.
●​ Examples of Italian-English Cognates:
○​ televisione - television
○​ ambulanza - ambulance
○​ aspirina - aspirin
○​ bicicletta - bicycle
○​ pizza - pizza
○​ scuola - school
○​ esempio - example
○​ esercizio - exercise
○​ telefono - telephone
○​ musica - music
○​ professore - professor
○​ operazione - operation
○​ rosa - rose
○​ treno - train
○​ fortuna - fortune
○​ automobile - automobile
○​ industria - industry
○​ concerto - concert
○​ lezione - lesson
○​ oceano - ocean
○​ album - album
○​ computer - computer
○​ autobus - bus
○​ conversazione - conversation
○​ originale - original
○​ futuro - future
○​ minuto - minute
○​ zoo - zoo
●​ False Cognates (False Friends): Be cautious! Not all words that look similar have the
same meaning. These are called "false cognates" or "false friends."
○​ Examples from the list:
■​ estate (Italian) means summer, not estate.
■​ parenti (Italian) means relatives, not parents.
■​ genitori (Italian) means parents.
○​ forms are often capitalized, though this is optional.

Italian "Basics 1" Notes

This lesson covers fundamental Italian grammar points: personal subject pronouns, definite and
indefinite articles, infinitive verbs, and verb conjugations, along with some basic vocabulary.

I. Personal Subject Pronouns

●​ Definition: Words that replace nouns and indicate who is performing an action (e.g., I,
you, he, she, we, they).
●​ Number:
○​ Singular (4):
■​ io (I)
■​ tu (you - singular, informal)
■​ lui (he)
■​ lei (she)
○​ Plural (3):
■​ noi (we)
■​ voi (you - plural, informal/formal)
■​ loro (they)
●​ Usage:
○​ Usually Dropped: Italian verb conjugations typically make the subject clear, so
pronouns are often omitted.
○​ When Used: For emphasis, or when the subject might be unclear.

II. Definite Articles ("the")

●​ Meaning: "The" in English.

●​ Variation: Italian definite articles change based on the gender, number, and first letter
of the noun they precede.
●​ Common Forms (Singular, as per lesson):
○​ il: Used for most masculine singular nouns (e.g., il ragazzo - the boy)
○​ l': Used for masculine and feminine singular nouns beginning with a vowel (e.g.,
l'uomo - the man, l'acqua - the water)
○​ la: Used for most feminine singular nouns (e.g., la ragazza - the girl)
○​ lo: Used for masculine singular nouns beginning with:
■​ s + consonant (e.g., lo zucchero - the sugar)
■​ z (e.g., lo zio - the uncle, not in vocab provided but common example)
■​ Less common: gn, pn, ps, y

III. Indefinite Articles ("a/an")

●​ Meaning: "A" or "an" in English.

●​ Usage: Used only with singular nouns.
●​ Forms (Singular, as per lesson):
○​ un: Used for most masculine singular nouns (e.g., un pane - a bread)
○​ un': Used for all words (masculine or feminine) beginning with a vowel (e.g.,
un'acqua - a water, un'anima - a soul)
 ○​ una: Used for most feminine singular nouns (e.g., una mela - an apple)
○​ uno: Used for masculine singular nouns beginning with:
■​ s + consonant
■​ z
■​ Less common: gn, pn, ps, y

IV. Infinitive Verbs

●​ Definition: The verb in its most basic, unchanged form (e.g., "to eat").
●​ Structure: Italian infinitives are always one word (unlike English "to eat").
●​ Endings for Regular Verbs:
○​ -are (e.g., mangiare - to eat)
○​ -ere (e.g., vivere - to live, bere - to drink)
○​ -ire (e.g., dormire - to sleep)
●​ Tip: A few verbs end in -urre (e.g., produrre, ridurre, tradurre).

V. Verb Conjugations (Present Tense)

●​ Definition: Changing the infinitive verb to match the subject pronoun (who is doing the
action).
●​ essere (to be): An irregular but essential verb.
○​ io sono (I am)
○​ tu sei (you (sing.) are)
○​ lui/lei è (he/she/it is)
○​ noi siamo (we are)
○​ voi siete (you (pl.) are)
○​ loro sono (they are)
●​ mangiare (to eat) - (-are verb):
○​ io mangio (I eat)
○​ tu mangi (you (sing.) eat)
○​ lui/lei mangia (he/she/it eats)
○​ noi mangiamo (we eat)
○​ voi mangiate (you (pl.) eat)
○​ loro mangiano (they eat)
●​ bere (to drink) - (-ere verb):
○​ io bevo (I drink)
○​ tu bevi (you (sing.) drink)
○​ lui/lei beve (he/she/it drinks)
○​ noi beviamo (we drink)
○​ voi bevete (you (pl.) drink)
○​ loro bevono (they drink)

VI. Vocabulary

●​ il ragazzo (boy)
 ●​ l'uomo (man)
●​ la ragazza (girl)
●​ la donna (woman)
●​ la mela (apple)
●​ l'acqua (water)
●​ lo zucchero (sugar)
●​ il pane (bread)
●​ essere (to be)
●​ mangiare (to eat)
●​ bere (to drink)

Italian "Basics 2" Notes

This lesson expands on articles, introduces irregular verbs, and provides more verb
conjugations and vocabulary.

I. Plural Articles ("the")

In Italian, "the" has different plural forms depending on the noun's gender and its starting
letter(s).

●​ gli: Used for masculine plural nouns that begin with:

○​ Vowels (e.g., gli uomini - the men)
○​ s + consonant (e.g., gli studenti - the students)
○​ z (e.g., gli zii - the uncles)
○​ Also: y, gn, pn, ps (less common)
●​ i: Used for masculine plural nouns in all other cases (e.g., i ragazzi - the boys, i libri -
the books).
●​ le: Used for all feminine plural nouns (e.g., le ragazze - the girls, le donne - the women,
le mele - the apples).

II. Irregular Verbs

Italian irregular verbs don't follow the typical conjugation patterns. They must be memorized.

●​ Most Frequently Used Irregular Verbs (Present Tense):

○​ essere (to be) - Already covered in Basics 1, but noted here as a key irregular
verb.
○​ avere (to have)
○​ dire (to say, tell)
○​ dare (to give)
○​ venire (to come)
 ○​ andare (to go)
○​ volere (to want)
○​ potere (to be able to, can)
○​ dovere (to have to, must)

III. Verb Conjugations (Present Tense)

This section provides present tense conjugations for three verbs, highlighting a regular -ere
verb, a regular -ere verb, and an irregular verb.

●​ leggere (to read) - (Regular -ere verb):

○​ io leggo (I read)
○​ tu leggi (you (sing.) read)
○​ lui/lei legge (he/she/it reads)
○​ noi leggiamo (we read)
○​ voi leggete (you (pl.) read)
○​ loro leggono (they read)
●​ scrivere (to write) - (Regular -ere verb):
○​ io scrivo (I write)
○​ tu scrivi (you (sing.) write)
○​ lui/lei scrive (he/she/it writes)
○​ noi scriviamo (we write)
○​ voi scrivete (you (pl.) write)
○​ loro scrivono (they write)
●​ avere (to have) - (Irregular verb):
○​ io ho (I have)
○​ tu hai (you (sing.) have)
○​ lui/lei ha (he/she/it has)
○​ noi abbiamo (we have)
○​ voi avete (you (pl.) have)
○​ loro hanno (they have)

IV. Vocabulary

●​ i ragazzi (boys)
●​ gli uomini (men)
●​ le ragazze (girls)
●​ le donne (women)
●​ il libro (book)
●​ il giornale (newspaper)
●​ leggere (to read)
 ●​ scrivere (to write)
●​ avere (to have)

Italian "Phrases" Notes

This lesson focuses on essential conversational phrases, including expressing

agreement/disagreement, making negative statements, greetings, and polite expressions.

I. Yes or No

●​ sì (yes): Don't forget the accent mark above the 'i' (ì).
○​ Caution: Without the accent (si), the word means "self, himself, herself" (related
to reflexive verbs).
●​ no (no): Simple and straightforward.

II. Negative Statements

●​ Rule: To make a sentence negative, simply place the word non directly before the main
verb.
●​ Examples:
○​ Io gioco a scacchi. (I play chess.)
○​ Io non gioco a scacchi. (I do not play chess.)
○​ Mi piace il regalo. (I like the gift.)
○​ Non mi piace il regalo. (I do not like the gift.)

III. Greetings

●​ Italian greetings vary based on formality, time of day, and whether you are meeting or
parting.
●​ Informal (Meeting & Parting):
○​ Ciao: Very informal, used for both "hello" and "goodbye."
●​ Semi-Formal (Meeting & Parting):
○​ Salve (hello)
○​ Arrivederci (goodbye)
●​ Formal (Usually Meeting, can be Parting):
○​ Buongiorno (good morning)
○​ Buonasera (good evening)
●​ Parting (Formal or Informal):
○​ Buona giornata (good day, have a nice day)
 ○​ Buona serata (good evening, have a good evening)
●​ Always Parting (presumes going to sleep):
○​ Buonanotte (good night) - can be formal or informal.
●​ Serious Parting (rarely used):
○​ Addio (farewell) - implies you will likely never see the person again.

IV. Politeness

●​ Thank You:
○​ Grazie (thank you) - common.
●​ You're Welcome:
○​ Prego (you're welcome) - typical reply to grazie.
●​ Please:
○​ Per favore
○​ Per piacere (both commonly used when asking for something)
●​ I'm Sorry:
○​ Mi dispiace (I'm sorry) - informal and most often used.
○​ Sono spiacente (I'm sorry) - very formal and infrequently used.
●​ Tip: The word pronto (ready) is also used by Italians when answering the phone,
meaning "ready to speak."

V. Vocabulary

●​ ciao (hello, goodbye)

●​ arrivederci (goodbye)
●​ sì (yes)
●​ no (no)
●​ non (not)
●​ buongiorno (good morning)
●​ buonasera (good evening)
●​ buonanotte (good night)
●​ grazie (thank you)
●​ prego (you're welcome)
●​ per favore (please)
●​ spiacente (sorry)

Italian "INGREDIENTS" Notes

This section explains how Italian expresses the presence of ingredients in dish names and
clarifies the difference between "bacon" and "pancetta," along with related vocabulary.
I. Expressing Ingredients in Dish Names

Italian uses different prepositions or structures depending on how the ingredient relates to the
dish:

1.​ di (of): Used when the ingredient is the main or only component of the dish.
○​ Example: succo di limone (lemon juice) - The lemon is the core component of
the juice.
2.​ con (with): Used when the ingredient is a visible component or used as a garnish.
○​ Example: fragole con panna (strawberries with cream) - The cream is an added,
visible element to the strawberries.
3.​ al/alla/ai/alle (to the / with the): Used when the dish is flavored with or tastes
like the ingredient. This is often a contracted preposition (a + definite article).
○​ Example: gelato al cioccolato (chocolate ice cream) - The ice cream has a
chocolate flavor.

II. Bacon vs. Pancetta

●​ Pancetta: Considered "Italian bacon" and is much more common in Italy than
American-style bacon.
●​ Similarities: Both are typically made from pork belly, are cured, and need to be
cooked before eating.
●​ Key Difference: Bacon is smoked after curing, using various woods for unique
flavors, whereas pancetta is typically unsmoked.
●​ Ordering in Italy: If you want "bacon" for breakfast in Italy, you will most likely need to
order pancetta.

III. Tips & Vocabulary

●​ "Having Food" Idiom: The English idiom "having food" (meaning "eating food") does
not apply to Italian.
○​ Avere cibo simply means "to own food." You would use verbs like mangiare (to
eat) or bere (to drink) instead.
●​ "Bowl" Synonyms: Along with ciotola (learned in this lesson), scodella is also
commonly used for "bowl."

IV. Vocabulary

●​ il caffè (coffee)
●​ il latte (milk)
 ●​ la crema (cream)
●​ il cioccolato (chocolate)
●​ il biscotto (cookie)
●​ la tazza (cup)
●​ il gelato (ice cream)
●​ il cibo (food)
●​ la frutta (fruit)
●​ la banana (banana)
●​ la caramella (candy)
●​ la carota (carrot)
●​ il piatto (plate)
●​ il fagiolo (bean)
●​ il manzo (beef)
●​ la birra (beer)
●​ la bottiglia (bottle)
●​ la ciotola (bowl)
●​ la colazione (breakfast)
●​ il burro (butter)
●​ la torta (cake)
●​ il formaggio (cheese)
●​ il pollo (chicken)
●​ il cuoco (cook)
●​ la cena (dinner)
●​ la bevanda (beverage)
●​ il pranzo (lunch)
●​ l'uovo (egg)
●​ la pancetta (bacon)
●​ il pesce (fish)
●​ la forchetta (fork)
●​ il fritto (fried)
●​ l'aglio (garlic)
●​ il bicchiere (glass)
●​ l'uva (grapes)
●​ bollire (to boil)
●​ cucinare (to cook)
●​ tagliare (to cut)

Italian "Plurals" Notes

This lesson details the rules for forming plural nouns in Italian, focusing on the changes in noun
endings based on gender, and provides important exceptions.

I. Masculine vs. Feminine Plural Noun Classes

Italian nouns change their ending to form the plural, and these changes are closely tied to their
gender.

●​ Class 1: Feminine (most common)​

○​ Singular ending: -a
○​ Plural ending: -e
○​ Example: la ragazza | le ragazze (the girl | the girls)
●​ Class 2: Masculine (most common)​

○​ Singular ending: -o
○​ Plural ending: -i
○​ Example: il ragazzo | i ragazzi (the boy | the boys)
●​ Class 3: Can be either gender​

○​ Singular ending: -e
○​ Plural ending: -i
○​ Example: il pesce | i pesci (the fish | the fish/fishes) - Note: While the article
changes, the noun itself can look the same in English plural.
●​ Class 4: Masculine (often of Greek origin)​

○​ Singular ending: -a
○​ Plural ending: -i
○​ Example: il problema | i problemi (the problem | the problems) - These are
masculine nouns despite ending in -a in the singular.

II. Tips (Common Exceptions)

It's crucial to be aware of these common exceptions to the general pluralization rules:

●​ Words ending with a grave accent:​

○​ These words do not change their final letter in the plural.

○​ Only the article changes.
○​ Example: la città (the city) → le città (the cities)
●​ Masculine nouns ending in -co:​

○​ Change to -chi in the plural.

○​ Example: cuoco (cook) → cuochi (cooks)
●​ Feminine nouns ending in -ca:​

○​ Change to -che in the plural.

 ○​ Example: amica (friend - fem.) → amiche (friends - fem.)
○​ Example: mucca (cow) → mucche (cows)
●​ Gender-specific usage:​

○​ While gatto (cat) is masculine, it can be used in a feminine form (gatta) when
specifically referring to female cats, and thus pluralized as gatte.

III. Vocabulary (Plural Forms)

●​ i libri (books)
●​ gli animali (animals)
●​ i giornali (newspapers)
●​ i cavalli (horses)
●​ i pesci (fish)
●​ i piatti (plates)
●​ le gatte (cats - fem.)
●​ i gatti (cats - masc.)
●​ gli uccelli (birds)
●​ le bottiglie (bottles)
●​ i bicchieri (glasses)
●​ i cuochi (cooks)
●​ gli insetti (insects)
●​ le mele (apples)
●​ le torte (cakes)
●​ le farfalle (butterflies)
●​ le mucche (cows)
●​ le banane (bananas)
●​ i polli (chickens)
●​ i biscotti (cookies)
●​ gli elefanti (elephants)
●​ le caramelle (candies)
●​ le forchette (forks)
●​ i cani (dogs)
●​ i panini (sandwiches)

Italian "Animals" Notes

This lesson introduces a basic vocabulary list of common animals, emphasizing those you might
encounter daily or at a zoo, rather than those unique to Italy.

I. Focus of the Lesson

●​ The primary goal is to learn a foundational set of animal names.

 ●​ While Italy has unique species, this lesson prioritizes widely recognized animals for
beginner vocabulary building.

II. Vocabulary (Animals)

●​ l'animale (animal)
●​ il gatto (cat)
●​ il cane (dog)
●​ l'uccello (bird)
●​ il cavallo (horse)
●​ la scimmia (monkey)
●​ il topo (mouse)
●​ il leone (lion)
●​ la formica (ant)
●​ l'orso (bear)
●​ l'ape (bee)
●​ la farfalla (butterfly)
●​ la mucca (cow)
●​ il delfino (dolphin)
●​ l'anatra (duck)
●​ l'elefante (elephant)
●​ la mosca (fly)
●​ l'insetto (insect)
●​ lo squalo (shark)
●​ il serpente (snake)
●​ il ragno (spider)
●​ la tigre (tiger)
●​ la tartaruga (turtle)
●​ la balena (whale)
●​ il lupo (wolf)
●​ lo zoo (zoo)
●​ il toro (bull)
●​ il pinguino (penguin)

Italian "Food 2" Notes

This lesson focuses on idiomatic expressions related to hunger, thirst, and daily meals, along
with an expanded vocabulary list for food and dining.

I. Expressing Hunger and Thirst

●​ Key Concept: Italians express hunger and thirst using the verb avere (to have), not
essere (to be). They conceptualize hunger/thirst as something they possess, rather than
something they are.
●​ "I am hungry":
 ○​ Incorrect: io sono fame
○​ Correct: Ho fame. (Literally: "I have hunger.")
●​ "I am thirsty":
○​ Incorrect: io sono sete
○​ Correct: Ho sete. (Literally: "I have thirst.")

II. Three Daily Meals

●​ Important Distinction: Italians do not use the verb mangiare (to eat) when referring to
the daily meals (colazione, pranzo, cena).​

●​ Breakfast (colazione):​

○​ Uses the verb fare (to do/make).

○​ Examples:
■​ Giovanni non fa colazione al mattino. (Johnny does not eat breakfast in
the morning.)
■​ Facciamo colazione nel pomeriggio. (We have breakfast in the
afternoon.)
●​ Lunch (pranzo) and Dinner (cena):​

○​ These meals have their own specific verb forms: pranzare (to have lunch) and
cenare (to have dinner).
○​ Examples:
■​ Oggi non pranzo. (I'm not having lunch today.)
■​ Ceniamo la notte. (We have dinner at night.)

III. Vocabulary

●​ la fragola (strawberry)
●​ la marmellata (jelly)
●​ la limonata (lemonade)
●​ il limone (lemon)
●​ l'arancia (orange)
●​ la bistecca (steak)
●​ il tè (tea)
●​ la griglia (grill)
●​ il ghiaccio (ice)
●​ l'ingrediente (ingredient)
●​ il succo (juice)
●​ la cucina (kitchen)
 ●​ il coltello (knife)
●​ il pasto (meal)
●​ la carne (meat)
●​ il menu (menu)
●​ l'olio (oil)
●​ la cipolla (onion)
●​ la pasta (pasta)
●​ il pepe (pepper)
●​ il maiale (pork)
●​ la patata (potato)
●​ la ricetta (recipe)
●​ il ristorante (restaurant)
●​ il riso (rice)
●​ l'insalata (salad)
●​ il sale (salt)
●​ il panino (sandwich)
●​ la salsiccia (sausage)
●​ la zuppa (soup)
●​ il pranzo (lunch)
●​ la cena (dinner)
●​ la colazione (breakfast)
●​ il cucchiaio (spoon)
●​ il pomodoro (tomato)
●​ il tacchino (turkey)
●​ la verdura (vegetable)
●​ il cameriere (waiter)
●​ il vegetariano (vegetarian)
●​ il vino (wine)
●​ il fungo (mushroom)
●​ dolce (sweet)
●​ acido (sour)
●​ gusto (taste)
●​ fame (hunger)
●​ sete (thirst)
●​ pranzare (to have lunch)
●​ cenare (to have dinner)

Italian "Possession" Notes

This lesson details how to use possessives in Italian, including possessive adjectives and
pronouns, their agreement rules, common exceptions, and the use of proprio.

I. Possessives: Definite Article + Possessive Adjective

 ●​ Structure: Italian possessives are formed by combining a definite article (il, la, i, le)
with a possessive adjective.
●​ Agreement: They agree in gender and number with the thing being
described/owned, not the owner.

Possessive Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine English

Adjective Singular Singular Plural Plural Meaning

My, Mine il mio la mia i miei le mie My, Mine

Your, Yours il tuo la tua i tuoi le tue Your, Yours

(sing.)

His, Hers, Its il suo la sua i suoi le sue His, Hers,

Its

Our, Ours il nostro la nostra i nostri le nostre Our, Ours

Your, Yours il vostro la vostra i vostri le vostre Your, Yours

(plur.)

Their, Theirs il loro la loro i loro le loro Their, Theirs

*Note: *loro* does not change its ending for gender/number, but the article still agrees with the
noun.*

●​ Examples:​

○​ il mio cane (my dog) — cane (dog) is masculine singular, so use il and
mio.
○​ la mia pizza (my pizza) — pizza is feminine singular, so use la and mia.
 ●​ Third Person (suo/loro) Clarification: Even though in English "his, her, its" refer to
the owner's gender, in Italian, il suo/la sua/i suoi/le sue and il loro/la
loro/i loro/le loro agree with the gender and number of the object owned.​

○​ il cane di Giulia (Giulia's dog) > il suo cane — cane is masculine, so

use masculine suo, even though Giulia is female.

II. Possessive Pronouns (Possessives as Nouns)

●​ Formation: Formed using the definite article and the possessive adjective.
●​ Agreement: They agree with the object they describe, even if the object is not explicitly
stated in the sentence.
●​ Example:
○​ Dov’è la tua macchina? (Where is your car?)
○​ La mia è qui. (Mine is here.) — La mia refers to "my car," which is feminine,
hence la mia.

III. Tips & Exceptions

●​ Mandatory Article: An article is almost always mandatory before a possessive.​

●​ Exceptions (when the article is not used):​

○​ Close Family Members (singular and unmodified): Not used before singular,
unmodified nouns referring to close family members.
■​ Example: mio padre (my father)
■​ BUT: The possessive loro always requires the article, even with family
members (e.g., la loro madre - their mother).
○​ Optional with essere: The article is optional when the possessive adjective
stands alone after a form of essere.
■​ Example: È mio. (It's mine.)
○​ Set Phrases: Not used in a small number of fixed phrases.
■​ Example: casa mia (my home)
●​ Proprio (One's Own):​

○​ Meaning: A possessive adjective meaning "one's own" or "of one's own."

○​ Usage: Can be used in place of suo and loro to make the meaning clearer or
more precise, often emphasizing ownership.
○​ Examples:
■​ Lui è arrivato con la propria macchina. (He arrived in his
own car.)
 ■​ Donatello ama il proprio lavoro. (Donatello loves his "own"
job.)
●​ Possessive After the Noun:​

○​ Sometimes, the possessive can come after the noun to add more meaning,
emotion, or emphasis.
○​ Examples:
■​ il mio amico → amico mio! (my friend! / O, my friend!)
■​ la mia figlia → figlia mia! (my daughter! / O, my daughter!)
■​ È il mio cane → È il cane mio! (It's my dog! / It's the dog of
mine!)

IV. Vocabulary (Example Phrases)

●​ I miei cani mangiano carne. (My dogs eat meat.)

●​ Tuo fratello suona la chitarra. (Your brother plays the guitar.)
●​ Le sue sorelle sono divertenti. (His/Her sisters are funny.)
●​ I loro genitori sono molto vecchi. (Their parents are very old.)
●​ La loro nonna si chiama Maria. (Their grandmother's name is Maria.)
●​ Nostro padre è un contadino. (Our father is a farmer.)
●​ Io ho i vostri panini. (I have your sandwiches.)
●​ La ragazza mangia i propri biscotti. (The girl eats her own cookies.)
●​ Posso giocare con i tuoi cani? (Can I play with your dogs?)
●​ Il mio gatto beve latte. (My cat drinks milk.)
●​ La sua macchina è gialla. (His/Her car is yellow.)
●​ Le farfalle sono nostre. (The butterflies are ours.)
●​ Insegna il proprio figlio. (Teach your/one's own child.)
●​ Lui ha la mia giacca. (He has my jacket.)
●​ I libri sono nostri. (The books are ours.)

Italian "Clothing" Notes

This lesson introduces vocabulary related to clothing, specifically distinguishing types of shirts
and clarifying terms for "sock" and "stocking."

I. Distinguishing Types of Shirts

While there can be some overlap in translation, here's a general guide for different types of
upper body clothing in Italian:

●​ maglione: (sweater) - Typically a heavier, knitted garment.

●​ maglia: (shirt made with a heavier cloth, like a jersey) - Suggests a more substantial
fabric than a t-shirt, often athletic or casual.
●​ maglietta: (t-shirt) - The most common term for a lightweight, short-sleeved casual shirt.
 ●​ camicia: (casual shirt with a collar and buttons) - Refers to a button-up shirt, often for
men, but can be casual.
●​ camicetta: (blouse) - Typically refers to a more formal or dressy shirt, often for women.

II. "Sock" vs. "Stocking" Clarification

●​ calza: This term is interpreted as "sock" in the lesson, but it is more accurately a
woman's "stocking" (e.g., pantyhose, nylon stockings).
●​ calzino: This is the Italian word for a more conventional "sock" (e.g., athletic socks,
men's dress socks).

III. Vocabulary

●​ l'abbigliamento (clothing)
●​ i pantaloni (pants)
●​ la camicia (dress shirt)
●​ la camicetta (blouse)
●​ la scarpa (shoe)
●​ il cappello (hat)
●​ il vestito (dress)
●​ la gonna (skirt)
●​ la borsa (purse, bag)
●​ la cintura (belt)
●​ lo stivale (boot)
●​ il cappotto (coat)
●​ il costume (costume, swimsuit)
●​ il guanto (glove)
●​ la giacca (jacket)
●​ la gioielleria (jewelry)
●​ il cuoio (leather)
●​ la tasca (pocket)
●​ il sandalo (sandal)
●​ il calzino (sock)
●​ la maglia (jersey)
●​ la maglietta (t-shirt)
●​ la calza (stocking)
●​ l'abito (suit)
●​ il maglione (sweater)
●​ l'ombrello (umbrella)
●​ la divisa (uniform)
●​ il portafoglio (wallet)
●​ l'orologio (watch, clock)
●​ la lana (wool)
●​ la sciarpa (scarf)
●​ comprare (to buy)
Italian "Questions" Notes

This lesson introduces several ways to form questions in Italian, including basic intonation, word
order flexibility, and key interrogative words like perché, come, and quale.

I. Forming Basic Questions

●​ Intonation and Punctuation: In written Italian, simply add a question mark (?) at the
end of the sentence. When speaking, raise the pitch of your voice at the end of the
sentence.​

●​ No "Do/Does": Unlike English, the helping verb "do" or "does" is not translated in
Italian questions.​

○​ Example: Hai una bella casa. (You have a beautiful house.)

○​ Question: Hai una bella casa? (Do you have a beautiful house?)
●​ Subject Placement Flexibility: The subject (noun or pronoun) in a question can be
placed in various positions without changing the meaning:​

○​ At the beginning of the sentence (before the verb): Luisa ha la macchina?

(Does Luisa have a car?)
○​ After the verb (or at the end of the sentence): Ha una macchina Luisa?
(Does Luisa have a car?)

II. Key Interrogative Words

●​ Perché (Why / Because)​

○​ This single word serves as both the interrogative adverb "why" and the
conjunction "because."
○​ Example (Why): Perché bevi l’acqua? (Why do you drink water?)
○​ Example (Because): Perché ho sete. (Because I am thirsty.)
●​ Come (How / Like)​

○​ Come is commonly used to mean "how."

■​ Example: Come stai oggi? (How are you today?)
○​ It also means "like," "as," or "such as."
■​ Example: Sono freddo come ghiaccio. (I am cold as ice.)
●​ Quale (Which)​

○​ Quale implies a choice from a limited set of options.

 ○​ It has three forms:
■​ Quale (singular): Used before singular nouns.
■​ Example: Quale bambino è il tuo? (Which child is yours?)
■​ Quali (plural): Used before plural nouns.
■​ Example: Quali lezioni hai capito? (Which lessons do
you understand?)
■​ Qual è (before 'è'): A contracted form used directly before the verb è
(is). Note there is no apostrophe when quale is followed by è.
■​ Example: Qual è la migliore scuola? (Which is the best
school?)
●​ Tip: Che and Cosa (What)​

○​ Che and cosa are abbreviated forms of che cosa, all meaning "what."
○​ They have additional uses that are covered in later lessons.

III. Vocabulary

●​ risposta (answer)
●​ come (how, like)
●​ domanda (question)
●​ cosa (what)
●​ quando (when)
●​ dove (where)
●​ quale (which)
●​ chi (who)
●​ perché (why, because)
●​ quanto (how much)

Italian "Present (Verbs) 1" Notes

This lesson delves into the Italian present tense, covering infinitive forms, conjugation patterns
for regular verbs, distinctions between common verbs like conoscere and sapere, and the
unique structure of the verb piacere.

I. Infinitive Form & Present Tense Usage

●​ Infinitive Form: The base form of a verb (found in dictionaries).​

○​ Italian infinitives end in: -ARE, -ERE, or -IRE.

○​ To conjugate, you take the verb stem/root and add specific endings.
■​ cantare (to sing) = cant_ (stem) + -are (ending)
 ■​ vedere (to see) = ved_ (stem) + -ere (ending)
■​ venire (to come) = ven_ (stem) + -ire (ending)
●​ Present Tense Usage:​

○​ Simple Present: Equivalent to English "he sings" (e.g., Lei canta una
bella canzone. - She sings a beautiful song.)
○​ Present Continuous: Often used similarly to English "he is singing" (e.g., Lei
canta una bella canzone. - She is singing a beautiful song.)
○​ Future Happenings: Can express a future event if a future adverbial expression
is included.
■​ Example: Lui canta a Roma domani. (He sings in Rome tomorrow.)
●​ Conjugation Examples (Regular Verbs - Present Tense):​

Subjec -ARE (amare) -ERE -IRE (aprire) -IRE (capire) (Note: -isco
t (credere) ending)

io amo credo apro capisco

tu ami credi apri capisci

lui/lei ama crede apre capisce

noi amiamo crediamo apriamo capiamo

voi amate credete aprite capite

loro amano credono aprono capiscono

*Note: Some -IRE verbs (like *capire*) insert `-isc-` before the endings for *io, tu, lui/lei, loro*
forms. This is a common pattern for many -IRE verbs.*
II. Conoscere vs. Sapere ("to know")

Both translate to "to know" in English but have distinct uses:

●​ Sapere:​

○​ "To know HOW to do something" (followed by an infinitive verb).

■​ Example: Antonio sa nuotare molto bene. (Antonio knows how
to swim very well.)
○​ "To know a FACT or INFORMATION" (often followed by che, dove, quando,
perché + a verb).
■​ Example: Non so dove abita Maria. (I don't know where Maria
lives.)
●​ Conoscere:​

○​ "To know or BE ACQUAINTED with someone or something" (usually

followed by a noun).
■​ Example: Non conosciamo molto bene Roma. (We don't know
Rome very well.)
■​ Example: Sì, conosco Giovanni, siamo buoni amici. (Yes, I
know Johnny, we are good friends.)
■​ Example: Lui non conosce quella parte del paese. (He does
not know that part of the country.)

III. Piacere ("to like / to please")

●​ Literal Translation: "To like" or "to please."

●​ Structure: This verb uses an indirect object + verb + subject structure, which is very
different from English.
○​ The thing being liked is the grammatical subject of the Italian sentence.
○​ The person who likes something is the indirect object.
●​ Forms: Most often used in the third person singular (piace) and plural (piacciono).
○​ Singular Subject: mi piace + singular definite article + singular noun.
■​ Example: Mi piace la birra. (I like beer. - Literally: "To me pleases
the beer.")
○​ Plural Subject: mi piacciono + plural definite article + plural noun.
■​ Example: Mi piacciono le barche. (I like boats. - Literally: "To me
please the boats.")
●​ Other Examples:
○​ Ti piace ballare? (Do you like to dance?)
 ○​ Sì, mi piace ballare. (Yes, I like dancing.)
○​ Ci piacciono i cani. (We like dogs.)
○​ Le piacciono i gatti. (She likes cats.)
●​ Tip: Understanding these structures will be clearer after reviewing "Clitics" (which
explains mi, ti, ci, le, etc.).

IV. General Tips on Verbs

●​ Abitare vs. Vivere (to live):

○​ Abitare: Used for the specific dwelling one inhabits (e.g., an apartment, a
house).
○​ Vivere: Used to refer to living in a country, city, or town (more general
existence).
●​ Leggere (to read) Pronunciation: The 'g' sound in leggere changes from soft to hard
depending on the following vowel.
○​ leggo (I read) has a hard 'g' (like in "go") because of the -o.
○​ leggi (you read) has a soft 'g' (like in "gem") because of the -i.
●​ Verbs ending in -care or -gare:
○​ Add an "h" before the endings of the tu and noi forms to maintain the hard 'c'
or 'g' sound.
○​ cercare (to search for) → tu cerchi, noi cerchiamo
○​ pagare (to pay) → tu paghi, noi paghiamo

V. Vocabulary

●​ essere (to be)

●​ avere (to have)
●​ fare (to do, make)
●​ stare (to be, to stay)
●​ volere (to want)
●​ potere (to be able to, can)
●​ dovere (to have to)
●​ venire (to come)
●​ trovare (to find)
●​ andare (to go)
●​ vedere (to see)
●​ conoscere (to know someone)
●​ dare (to give)
●​ sapere (to know something)
●​ dire (to say)
●​ parlare (to talk)
●​ prendere (to take)
●​ arrivare (to arrive)
 ●​ chiedere (to ask for)
●​ portare (to carry, wear)
●​ pensare (to think)
●​ mettere (to put)
●​ credere (to believe)
●​ lasciare (to leave behind)
●​ sentire (to hear, feel)
●​ tenere (to hold, keep)
●​ diventare (to become)
●​ capire (to understand)
●​ rimanere (to remain)
●​ passare (to pass)
●​ entrare (to enter)
●​ lavorare (to work)
●​ vivere (to live)
●​ abitare (to live, dwell)
●​ ricordare (to remember)
●​ usare (to use)
●​ chiamare (to call)
●​ morire (to die)
●​ piacere (to like)
●​ guardare (to look at)
●​ aprire (to open)
●​ seguire (to follow)
●​ aspettare (to wait for)
●​ decidere (to decide)
●​ leggere (to read)
●​ scrivere (to write)
●​ finire (to finish)
●​ mangiare (to eat)
●​ bere (to drink)

Italian "Colors" Notes

This lesson explains how Italian color adjectives agree with nouns, differentiating between
colors that change for gender and number, those that only change for number, and those that
are invariable.

I. Gender & Number Agreement for Colors

Most Italian colors act as adjectives and must agree in gender (masculine/feminine) and
number (singular/plural) with the noun they describe.

●​ Examples:
 ○​ Il caffè nero. (The black coffee.) - caffè is masculine singular, so nero
(masculine singular).
○​ La bicicletta gialla. (The yellow bike.) - bicicletta is feminine
singular, so gialla (feminine singular).

II. Colors with Four Endings (agree with gender and number)

The endings for these common colors change to match the noun's masculine/feminine and
singular/plural form:

●​ bianco (white)
●​ nero (black)
●​ grigio (gray)
●​ rosso (red)
●​ giallo (yellow)
●​ azzurro (azure blue)

Form Example Ending Applies to

Masculine Singular -o rosso

(red)

Feminine Singular -a rossa

(red)

Masculine Plural -i rossi

(red)

Feminine Plural -e rosse

(red)

III. Colors That Only Change for Plural (end in -e in singular)

These colors remain unchanged for gender in the singular, but they do change in the plural
(from -e to -i).
 ●​ verde (green)​

●​ arancione (orange)​

●​ marrone (brown)​

●​ celeste (light blue)​

●​ Examples:​

○​ il cane marrone (the brown dog - masc. sing.)

○​ i cani marroni (the brown dogs - masc. plural)
○​ la giacca verde (the green jacket - fem. sing.)
○​ due giacche verdi (two green jackets - fem. plural)

IV. Invariable Colors (Exceptions)

The following colors do not change form under any circumstances (they remain the same for
masculine/feminine, singular/plural):

●​ blu (blue)
●​ rosa (pink)
●​ viola (purple)

V. Tip: Azzurro - Italy's National Color

●​ Azzurro is the national color of Italy.

●​ Gli Azzurri refers to the Italian national men's sports teams (e.g., soccer, rugby, ice
hockey).
●​ Valanga Azzurra (Blue Avalanche) is the name for the Italian ski team.
●​ Le Azzurre similarly refers to the Italian women's national teams.

VI. Vocabulary

●​ nero (black)
●​ azzurro (azure blue)
●​ marrone (brown)
●​ colorati (colored)
●​ colore (color)
●​ grigio (grey)
●​ verde (green)
●​ arancione (orange)
 ●​ rosa (pink)
●​ viola (purple)
●​ rosso (red)
●​ bianco (white)
●​ giallo (yellow)
●​ blu (blue)
●​ colori (colors - plural of colore)
●​ celeste (light blue)

Italian "Conjunctions" Notes

This lesson introduces common Italian conjunctions, which are words used to connect other
words, phrases, or clauses.

I. Basic Conjunctions

●​ né (nor, neither): Used to connect two negative elements.

○​ Example: Non ho sete, né fame. (I’m not hungry nor thirsty.)
●​ o (or): A simple disjunctive conjunction.
○​ Example: Vuoi birra o vino? (Do you want beer or wine?)
●​ oppure (or else, otherwise): Similar to "o" but often implies a stronger alternative or
consequence.
○​ Example: Cammina più veloce oppure faremo tardi. (Walk faster or
else we’ll be late.)
●​ se (if): Used to introduce a conditional clause.
○​ Example: Non giochiamo se piove. (We do not play if it rains.)

II. Special Rule for "And" (e vs. ed)

●​ e (and): Used before a word beginning with a consonant.

○​ Example: Arancione e grigio sono colori. (Orange and grey are
colors.)
●​ ed (and): Used before a word beginning with a vowel.
○​ Example: Un ragazzo ed una ragazza. (A boy and a girl.)

III. Vocabulary

●​ e (and)
●​ perché (because - also "why" as learned in the "Questions" lesson)
●​ ma (but)
●​ se (if)
●​ né (nor, neither)
●​ o (or)
●​ oppure (or else, otherwise)
 ●​ che (that) - This has many uses, but here it refers to its role as a conjunction.
●​ finché (as long as)
●​ mentre (while)
●​ bensì (but, rather) - Often used after a negative statement to introduce a correction or
stronger affirmation.
●​ sia (both) - Often used in the construction sia...sia... meaning "both...and..."

Italian "Prepositions" Notes

This lesson explains the crucial role of prepositions in Italian, highlighting their differences from
English usage, and detailing the main prepositions, their common uses, and how they combine
with definite articles.

I. What are Prepositions?

●​ Function: Words that link nouns, pronouns, or phrases to other words in a sentence.​

●​ Purpose: Indicate location, time, direction, means, possession, etc.​

●​ Challenge: Italian preposition usage doesn't always directly translate from English.
Context and preceding verbs are crucial. What's "in" in English might be "at" in Italian.​

●​ Main Prepositions: di, a, da, in, con, su, per, tra, fra.​

II. Tra and Fra (between, among, in - for time)

●​ Meaning: Both mean "between" or "among" and are almost completely interchangeable.
●​ Pronunciation Tip: Avoid using tra before a "tr" sound, or fra before a "fr" sound, for
smoother pronunciation.
○​ Example: Tra fratelli. (Between/Among brothers.)
○​ Example: Fra tre persone. (Between/Among three people.)
●​ Time Usage: Can also mean "in" when talking about time.
○​ Example: Incontriamoci tra/fra due ore. (Let's meet in two hours.)

III. Prepositional Differences from English

Italian prepositions are often used differently than their English counterparts.

●​ Vado **da** Roberto. (I am going to Robert's place.) - da for going to someone's

place.
●​ Penso **di** capire. (I think I understand.) - di used after pensare before an
infinitive.
 ●​ La casa **di** Vincenzo. (Vince's house.) - di for possession (like English 'of' or
apostrophe 's').

IV. When to Use A

The preposition a can mean "in" (location), "to" (movement), or "at" (time).

●​ Geographical (with Cities):

○​ Vivo **a** Londra. (I live in London.)
○​ Noi arriviamo **a** Venezia domani. (We arrive in Venice tomorrow.)
●​ Destinations/Directions:
○​ Vado **a** Roma. (I am going to Rome.)
○​ Il bagno è **a** sinistra. (The bathroom is on the left.)
○​ Sono andato **a** letto presto. (I went to bed early.)
○​ Ho dolore **alla** schiena. (I have pain in my back.) - a combined with
la.
●​ Telling Time / When things happen:
○​ Il mio volo parte **alle** 19:00. (My flight leaves at 7:00 pm.) - a
combined with le.
○​ **A** che ora è la festa? (What time is the party?)
○​ Possiamo restare fino **a** lunedì? (Can we stay until Monday?)
●​ Before Specific Nouns:
○​ casa (house)
○​ scuola (school)
○​ letto (bed)
○​ tavolo (table)
○​ piedi (foot/feet)
○​ teatro (theater)

V. When to Use IN

The preposition in can mean "in" (location), "to" (movement), or "by" (transportation).

●​ Geographical (larger than cities: regions, islands, states, countries, continents):

○​ Loro sono **in** America. (They are in America.)
○​ Vado **in** Italia. (I am going to Italy.)
○​ Viaggerò **in** Cina il prossimo autunno. (I will travel to China
next fall.)
●​ Means of Transportation:
○​ Viaggio **in** barca. (I am traveling by boat.)
○​ Torno **in** aereo. (I am returning by plane.)
 ○​ Sono andato a Milano **in** treno. (I went to Milan by train.)
●​ Before Specific Nouns:
○​ albergo (hotel)
○​ città (city) - Note: a for specific cities, in for "in a city" or "the city" generally.
○​ banca (bank)
○​ classe (class)
○​ biblioteca (library)
○​ farmacia (pharmacy)
○​ campagna (countryside)
○​ piscina (pool)
○​ chiesa (church)
○​ ufficio (office)

VI. Apostrophes with Di and Da

●​ di and da can become d’ before a vowel.

○​ d’altra parte (on the other hand)
○​ d’oro (golden / made of gold)

VII. Combining with Definite Articles (Articulated Prepositions)

Many prepositions combine with definite articles (il, la, i, le, etc.) when they appear next
to each other, forming a single word.

●​ Examples:​

○​ I soldi sono **sul** tavolo. (The money is on the table.) - su + il =

sul
○​ Vado **allo** zoo ogni mese. (I go to the zoo every month.) - a + lo =
allo
○​ Compro libri **dal** negozio. (I buy books from the store.) - da + il =
dal
●​ Table of Combinations (as hinted at by de- and ne-):​

○​ di + il = del​

○​ di + lo = dello​

○​ di + la = della​
○​ di + l' = dell'​

○​ di + i = dei​

○​ di + gli = degli​

○​ di + le = delle​

○​ a + il = al​

○​ a + lo = allo​

○​ a + la = alla​

○​ a + l' = all'​

○​ a + i = ai​

○​ a + gli = agli​

○​ a + le = alle​

○​ da + il = dal​

○​ da + lo = dallo​

○​ da + la = dalla​

○​ da + l' = dall'​

○​ da + i = dai​

○​ da + gli = dagli​

○​ da + le = dalle​

○​ in + il = nel​
 ○​ in + lo = nello​

○​ in + la = nella​

○​ in + l' = nell'​

○​ in + i = nei​

○​ in + gli = negli​

○​ in + le = nelle​

○​ su + il = sul​

○​ su + lo = sullo​

○​ su + la = sulla​

○​ su + l' = sull'​

○​ su + i = sui​

○​ su + gli = sugli​

○​ su + le = sulle​

●​ Con (with) Exception: While grammatically correct to combine (col, colla), it's less
common and you're more likely to hear con il or con la.​

VIII. Tip: Piacere with Prepositions

●​ Using piacere with prepositions can be tricky.

●​ The literal translation "to the woman strawberries are not pleasing" explains why alla
(to the) is used before donna (woman).
○​ Example: **Alla** donna non piacciono le fragole. (The woman
does not like strawberries.)
○​ Using la (the) instead of alla would be incorrect because the structure requires
the indirect object pronoun (a + la = alla).
IX. Vocabulary

●​ di (of)
●​ a (at, to, in)
●​ da (from, by)
●​ in (in, into)
●​ su (on)
●​ con (with)
●​ per (for)
●​ fra, tra (among, between)
●​ secondo (according to)
●​ senza (without)
●​ dopo (after)
●​ contro (against)
●​ verso (towards)
●​ lungo (along)
●​ entro (within)
●​ durante (during)
●​ tranne (except)
●​ nonostante (despite)
●​ fino a (until, as far as)

Italian "Time" Notes

This lesson covers how to express days, months, seasons, and tell time in Italian, including
common phrases and cultural nuances like the 24-hour clock.

I. Days of the Week

●​ lunedì (Monday)​

●​ martedì (Tuesday)​

●​ mercoledì (Wednesday)​

●​ giovedì (Thursday)​

●​ venerdì (Friday)​

●​ sabato (Saturday)​

●​ domenica (Sunday)​
●​ Tip: The first calendar day of the week in Italy is Monday (though for the Church, it's
Sunday).​

II. Months of the Year

●​ gennaio (January)​

●​ febbraio (February)​

●​ marzo (March)​

●​ aprile (April)​

●​ maggio (May)​

●​ giugno (June)​

●​ luglio (July)​

●​ agosto (August)​

●​ settembre (September)​

●​ ottobre (October)​

●​ novembre (November)​

●​ dicembre (December)​

●​ Tip: Days come before Months when conveying calendar dates.​

○​ Example: È il cinque maggio. (It is May 5th.)

III. Seasons

●​ inverno (Winter)​

●​ primavera (Spring)​

●​ estate (Summer)​

●​ autunno (Fall)​
●​ General Tip for Days, Months, Seasons: They are never capitalized in Italian.​

IV. Conversation & Calendar Dates

●​ Asking about the day:

○​ Che giorno è oggi? (What day is today?)
○​ Response: Oggi è venerdì. (Today is Friday.)
●​ Asking about birthdays/events:
○​ Quando è il tuo compleanno? (When is your birthday?)
○​ Response: Il sette novembre. (November 7.)
●​ Asking about the date:
○​ Che giorno è oggi? (What's the date?)
○​ Response: É il cinque settembre. (It's September 5.)
●​ First of the month: Use primo (first) instead of uno (one).
○​ Example: È il primo giugno. (It is June 1st.)
●​ "Ago" for Past Time: Add fa after the time period.
○​ una settimana fa (a week ago)
○​ un mese fa (a month ago)
●​ "Last" for Past Time: Add scorso(a) after the noun (agreeing in gender/number).
○​ l’anno scorso (last year - scorso is masculine singular)
○​ la settimana scorsa (last week - scorsa is feminine singular)

V. Telling Time

●​ Asking the time: Che ora è? or Che ore sono? (What time is it?)​

●​ Answering "one o'clock": Singular form, using È l'una.​

○​ È l’una. (It’s one o’clock.)

○​ È mezzogiorno. (It’s noon.)
○​ È mezzanotte. (It’s midnight.)
●​ Answering other times: Plural form, using Sono le, plus the number of hours.​

○​ Sono le tre. (It’s three o’clock.)

○​ Sono le undici. (It’s eleven o’clock.)
●​ Minutes Past the Hour: Use e (and) followed by the number of minutes.​

○​ È l’una e dieci. (It’s ten past one.)

○​ Sono le quattro e venti. (It’s twenty past four.)
●​ Common Substitutions for Minutes:​

○​ Un quarto (a quarter) for quindici (fifteen)

○​ Mezzo (masculine, e.g., le otto e mezzo) or mezza (feminine, e.g., l'una
e mezza) for trenta (thirty).
■​ Sono le sei e un quarto. (It’s a quarter past six.)
■​ Sono le otto e mezzo. (It’s half past eight.)
●​ Exact Hour: Use in punto (on the dot) or esatte (exactly).​

○​ Sono le cinque in punto. (It’s five o’clock on the dot.)

○​ Sono le nove esatte. (It’s exactly nine o’clock.)
●​ Minutes to the Hour (Past Half Hour): Expressed as minutes less the next hour using
meno.​

○​ Sono le tre meno dieci. (It’s ten to three.)

○​ Sono le nove meno cinque. (It’s five to nine.)
○​ Sono le ventitré meno dodici. (It’s 10:48 p.m. - 23 - 12 = 11, so 11
o'clock minus 12 minutes, which is 10:48)
●​ 24-Hour Clock (Military Time):​

○​ Commonly used in Italy and most of Europe for official times (banks,
businesses, transport, etc.).
○​ Example: Il treno parte alle venti e quarto. (The train departs at
8:15 p.m. / 20:15)
○​ Example: La banca chiude alle diciassette e mezzo. (The bank
closes at 5:30 p.m. / 17:30)
○​ Notation Tip: Written with a dot (16.10), colon (16:10), or sometimes a comma
(16,10) as a separator.
●​ 12-Hour Clock (Oral Communication):​

○​ Prominently used in oral, less formal communication.

○​ No a.m./p.m. equivalents. Instead, use time-of-day phrases:
■​ di mattina (in the morning): 8:00 a.m. - Noon
■​ di pomeriggio (in the afternoon): 1:00 p.m. - 5:00 p.m.
■​ di sera (in the evening): 5:00 p.m. - 9:00 p.m.
■​ di notte (at night): After 9:00 p.m. up until dawn.
○​ Examples:
■​ Parte all’una di notte. (It leaves at 1:00 a.m.)
■​ Inizia alle due di pomeriggio. (It begins at 2:00 p.m.)
■​ Chiude alle otto di sera. (It closes at 8:00 p.m.)
■​ Apra alle undici di mattina. (It opens at 11:00 a.m.)
●​ "At which" Time (a): Use the preposition a (at) or its combined forms with articles
(all', alle).​

○​ Sono andata a lavoro **a** mezzogiorno. (I went to work at noon.)

○​ Mi sono svegliato **all’una**. (I woke up at one o’clock.)
○​ Il mio appuntamento è **alle** nove. (My appointment is at nine
o’clock.)

VI. Vocabulary

●​ oggi (today)
●​ domani (tomorrow)
●​ ieri (yesterday)
●​ gennaio (January)
●​ febbraio (February)
●​ marzo (March)
●​ aprile (April)
●​ maggio (May)
●​ giugno (June)
●​ luglio (July)
●​ agosto (August)
●​ settembre (September)
●​ ottobre (October)
●​ novembre (November)
●​ dicembre (December)
●​ lunedì (Monday)
●​ martedì (Tuesday)
●​ mercoledì (Wednesday)
●​ giovedì (Thursday)
●​ venerdì (Friday)
●​ sabato (Saturday)
●​ domenica (Sunday)
●​ primavera (spring)
●​ estate (summer)
●​ autunno (fall, autumn)
●​ inverno (winter)
●​ mattina (morning)
●​ pomeriggio (afternoon)
●​ sera (evening)
●​ stasera (this evening)
●​ notte (night)
●​ stanotte (tonight)
●​ mezzanotte (midnight)
●​ minuti (minutes)
 ●​ secondi (seconds)
●​ ora (hour)
●​ giorno (day)
●​ settimana (week)
●​ mese (month)
●​ anno (year)
●​ data (date)
●​ decennio (decade)
●​ secolo (century)
●​ periodo (period)
●​ compleanno (birthday)
●​ festa (party, holiday)
●​ calendario (calendar)
●​ presto (soon)
●​ tardi (late)
●​ ritardo (delay)
●​ settimanalmente (weekly)
●​ fa (ago, since)
●​ tempo (time)
●​ stamattina (this morning)
●​ in punto (on the dot)
●​ esatte (exactly)
●​ secondo me (in my opinion)

Italian "Family" Notes

This lesson focuses on family-related vocabulary and, importantly, the specific rules for using
definite articles with possessive adjectives when referring to family members.

I. Possessive Adjectives and Family Members

●​ General Rule (for most nouns): Possessive adjectives are usually preceded by a
definite article (e.g., il mio libro - my book).​

●​ Exception for Singular Family Members: The definite article is NOT used before a
possessive adjective when referring to singular, unmodified close family members.​

○​ Example: Mio padre è un idraulico. (My father is a plumber.) - No article

before padre.
○​ Example: Mia sorella e tuo fratello sono amici. (My sister and
your brother are friends.) - No articles before sorella or fratello.
●​ Rule for Plural Family Members: The definite article IS used with family members
when they are in the plural.​
 ○​ Example: I miei genitori mangiano frutta. (My parents eat fruit.) - I is
used.
○​ Example: I tuoi fratelli sono entrambi alti. (Your brothers are both
tall.) - I is used.
●​ Exception for Variations of Basic Forms: The definite article IS still used with singular
nouns that are variations or diminutives of the basic family terms.​

○​ il papà (the dad) - Uses il.

○​ la mamma (the mom) - Uses la.
○​ il fratellino (the little brother) - Uses il.

II. Tips

●​ Grandparents' Alternatives: While nonno (grandfather) and nonna (grandmother) are

standard, you can also use the more affectionate diminutives nonnino and nonnina.
●​ Great-Grandparents:
○​ bisnonno (great grandfather)
○​ bisnonna (great grandmother)

III. Vocabulary

●​ la famiglia (family)
●​ la madre (mother)
●​ il padre (father)
●​ il fratello (brother)
●​ la sorella (sister)
●​ il genitore (parent)
●​ il figlio (son)
●​ la figlia (daughter)
●​ il marito (husband)
●​ la moglie (wife)
●​ lo zio (uncle)
●​ la zia (aunt)
●​ il cugino (cousin - male) / la cugina (cousin - female, not explicitly listed but implied by
cugino's gender)
●​ il nipote (nephew, grandson, grandchild - male) / la nipote (niece, granddaughter,
grandchild - female, not explicitly listed but implied by nipote's usage)
●​ il nonno (grandfather)
●​ la nonna (grandmother)
●​ il bisnonno (great grandfather)
●​ la bisnonna (great grandmother)
●​ il nome (name)
●​ il cognome (surname)
 ●​ il papà (dad)
●​ la mamma (mom)
●​ il suocero (father-in-law)
●​ la suocera (mother-in-law)
●​ il genero (son-in-law)
●​ la nuora (daughter-in-law)

Italian "Measurements" Notes

This lesson introduces the metric system as it's used in Italy for common measurements like
weight, volume, and distance, highlighting key units and cultural differences.

I. The Metric System (Sistema Metrico Decimale)

●​ Ubiquitous in Italy: Like most of the world, Italy uses the decimal metric system.
●​ Simple Principle: It's based on powers of 10 (multiplying or dividing by 10, 100, or
1000).
●​ Adaptation Needed: If you're used to imperial units, familiarizing yourself with these
units is crucial.

II. Common Units of Measure

●​ Weight:
○​ Kilogram (il chilogrammo): Used for fruits and vegetables; it's a little more
than two pounds (approx. 2.2 lbs). You might hear it shortened to chilo.
○​ Gram (il grammo): One-thousandth of a kilogram, used for lighter items like
flour, sugar, or paperclips.
●​ Volume:
○​ Liter (il litro): Used for liquids like milk (latte) or gasoline (benzina).
○​ Conversion: Approximately 3.78 liters make one U.S. gallon.
○​ At the Gas Station: You can ask for il pieno (a full tank) or a specific amount
in liters.
●​ Distance:
○​ Meter (il metro): The basic unit, slightly longer than a yard (approx. 3.28 feet).
○​ Centimeter (il centimetro): One-hundredth of a meter (100 centimeters = 1
meter).
○​ Kilometer (un chilometro): One thousand meters, used for long distances.
○​ Mile (un miglio): Approximately 1600 meters, or more than one and a half
kilometers.

III. Numerical Notation Tip

 ●​ Decimal Separator: Be aware that the Italian language uses a comma (,) as the
decimal separator in numbers, whereas English-speaking countries like the United
States use a period (.).
○​ Example: 3,78 (Italian) = 3.78 (English)

IV. Vocabulary

●​ grande (large)
●​ enorme (enormous)
●​ misura (measure)
●​ piccolo (small)
●​ pochino (a little bit)
●​ centimetro (centimeter)
●​ grammo (gram)
●​ chilogrammo (kilogram)
●​ chilometro (kilometer)
●​ litro (liter)
●​ metro (meter)
●​ miglio (mile)
●​ quarto (quarter)
●​ coppia (couple, pair)
●​ totale (total)
●​ niente (nothing)
●​ doppio (double)
●​ paio (pair)
●​ po' (bit - short for poco)

Italian "Occupations" Notes

This lesson covers different ways to state one's profession in Italian and explains the general
rules for forming feminine versions of occupation nouns.

I. Specifying an Occupation

There are three main ways to express someone's occupation:

1.​ Using essere (to be):​

○​ No article is used before the profession.

○​ Example: Io sono insegnante. (I am a teacher.)
○​ Example: Loro sono ingegneri. (They are engineers.)
 2.​ Using fare (to do/make):​

○​ An article (definite) is used before the profession. This construction literally

translates to "I do the [profession]".
○​ Example: Faccio **il** professore. (I work as a professor. / I am a
professor.)
○​ Example: Facciamo **gli** avvocati. (We work as lawyers. / We are
lawyers.)
3.​ Using lavorare come (to work as):​

○​ No article is used before the profession after come.

○​ Example: Lavoro come idraulico. (I work as a plumber.)
○​ Example: Lavorano come cuochi. (They work as cooks.)

II. Feminine Forms of Occupations

While there are exceptions, here are the general principles for converting masculine occupation
nouns to feminine:

1.​ Masculine -tore → Feminine -trice:​

○​ Many masculine occupations ending in -tore change to -trice for the

feminine.
○​ Example: scrittore (writer - masc.) → scrittrice (writer - fem.)
○​ Exception: dottore (doctor - masc.) is one exception; its feminine is
dottoressa.
2.​ Other Occupations -essa Ending:​

○​ Various other occupations form their feminine by adding -essa.

○​ Example: professore → professoressa
○​ Example: avvocato → avvocatessa
3.​ Invariable Professions (Change Article Only):​

○​ Some Italian professions do not have a distinct feminine ending. For these, you
simply change the article to indicate the gender.
○​ Example: il — la insegnante (the teacher - masc. vs. fem.)
○​ Example: il — la cantante (the singer - masc. vs. fem.)

III. Vocabulary

●​ architetto (architect)
 ●​ pagliaccio (clown)
●​ conduttore (conductor)
●​ ingegnere (engineer)
●​ lavoro (work)
●​ avvocato (lawyer - masc.)
●​ scrittrice (writer - fem.)
●​ direttore (director)
●​ meccanico (mechanic)
●​ dottoressa (doctor - fem.)
●​ idraulico (plumber)
●​ poliziotto (policeman)
●​ postino (mailman)
●​ segretaria (secretary - fem.)
●​ operaio (worker - masc.)
●​ capitano (captain)
●​ ricercatore (researcher - masc.)
●​ scrittore (writer - masc.)
●​ insegnante (teacher)
●​ dottore (doctor - masc.)

Italian "Household" Notes

This lesson focuses on vocabulary related to the home and household items, clarifying
distinctions between similar Italian terms for common objects and rooms.

I. Similar Terms for "Wall"

●​ Muro and parete both translate to "wall," but have slight differences:
○​ Parete is typically used for internal walls of a structure (house, building, etc.).
○​ Muro can refer to a wall built anywhere, including external walls or garden walls.
○​ In biological terms (e.g., a cell wall), only parete is used.

II. Similar Terms for "Room"

●​ Stanza and camera both translate to "room":

○​ Stanza is more general and refers to any internal space in a building separated
by walls and doors.
○​ Camera is more often used specifically for a bedroom (e.g., camera da
letto), but can also refer to other "habitation" areas like a dining room.

III. "Yard" or "Lawn"

●​ Cortile literally means "courtyard" but is also used to indicate the yard or lawn of a
house.
IV. Major Living Areas of a House

The distinctions between these terms can be subtle:

●​ Soggiorno: Considered the most important room of the house, furnished with items
like a television and stereo. It's a space for relaxing with family or entertaining friends.
●​ Salotto: Generally a smaller room furnished with a couch, armchairs, and end tables,
typically used for reception and conversation.
●​ Sala da pranzo: The dining room or specific dining area of a house.

V. Similar Terms for "Chair"

●​ Sedia and seggiola are synonyms for "chair" with no definitive differences in meaning.
●​ Seggiola is an older term and is rarely used in most regions of Italy anymore, except in
Tuscany.
●​ The specific word for "armchair" is poltrona.

VI. "Table": Il tavolo vs. La tavola

●​ Il tavolo: Refers to the piece of furniture itself (a table).

○​ Example: Vorrei prenotare un **tavolo**, per favore. (I would like
to reserve a table, please.) - When reserving at a restaurant.
○​ Example: Metti la scatola sul **tavolo** della cucina. (Put the
box on the kitchen table.)
●​ La tavola: Refers to a table that is prepared for a meal (i.e., set for dining).
○​ Example: La cena è in **tavola**. (Dinner is on the table.)

VII. Tip: "Shampoo"

●​ The English word "shampoo" is actually used more frequently in Italy than its Italian
counterpart, sciampo.

VIII. Vocabulary

●​ l'appartamento (apartment)
●​ il balcone (balcony)
●​ il bagno (bathroom)
●​ la vasca da bagno (bathtub)
●​ il letto (bed)
●​ la coperta (blanket)
●​ il tappeto (carpet)
●​ la sedia (chair)
●​ limpido (clear - likely refers to something like clear water/sky in household context, not a
physical object)
●​ la sofà (sofa)
●​ la tenda (curtain)
●​ la scrivania (desk)
●​ la porta (door)
●​ il pavimento (floor)
●​ il frigorifero (refrigerator)
●​ i mobili (furniture)
●​ il cancello (gate)
●​ riscaldamento (heating)
●​ la casa (house)
●​ la chiave (key)
●​ la lampada (lamp)
●​ la lampadina (light bulb)
●​ la luce (light)
●​ lo specchio (mirror)
●​ il telefono (telephone)
●​ il cuscino (pillow)
●​ il tetto (roof)
●​ il soffitto (ceiling)
●​ la stanza (room)
●​ lo sciampo (shampoo)
●​ la doccia (shower)
●​ il sapone (soap)
●​ il divano (couch)
●​ la scala (stairs, ladder, scale)
●​ il tavolo (table)
●​ l'asciugamano (towel)
●​ il giocattolo (toy)
●​ il muro (wall)
●​ la finestra (window)
●​ il cortile (courtyard, yard)
●​ la cucina (kitchen)
●​ l'entrata (entrance)
●​ il forno (oven)
●​ la seggiola (chair - older term)
●​ il dentifricio (toothpaste)
●​ il lenzuolo (bedsheet)
●​ il rasoio (razor)
●​ lo spazzolino (toothbrush)
●​ il lavello (sink)
●​ il rubinetto (faucet)
●​ la poltrona (armchair)
 ●​ il salotto (living room/lounge)
●​ la sala da pranzo (dining room)
●​ il soggiorno (family room/main living room)

Italian "Adjectives 1" Notes

This lesson explains the fundamental rules for using adjectives in Italian, including their
agreement with nouns, typical placement, and exceptions, along with distinctions between
various adjectives for "short."

I. Adjective Agreement and Placement

●​ Agreement: Italian adjectives (aggettivi) agree in gender and number with the
nouns they modify.
○​ If the noun is masculine singular, the adjective is masculine singular.
○​ If the noun is feminine plural, the adjective is feminine plural, etc.
●​ Typical Placement: Most Italian adjectives follow the noun they describe.
○​ Example: È una lingua difficile. (It is a difficult language.) —
difficile comes after lingua.
○​ Example: Marina è una ragazza generosa. (Marina is a generous girl.) —
generosa comes after ragazza.

II. Adjectives That (Generally) Precede the Noun

There are some common adjectives that typically come before the noun. These often convey a
more subjective or inherent quality.

●​ Common Pre-Noun Adjectives:​

○​ bello (beautiful, pretty)

○​ bravo (good, clever)
○​ brutto (ugly, bad)
○​ buono (good, well)
○​ caro (dear, cute, expensive)
○​ cattivo (bad)
○​ giovane (young)
○​ grande (large, great)
○​ lungo (long)
○​ nuovo (new)
○​ piccolo (small, little)
○​ stesso (same)
○​ vecchio (old)
○​ vero (true)
 ●​ Examples:​

○​ Anna è una cara amica. (Anna is a dear friend.)

○​ Gino è un bravo dottore. (Gino is a good doctor.)
○​ È un brutt’affare. (It’s a bad situation.) — Note the elision brutt' before
a vowel.

III. Exceptions to Pre-Noun Placement

Even the adjectives that usually precede the noun must follow the noun in these situations:

1.​ For Emphasis or Contrast:

○​ Example: Oggi non porta l’abito vecchio, porta un abito
nuovo. (Today he is not wearing the old suit, he is wearing a new suit.) —
vecchio and nuovo follow abito to emphasize the contrast.
2.​ When Modified by an Adverb:
○​ Example: Abitano in una casa molto piccola. (They live in a very
small house.) — piccola follows casa because it's modified by molto (very).

IV. Tip: Varieties of "Short"

Italian has distinct adjectives for "short" depending on what is being described:

●​ alto (tall) vs. basso (short): Used for height of people or objects.
●​ breve (short): Used exclusively for a short length of time.
●​ lungo (long) vs. corto (short): Used for physical length of things, body parts, etc.

V. Vocabulary

●​ nuovo (new)
●​ vecchio (old)
●​ stesso (same)
●​ diverso (different)
●​ possibile (possible)
●​ impossibile (impossible)
●​ bello (beautiful, pretty)
●​ buono (good, well)
●​ bravo (good, clever)
●​ alto (tall, high)
●​ basso (short (height), low)
●​ internazionale (international)
●​ nazionale (national)
●​ straniero (foreigner, stranger)
●​ caro (expensive, dear)
●​ economico (cheap)
●​ gratuito (free (item))
●​ libero (free (person))
●​ ricco (rich)
●​ famoso (famous)
●​ popolare (popular)
●​ importante (important)
●​ utile (useful)
●​ moderno (modern)
●​ quotidiano (daily)
●​ elettrico (electrical)
●​ chiuso (closed)
●​ interessante (interesting)
●​ unico (unique, only)
●​ speciale (special)
●​ perfetto (perfect)
●​ capace (capable)
●​ forte (strong)
●​ strano (strange)
●​ pesante (heavy)
●​ pericoloso (dangerous)
●​ grosso (big, thick)
●​ solo (alone, only)
●​ difficile (difficult)
●​ grasso (fat)
●​ duro (tough, hard)
●​ intero (entire, whole)
●​ lungo (long)
●​ corto (short (length))
●​ pieno (full)
●​ prossimo (next)
●​ facile (easy)
●​ sicuro (sure)
●​ comune (common)
●​ normale (normal)
●​ vero (true)
●​ giusto (just, right, fair)
●​ certo (certain)
●​ pronto (ready)
●​ giovane (young)
●​ chiaro (clear)
●​ caldo (hot)
 ●​ freddo (cold)
●​ breve (short (time))

Italian "Present (Verbs) 2" Notes

This lesson introduces the verb mancare (to miss/lack), which shares a similar indirect object
structure with piacere. It also delves into modal verbs (potere, volere, dovere) and offers
useful tips on related verb usage.

I. Mancare (to miss, to lack)

●​ Similar to Piacere: Mancare uses an indirect object construction, similar to

piacere. This means the grammatical subject is the thing that is missed/lacked, and
the person experiencing the feeling is the indirect object.
●​ Structure: Indirect Object Pronoun + mancare (conjugated for the
item missed/lacked) + Subject (the item missed/lacked)
●​ Indirect Object Pronouns: Like piacere, it requires an indirect object pronoun to
indicate who is experiencing the missing/lacking:
○​ mi (to me)
○​ ti (to you)
○​ ...and so on for other persons.
●​ Examples:
○​ Mi manca mia moglie. (I miss my wife.) - Literally: "My wife is missing to
me."
○​ (Compare with Mi piace la pizza. - I like pizza. - Literally: "The pizza
pleases to me.")

II. Modal Verbs (Helper Verbs)

●​ Definition: Modal verbs (or "helper verbs") precede the infinitive of another verb,
indicating a "mode" or nuance (ability, desire, obligation).
●​ Meaning Changes: They can take on different meanings depending on the tense.
1.​ POTERE (to be able to, can, may)​

○​ Indicates ability, possibility, or permission.

○​ Examples:
■​ Posso uscire? (May I go out?)
■​ Posso suonare la chitarra. (I can play the guitar.)
■​ Ho potuto spedire il pacco. (I was able to mail the package.) -
Past tense usage.
■​ Non sono potuti venire più presto. (They could not come
earlier.) - Note agreement in compound tenses.
 2.​ VOLERE (to want)​

○​ Indicates desire or intention.

○​ Examples:
■​ Luca vuole imparare l’inglese. (Luca wants to learn English.)
■​ Ho voluto farlo. (I wanted to do it. -OR- I decided to do it.) - Past
tense can imply decision.
■​ Marco non ha voluto finirlo. (Mark didn’t want to do it. -OR-
Mark refused to do it.) - Past tense can imply refusal.
3.​ DOVERE (to have to, must, should)​

○​ Indicates obligation, necessity, or recommendation.

○​ Examples:
■​ Che cosa devo fare? (What should I do? / What must I do?)
■​ Dovrei finire i miei compiti. (I should/ought to finish my
homework.) - Conditional tense for recommendation.

III. Tips

●​ Provare vs. Tentare (to try / to attempt)​

○​ Both mean "to try" or "to attempt" with negligible differences in meaning.
○​ Key Distinction: When followed by a second verb in the infinitive, they use
different prepositions:
■​ provare **a** + infinitive: Ho provato **a** aprire la
scatola. (I tried to open the box.)
■​ tentare **di** + infinitive: Ho tentato **di** aprire la
scatola, ma … (I attempted to open the box, but …)
●​ Italian Prefix ri- (re-)​

○​ The Italian prefix ri- often corresponds to the English re-, meaning to repeat
something.
○​ Examples:
■​ ripagare (to repay)
■​ ridire (to say again)
■​ rileggere (to reread)
■​ riscrivere (to rewrite)
■​ ricontrollare (to check again)

IV. Vocabulary

●​ giocare (to play)

●​ unire (to unite, combine)
●​ provare (to try)
●​ cambiare (to change)
●​ perdere (to lose, misplace)
●​ offrire (to offer)
●​ costruire (to construct, build)
●​ rispondere (to respond, answer)
●​ indicare (to indicate)
●​ succedere (to happen)
●​ chiudere (to close)
●​ aiutare (to help)
●​ amare (to love)
●​ scegliere (to select, choose)
●​ aggiungere (to add)
●​ mancare (to miss, lack)
●​ ricevere (to receive)
●​ guidare (to drive)
●​ dimostrare (to demonstrate, show)
●​ significare (to mean)
●​ incontrare (to encounter, meet)
●​ pagare (to pay)
●​ crescere (to grow)
●​ spiegare (to explain)
●​ cadere (to fall)
●​ colpire (to hit)
●​ fermare (to stop)
●​ studiare (to study)
●​ controllare (to check, verify)
●​ mandare (to send)
●​ correre (to run)
●​ girare (to turn)
●​ ritornare (to return)
●​ invitare (to invite)
●​ salvare (to save)
●​ vendere (to sell)
●​ descrivere (to describe)
●​ dimenticare (to forget)
●​ scusare (to excuse)
●​ tirare (to pull)
●​ attraversare (to cross)
●​ imparare (to learn)
●​ preferire (to prefer)
●​ bastare (to be enough)
●​ durare (to endure, last)
 ●​ cercare (to search for)
●​ contare (to count)
●​ creare (to create)

Italian "Adverbs" Notes

This lesson explains what adverbs are, how they are formed from adjectives in Italian, and
clarifies the nuanced uses of several common adverbs like anche vs. pure, solo vs.
soltanto, and molto.

I. What are Adverbs (Avverbi)?

●​ Function: Words that modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. They provide
more information about how, when, or where an action occurs or a quality exists.
●​ Questions They Answer: Often answer:
○​ come? (how?)
○​ quando? (when?)
○​ dove? (where?)
●​ Examples:
○​ Giuseppe corre **lentamente**. (Giuseppe runs slowly.) — Modifies the
verb corre.
○​ Maria arriva **tardi**. (Maria arrives late.) — Modifies the verb
arriva.
○​ Sophia è famosa **ovunque**. (Sophia is famous everywhere.) —
Modifies the adjective famosa.

II. Forming Adverbs with -mente

Many Italian adverbs are formed by adding the suffix -mente (similar to English "-ly") to the
feminine form of the adjective.

1.​ Adjectives ending in -o: Change -o to -a, then add -mente.

○​ lento (slow) → lenta + mente = lentamente (slowly)
○​ completo (complete) → completa + mente = completamente (completely)
2.​ Adjectives ending in -e: Keep -e, then add -mente.
○​ breve (short) → breve + mente = brevemente (shortly)
3.​ Adjectives ending in -le or -re: Drop the final -e before adding -mente.
○​ gentile (kind) → gentil + mente = gentilmente (kindly)
○​ regolare (regular) → regolar + mente = regolarmente (regularly)

III. Differentiating Similar Adverbs

 ●​ Anche vs. Pure (also, too, even)​

○​ Anche: More commonly used in everyday conversation.

■​ Sono andata **anche** lá. (I went there too.)
○​ Pure: Used occasionally for emphasis.
■​ Sono andata **pure** lá. (I even went there.)
●​ Solo vs. Soltanto (only)​

○​ When used as adverbs meaning "only," solo and soltanto are

interchangeable.
○​ Note: solo can also be used as an adjective meaning "alone" (e.g., Sono solo
- I am alone). soltanto cannot be an adjective.
●​ Molto (very, much, a lot)​

○​ As an ADVERB:
■​ Means "a lot," "much," "very much," "a great deal," "very."
■​ The ending stays the same (it's invariable as an adverb).
■​ Placement: Always placed AFTER a verb, BEFORE an adjective, or
BEFORE another adverb.
■​ Le fragole sono **molto** buone. (The strawberries are
very good.) — Before an adjective.
■​ Erano **molto** contenti di aspettare. (They were
very content to wait.) — Before an adjective.
■​ Lavoro molto. (I work a lot.) — After a verb.
○​ As an ADJECTIVE:
■​ Means "a great deal of," "a lot of," "lots of," "much," "many."
■​ It conforms to gender and number (molto, molti, molta, molte).
■​ Placement: Always placed BEFORE a noun.
■​ Lei ha **molte** farfalle. (She has a lot of butterflies.)
— Before a noun, agreeing with farfalle (fem. plural).
■​ Ho incontrato **molti** persone durante il mio
viaggio. (I met many people during my trip.) — Before a noun,
agreeing with persone (fem. plural, though here it's acting
masculine, it's a specific example from the text).

IV. Tip: Sopra and Sotto for "Upstairs/Downstairs"

●​ The adverbs sopra (above) and sotto (under) are also used to refer to "upstairs" and
"downstairs" in a house or building.
○​ di sopra (upstairs)
○​ di sotto (downstairs)
V. Vocabulary

●​ molto (very, much)

●​ tanto (much, so much)
●​ poco (little, few)
●​ dove (where)
●​ come (how, like)
●​ là, lì (there)
●​ quando (when)
●​ quanto (how much)
●​ sopra (above, upstairs)
●​ sotto (under, downstairs)
●​ fuori (outside)
●​ dentro (inside)
●​ intorno (around)
●​ oltre (over, beyond)
●​ qua, qui (here)
●​ prima (before)
●​ poi (then, afterward)
●​ dopo (after)
●​ spesso (often)
●​ mai (never)
●​ sempre (always)
●​ ovunque (everywhere)
●​ bene (good, well)
●​ allora (then, so)
●​ benissimo (very well)
●​ meglio (better)
●​ davvero (really, indeed)
●​ veramente (really, truly)
●​ troppo (too much)
●​ solo (only, alone)
●​ subito (immediately)
●​ anche (also, as well)
●​ pure (also, even)
●​ quasi (almost, nearly)
●​ appena (as soon as)
●​ ancora (yet, still)
●​ assolutamente (absolutely)
●​ completamente (completely)
●​ ovviamente (obviously)
●​ comunque (anyway, however)
●​ tuttavia (nonetheless, however)
 ●​ piuttosto (rather)
●​ così (so, thus)
●​ però (but, however)
●​ almeno (at least)
●​ già (already)
●​ adesso (now)
●​ proprio (just, exactly)
●​ circa (approximately)
●​ insieme (together)
●​ soltanto (only)
●​ neanche (neither, not even)
●​ c'è (there is)
●​ soprattutto (above all, especially)
●​ certo (certainly, sure)
●​ forse (maybe, perhaps)
●​ da quando (since when, since)
●​ fa (ago)
●​ dovunque (anywhere)
●​ inoltre (furthermore)
●​ peggio (worst)
●​ ci sono (there are)

Here are notes from the "Places" Duolingo review content you provided:

Italian "Places" Notes

This lesson introduces vocabulary related to various locations, with a specific focus on how to
refer to "train stations" and clarifying similar terms for "street."

I. Train Station Terminology

●​ Treno (train): This is the direct Italian equivalent for the English noun "train."
●​ Ferroviario (railway/railroad): This is an adjective that is only used in combination
with a correlating noun. It changes its gender and number to agree with the noun it
modifies.
○​ Example: incrocio ferroviario (railway crossing) - incrocio is masculine
singular, so ferroviario is masculine singular.
○​ Example: stazione ferroviaria (train station) - stazione is feminine
singular, so ferroviaria is feminine singular.
●​ Usage Examples:
○​ Mi piace andare in treno. (I like to ride the train.)
○​ La stazione ferroviaria è a Milano. (The train station is in Milan.)
II. "Street" Terminology

●​ Strada: This is the most commonly used Italian word for "street."
●​ Traversa: This term is sometimes used to indicate a "side street".

III. Vocabulary

●​ l'albergo (hotel)
●​ la pasticceria (bakery)
●​ il bar (bar)
●​ la libreria (bookshop, bookcase)
●​ il ponte (bridge)
●​ l'edificio (building)
●​ il castello (castle)
●​ il centro (center)
●​ la città (city)
●​ l'angolo (corner)
●​ la fattoria (farm)
●​ il campo (field)
●​ la sala (lounge, hall)
●​ la collina (hill)
●​ il museo (museum)
●​ il parco (park)
●​ il posto (place)
●​ la prigione (prison)
●​ la regione (region)
●​ la piazza (square)
●​ lo stadio (stadium)
●​ la stazione (station)
●​ la strada (street)
●​ il supermercato (supermarket)
●​ il teatro (theater)
●​ il paese (country, village)
●​ il villaggio (village)
●​ la comunità (community)
●​ il palazzo (palace, building)
●​ il porto (port, harbor)
●​ la provincia (province)
●​ il quartiere (district, neighborhood)
●​ il negozio (store)
●​ il ferroviario (railway - as an adjective or noun, depending on context)
Italian "Objects" Notes

This lesson introduces vocabulary for various objects, with a particular focus on distinguishing
terms related to automobiles.

I. Automobiles: Auto vs. Macchina

●​ Auto: This is the common Italian equivalent for "car" or "automobile." It's a shortened
form of the cognate automobile.
●​ Macchina: Literally meaning "machine," macchina is also widely used for "car." It can
describe various other objects that are machines (e.g., macchina da cucire - sewing
machine).
●​ Camion and Autocarro: These are the terms most commonly used for "truck" in
Italian. While autocarro wasn't in the provided vocabulary, it's good to know.

II. Wheels and Tires: Ruota

●​ Ruota: This word specifically means "wheel."

●​ Pneumatico or Gomma: These terms are often interchangeable with ruota when
referring to a "tire" or "rubber" (in the context of tires).

III. Vocabulary

●​ la scatola (box)
●​ la spazzola (brush)
●​ il pettine (comb)
●​ il computer (computer)
●​ il diario (diary)
●​ il motore (engine)
●​ la busta (envelope)
●​ il ventilatore (fan)
●​ la forma (shape)
●​ gli occhiali (glasses)
●​ la tastiera (keyboard)
●​ la patente (license - e.g., driver's license)
●​ il pezzo (piece)
●​ il regalo (present, gift)
●​ lo schermo (screen)
●​ il foglio (sheet of paper)
●​ la cosa (thing)
●​ la ruota (wheel)
●​ il flauto (flute)
 ●​ l'oggetto (object)
●​ il violino (violin)
●​ lo strumento (instrument)
●​ l'automobile (automobile)
●​ la macchina (car)
●​ la benzina (gasoline)
●​ la nave (ship)
●​ l'alcol (alcohol)
●​ la batteria (battery)
●​ la barca (boat)

Italian "People" Notes

This lesson focuses on Italian vocabulary for referring to people, highlighting nuances between
similar terms like different words for "people" and clarifying potential ambiguities in terms like
fidanzato and bambino.

I. Ways to Say "People"

The English word "people" has several translations in Italian, each with slightly different
connotations:

●​ gente: Generally refers to "people" in a collective, informal sense, "folk," or even "race."
It's often used as a singular noun with a plural meaning.
●​ popolo: Refers to "people" as a populace, a crowd, or a distinct group. It implies a
sense of community or nation.
●​ persone: This is simply the plural of persona (person). It directly translates to
"people" when referring to individuals in a group.

II. Potentially Confusing Terms

●​ Fidanzato (masculine) / Fidanzata (feminine):

○​ Can mean "fiancé" (someone engaged to be married).
○​ Can also mean "boyfriend" / "girlfriend."
○​ Context is crucial to avoid awkward situations.
●​ Amichetto (masculine) / Amichetta (feminine):
○​ Also used to refer to a "boyfriend" / "girlfriend" (though this specific term
wasn't included in the lesson's main vocabulary, it's mentioned as an alternative).
●​ Bambino (masculine) / Bambina (feminine):
○​ Can mean either "baby" or "child."
○​ Fanciullo (masculine) / Fanciulla (feminine): An alternative term that is
sometimes used specifically for "child."
●​ Rapporto:
○​ For the purpose of this lesson, it translates to "relationship."
 ○​ However, it also commonly means "report" (e.g., in an educational or
professional sense).

III. Vocabulary

●​ adulto (adult)
●​ età (age)
●​ bambino (baby, child)
●​ fidanzato (fiancé, boyfriend)
●​ folla (crowd)
●​ amico (friend - masculine) / amica (friend - feminine, implied)
●​ gruppo (group)
●​ ospite (guest)
●​ umano (human)
●​ vicino (neighbor)
●​ gente (people, folk, race)
●​ persona (person)
●​ adolescente (teenager)
●​ matrimonio (marriage)
●​ carattere (character)
●​ cittadino (citizen)
●​ generazione (generation)
●​ individuo (individual)
●​ personalità (personality)
●​ popolazione (population)
●​ popolo (people, populace)
●​ sposa (bride)
●​ rapporto (relationship, report)
●​ compagno (companion)
●​ signora (lady, Mrs.)
●​ giovane (young)
●​ simpatico (nice, friendly)

Italian "Clitics 1" Notes

This lesson provides an in-depth look at Italian clitics, which are words that attach to verbs and
cannot stand alone. It covers direct object pronouns, tonic (stressed) pronouns, indirect object
pronouns, reflexive pronouns, the passive/impersonal si, and the clitics ci and ne.

I. What is a "Clitic"?

●​ Definition: A word or part of a word that depends on a neighboring word and cannot
stand alone.
 ●​ Role in Italian: Often appear as pronouns that attach to verbs, playing a crucial role in
sentence structure. It's a complex topic for new learners.

II. Direct Object Pronouns

●​ Function: Replace the direct object (the person or thing that directly receives the action
of the verb).
●​ Answers: "What?" or "Whom?"
●​ No Preposition: There is no preposition after the verb when using direct object
pronouns.

Singular Plural

mi (me) ci (us)

ti (you) vi (you, plural)

lo (him/it) li (them, masculine)

la (her/it) le (them, feminine)

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●​ Examples:​

1.​ Prendo il coltello. (I take the knife.) → **Lo** prendo. (I take it.)
2.​ Mangio una mela. (I eat the apple.) → **La** mangio. (I eat it.)
3.​ Taglio i pomodori. (I cut the tomatoes.) → **Li** taglio. (I cut them.)
4.​ Cuoco le cipolle. (I cook the onions.) → **Le** cuoco. (I cook them.)
●​ Rules for Direct Object Pronouns:​

1.​ Placement: Immediately BEFORE a conjugated verb.

■​ **Li** ho invitati a cena. (I have invited them to dinner.)
■​ **L’** ho veduta ieri. (I saw her yesterday.)
■​ **Ci** hanno guardati e **ci** hanno seguiti. (They
watched us and followed us.)
 2.​ Attached to Infinitive: Can be attached to the END of an infinitive, dropping the
final -e.
■​ È importante mangiarl**a** ogni giorno. (It is important to
eat it every day.)
■​ È una buon’idea invitar**li**. (It’s a good idea to invite them.)
■​ Volevo comprar**la**. (I wanted to buy it.)
3.​ Negative Sentences: non comes BEFORE the object pronoun.
■​ **Non** la mangia. (He doesn’t eat it.)
■​ Perchè **non** li inviti? (Why don’t you invite them?)
4.​ With ecco: Attach to ecco to mean "here I am," "here you are," etc.
■​ Dov’è la signorina? – **Eccola**! (Where is the young
woman? – Here she is!)
■​ Hai trovato le chiavi? – Sì, **eccole**! (Have you found
the keys? – Yes, here they are!)
5.​ Verbs with Direct Objects (English vs. Italian): Some Italian verbs that take a
direct object correspond to English verbs used with prepositions (e.g., "look for").
■​ Cosa cerchi? (What are you looking for?)
■​ Cerco la matita. (I’m looking for the pencil.)
■​ **La** cerco da un’ora! (I’ve been looking for it for an hour!)
6.​ Contraction: lo and la are often shortened to l' before a vowel.
■​ **L’** ho visto. (I saw him/it.)

III. Tonic Pronouns (Pronomi Tonici)

●​ Function: Pronouns that carry emphasis or stress. Used when the pronoun needs to
stand out (for contrast, emphasis, or clarity).
●​ Forms:

Person Singular Plural

First Person me noi

Second te voi
Person

Third Person lui (him), lei (her) loro (them)

 ●​ Common Scenarios for Use:
○​ After Prepositions:
■​ Vuoi venire con **me**? (Do you want to come with me?)
■​ Ho un regalo per **te**. (I have a gift for you.)
○​ To Add Emphasis:
■​ **Io** vado a destra, **tu** vai a sinistra. (I go right,
you go left.)
■​ Non parlava con **loro**, ma con **noi**. (He wasn’t
speaking with them, but with us.)
○​ Stand-Alone Responses:
■​ Chi ha fatto questo? **Lui**! (Who did this? Him!)
■​ Vuoi un caffè? **Noi**, grazie. (Do you want coffee? Us,
thanks.)
○​ In Comparisons with Conjunctions:
■​ Lei è gentile come **te**. (She is kind like you.)

IV. Indirect Object Pronouns

●​ Function: Answer "to whom?" or "for whom?". They indicate the recipient of an action.
●​ Distinction: Nearly identical to direct object pronouns, except for the third-person
singular (gli/le) and plural (loro).
●​ Marker: The preposition a (to) is almost always used before the indirect object noun,
making it easy to identify.

Singular Plural

mi (to/for me) ci (to/for us)

ti (to/for you) vi (to/for you, plural)

gli (to/for him/it) loro (to/for them)

le (to/for her/it)
●​ Example Identification: Scrivo a mia sorella. (I write to my sister.) — mia
sorella is the indirect object.​

○​ Pronoun form: **Le** scrivo. (I write to her.)

●​ Emphasis/Clarification: You can use tonic pronouns after the verb for emphasis, but a
is required except for loro.​

○​ Scrivo **a lei**.

○​ Scrivo ai miei amici. (I write to my friends.) → Scrivo **loro**. (I
write to them.) - loro is the only indirect object pronoun that follows the verb
and does not require a.
●​ Key Difference from Direct Objects: The presence of a preposition, especially a or di.​

○​ Il professore **gli** ha spiegato il problema. (The teacher

explained the problem to him.)
○​ **Le** ho dato quattro biglietti. (I gave her four tickets.)
○​ **Ci** offrono un bicchiere di vino. (They offer us a glass of wine.)
●​ Rules for Indirect Object Pronouns:​

○​ Placement: Precede the verb, EXCEPT for loro (which follows the verb).
■​ **Gli** parlo. (I talk to him.)
■​ **Le** parlo. (I talk to her.)
■​ Parliamo **loro** domani. (We’ll talk to them tomorrow.)
○​ Attached to Infinitive: Can be attached to an infinitive (dropping the final -e).
■​ Non ho tempo di parlar**gli**. (I have no time to talk to him.)
■​ Vado a parlar**le**. (I’m going to talk to her.)
○​ With Modal Verbs (dovere, potere, volere): Can either be attached to the
infinitive (after dropping -e) OR placed before the conjugated modal verb.
■​ Voglio parlar**gli** / **Gli** voglio parlare. (I want to
talk to him.)
●​ Common Verbs Used with Indirect Object Pronouns:​

○​ chiedere (to ask)

○​ cucinare (to cook)
○​ dare (to give)
○​ dire (to say)
○​ domandare (to ask)
○​ insegnare (to teach)
○​ leggere (to read)
○​ mandare (to send)
 ○​ mostrare (to show)
○​ offrire (to offer)
○​ portare (to bring)
○​ prestare (to lend)
○​ rispondere (to answer)
○​ scrivere (to write)
○​ spedire (to mail)

V. Reflexive Pronouns

●​ Function: Used with reflexive verbs, where the subject performs the action on
him/herself.
●​ Infinitive Form: Reflexive verbs in the dictionary end with si (e.g., mettersi,
chiamarsi, sentirsi).
●​ Forms:

Singular Plural

mi (io) ci (noi)

ti (tu) vi (voi)

si (lui, lei) si (loro)

●​ Placement: Usually placed before the conjugated verb and match the grammatical
person.
○​ **mi** guardo allo specchio (I look at myself in the mirror)
○​ **ti** guardi allo specchio (you look at yourself in the mirror)
○​ **si** guarda allo specchio (s/he looks at her/himself in the mirror)
○​ **ci** guardiamo allo specchio (we look at ourselves in the mirror)
○​ **vi** guardate allo specchio (you look at yourselves in the mirror)
○​ **si** guardano allo specchio (they look at themselves in the mirror)

VI. The Passive and Impersonal "si" (si passivante e si impersonale)

 ●​ Function: Used when the specific performer of an action is unknown or irrelevant. It
generalizes the action.
●​ Translation in English: Can be translated in various ways: "is/are done," "you (general)
do," "one does," "they (general) do."
●​ Formation: Use si + verb in the third person (singular or plural).
●​ Agreement: If there is an object after the verb, the verb agrees in number with that
object.
○​ **Si mangia** la pizza. (Pizza is eaten. / One eats pizza.) - pizza is
singular, so mangia (3rd person singular).
○​ **Si mangiano** le pizze. (Pizzas are eaten. / One eats pizzas.) - pizze
is plural, so mangiano (3rd person plural).
●​ No Object: If there is no object, the verb remains singular.
○​ **Si mangia** (bene qui). (One eats (well here).)
●​ Other Examples:
○​ **Si vede** nello specchio. (He sees himself in the mirror.)
○​ La domenica **si lavano** le macchine. (On Sundays, people wash
their cars.)
○​ In Italia **si beve** vino, in Germania birra. (In Italy people
drink wine, in Germany beer.)
●​ Tip (with Reflexive Verbs): For reflexive verbs used with the impersonal si, add ci
before si.
○​ **Ci si** alza presto. (One gets up early.)

VII. Ci and Ne (Replacing Prepositional Phrases)

These are notoriously difficult for learners. They replace phrases introduced by prepositions.

1.​ Ci:​

○​ Replaces a place phrase: Introduced by a, in, or su + object.

■​ Vai **a Roma**? No, non **ci** vado. (Are you going to
Rome? No, I’m not going there.)
■​ Sei andata **in negozio**? Sì, **ci** sono andata due
ore fa. (Have you gone to the store? Yes, I went there two hours
ago.)
○​ Replaces a + targeted person/thing after verbs like credere (to believe) or
pensare (to think).
■​ Credi **agli alieni**? No, non **ci** credo. (Do you
believe in aliens? No, I don’t believe in them.)
■​ Credi **nell’amore a prima vista**? No, non **ci**
credo. (Do you believe in love at first sight? No, I do not believe in it.)
 ○​ In Idiomatic Phrases: Found in fixed expressions like ci vuole / ci
vogliono (it takes).
■​ Da Venezia a Roma **ci vogliono** 5 ore di treno. (It
takes 5 hours by train to get from Venice to Rome.)
2.​ Ne:​

○​ Replaces di + its object: Usually refers to a quantity of something.

■​ Vuoi una **di queste caramelle**? **Ne** vuoi una? (Do
you want one of these candies? Do you want one [of them]?)
○​ Replaces a noun introduced by an expression of quantity: (e.g., molto,
tanto).
■​ Quanti libri hai? **Ne** ho un po’. (How many books do you
have? I have a few [of them].)
■​ Avete degli amici italiani? No, non **ne** abbiamo. (Do
you have any Italian friends? No, we do not have any [of them].)
○​ Tip: Ne is used to avoid repeating the subject already mentioned. You cannot
omit it.

VIII. Vocabulary (Clitics themselves)

●​ mi (me - direct / to me - indirect / myself - reflexive)

●​ ti (you - direct / to you - indirect / yourself - reflexive)
●​ lo (him/it - direct)
●​ la (her/it - direct)
●​ ci (us - direct / to us - indirect / ourselves - reflexive)
●​ vi (you (pl.) - direct / to you (pl.) - indirect / yourselves - reflexive)
●​ loro (them - indirect, specifically to them)
●​ gli (him/it - indirect)
●​ le (her/it - indirect)
●​ li, le (them - direct, masculine and feminine respectively)

Italian "Numbers" Notes

This lesson covers Italian cardinal numbers (for quantity) and ordinal numbers (for order), their
formation rules, specific exceptions, and how to express age and basic math operations.

I. Cardinal Numbers (Quantity)

●​ 0-20: These numbers are unique and must be memorized.​

○​ 0: zero
 ○​ 1: uno
○​ 2: due
○​ 3: tre
○​ 4: quattro
○​ 5: cinque
○​ 6: sei
○​ 7: sette
○​ 8: otto
○​ 9: nove
○​ 10: dieci
○​ 11: undici
○​ 12: dodici
○​ 13: tredici
○​ 14: quattordici
○​ 15: quindici
○​ 16: sedici
○​ 17: diciassette
○​ 18: diciotto
○​ 19: diciannove
○​ 20: venti
●​ Rules for Numbers 21-99:​

○​ Dropping Final Vowel: When uno (one) and otto (eight) are added to numbers
from venti to novanta, the final vowel of the tens number is dropped.
■​ vent**uno** (21)
■​ vent**otto** (28)
■​ trent**uno** (31), etc.
○​ Accent on tre: Any number ending with tre (three) must have an accent mark
on the final e.
■​ ventitré (23)
■​ trentatré (33)
■​ settantatré (73)
●​ Higher Numbers:​

○​ cento (one hundred): Does NOT change in the plural.

■​ trecento (three hundred)
○​ mille (one thousand): Changes to mila in the plural.
■​ duemila (two thousand)
○​ milione (one million): Changes to milioni in the plural.
■​ un milione (one million)
■​ sei milioni (six million)
○​ miliardo (one billion):
 ●​ Tip (Large Number Notation):​

○​ In Italian, a period (.) is used instead of a comma for separating thousands

(e.g., 36.918 for 36,918).
○​ Numbers written out in text are often without spacing.
■​ English: 36,918 = thirty-six thousand nine hundred eighteen
■​ Italian: 36.918 = trentaseimilanovecentodiciotto

II. Ordinal Numbers (Order)

●​ Definition: Used to indicate order (first, second, third, etc.).​

●​ Agreement: Treated as adjectives and must agree in gender and number with the
noun they modify.​

○​ Questo è nostra **primo** concerto. (This is our first concert.) -

concerto is masculine singular, so primo.
○​ Lei è la **terza** ragazza da sinistra. (She is the third girl from
the left.) - ragazza is feminine singular, so terza.
●​ Basic Ordinal Numbers (1st-10th):​

○​ primo (first)
○​ secondo (second)
○​ terzo (third)
○​ quarto (fourth)
○​ quinto (fifth)
○​ sesto (sixth)
○​ settimo (seventh)
○​ ottimo (eighth)
○​ nono (ninth)
○​ decimo (tenth)
●​ Forming Higher Ordinal Numbers (after decimo):​

○​ Drop the final vowel of the cardinal number and add -esimo.
■​ diciott + esimo = diciottesimo (eighteenth)
○​ Exceptions: Numbers ending in -sei or -tre do NOT drop the final vowel.
■​ ventitre + esimo = ventitreesimo (twenty-third)
■​ quarantasei + esimo = quarantaseiesimo (forty-sixth)

III. Age

●​ Expression: Age in Italian is expressed as the number of years the person "has," using
the verb avere (to have).
 ○​ Lei **ha** sedici anni. (She has sixteen years. → She is sixteen years
old.)

IV. Math

Basic math operations are expressed as follows:

●​ Multiplication (x): per

○​ 10 x 9 = 90 (dieci per nove uguale novanta)
●​ Addition (+): più
○​ 7 + 4 = 11 (sette più quattro uguale undici)
●​ Division (/): diviso
○​ 16 / 2 = 8 (sedici diviso due uguale otto)
●​ Subtraction (-): meno
○​ 73 – 40 = 33 (settantatre meno quaranta uguale trentatre)

V. Vocabulary

●​ numero (number)
●​ uno (one)
●​ prima (first)
●​ due (two)
●​ secondo (second)
●​ tre (three)
●​ terzo (third)
●​ quattro (four)
●​ quarto (fourth)
●​ cinque (five)
●​ quinta (fifth)
●​ sei (six)
●​ sesto (sixth)
●​ sette (seven)
●​ settimo (seventh)
●​ otto (eight)
●​ ottavo (eighth)
●​ nove (nine)
●​ nono (ninth)
●​ dieci (ten)
●​ decima (tenth)
●​ undici (eleven)
●​ dodici (twelve)
●​ tredici (thirteen)
 ●​ quattordici (fourteen)
●​ quindici (fifteen)
●​ sedici (sixteen)
●​ diciassette (seventeen)
●​ diciotto (eighteen)
●​ diciannove (nineteen)
●​ venti (twenty)
●​ trenta (thirty)
●​ trent' (thirty - preceding vowels)
●​ quaranta (forty)
●​ quarant' (forty - preceding vowels)
●​ cinquanta (fifty)
●​ sessanta (sixty)
●​ sessant' (sixty - preceding vowels)
●​ settanta (seventy)
●​ settant' (seventy - preceding vowels)
●​ ottanta (eighty)
●​ novanta (ninety)
●​ cento (one hundred)
●​ mille (one thousand)
●​ un milione (one million)
●​ un miliardo (one billion)
●​ ultimo (last)
●​ zero (zero)
●​ alcuno (some)
●​ doppio (double)
●​ molto (many, much)
●​ pochi (few)
●​ sufficiente (sufficient)
●​ tanto (much, so much)
●​ abbastanza (enough)
●​ meno (less)
●​ metà (half)
●​ più (more)
●​ più grande (bigger)

Italian "Determiners" Notes

This lesson explains determiners in Italian, focusing on their agreement with nouns and detailing
the usage of demonstrative determiners like questo and quello, and how bello follows
similar patterns.

I. What are Determiners?

 ●​ Function: Words that specify the denotation of a noun phrase. They modify and clarify
the noun, similar to adjectives.
●​ Agreement: Like adjectives, Italian determiners agree in gender and number with the
noun they modify.
●​ Types: Include definite/indefinite articles (already covered), demonstratives (this, that),
possessive determiners (my, their), quantifiers (many, few), numerals, distributive
determiners (each), and interrogative determiners (which).
●​ Examples:
○​ Ci sono **alcuni** ragazzi nel parco. (There are some boys in the
park.)
○​ **Molte** lingue sono difficili. (Many languages are hard.)
○​ I **miei** studenti parlano inglese. (My students speak English.)

II. Demonstrative Determiners: Questo (this/these)

●​ Meaning: "This" (singular) or "these" (plural).

●​ Forms: Questo is a four-form adjective, changing its final letter to agree with the noun.
●​ Contraction: Before a vowel, questo and questa optionally contract to quest’.

Noun Article Singular (this) Plural (these)

il (divano) questo questi

divano divani

l' (amico) questo questi

amico amici

lo (squalo) questo questi

squalo squali

la (stanza) questa queste

stanza stanze
 l' (ape) quest'ape queste api

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III. Demonstrative Determiners: Quello (that/those)

●​ Meaning: "That" (singular) or "those" (plural).

●​ Agreement: Quello has the added feature of combining with the definite article of
the noun it precedes, behaving similarly to the definite articles themselves.

Noun Article Singular (that) Plural (those)

il (divano) quel divano quei

divani

l' (amico) quell’amico quegli

amici

lo (squalo) quello quegli

squalo squali

la (stanza) quella quelle

stanza stanze

l' (ape) quell’ape quelle api

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IV. Bello (Beautiful) Follows Quello Pattern

●​ The adjective bello (beautiful) surprisingly follows the same irregular patterns as
quello.
 Noun Article Singular (beautiful) Plural (beautiful)

il (divano) bel divano bei divani

l' (amico) bell’amico begli amici

lo (squalo) bello squalo begli squali

la (stanza) bella stanza belle stanze

l' (ape) bell’ape belle api

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V. Tip: Qualsiasi vs. Qualunque (any)

●​ Synonyms: Qualsiasi and qualunque are synonyms, both meaning "any."

●​ Subtle Difference: Qualsiasi can imply a choice (whatever, whichever), while
qualunque is more general.
○​ Dammi un libro **qualunque**. (Give me just any book.)
○​ Dammi un libro **qualsiasi**. (Give me whichever book you want to
give me.)

VI. Vocabulary

●​ questi (these - plural of questo)

●​ questo (this)
●​ quelli (those - plural of quello)
●​ quello (that)
●​ ogni (every)
●​ alcuno (some, several - masc.)
●​ alcuna (some, any - fem.)
 ●​ qualche (some, few - invariable, always followed by singular noun)
●​ altro (other)
●​ diverse (different - fem. plural)
●​ nessuna (none - fem.)
●​ certe (certain - fem. plural)
●​ troppo (too many/much)
●​ parecchio (quite a lot)
●​ qualsiasi (any, whichever)
●​ qualunque (any)
●​ tutti (all - masc. plural) / tutta (all - fem. singular) / tutto (whole, all - masc. singular)
●​ un altro (another)

Italian "Present (Verbs) 3" Notes

This lesson introduces a range of new verbs, including ringraziare (to thank) and
emphasizes connections between verbs and related nouns.

I. Ringraziare (to thank)

●​ Formality: Ringraziare is a verb meaning "to thank," and it can be used as a slightly
more formal alternative to simply saying grazie (thank you).
●​ Direct Object: It takes a direct object pronoun to indicate who is being thanked.
○​ Example: Ti ringraziamo. (We thank you.) - Ti is the direct object pronoun
"you."
○​ Example: Vi ringrazio. (I thank you all.) - Vi is the direct object pronoun
"you all."

II. Verb-Noun Correlations

●​ This lesson highlights how some verbs are closely related to nouns learned in previous
lessons, often sharing a common root. Recognizing these patterns can help expand your
vocabulary.
●​ Examples:
○​ allenare (to train, coach) relates to allenatore (trainer, coach)
○​ prenotare (to reserve) relates to prenotazione (reservation)
○​ cantare (to sing) relates to cantore (singer)

III. Vocabulary (Verbs)

●​ spingere (to push)

●​ prestare (to lend)
●​ insegnare (to teach)
●​ suonare (to play an instrument)
●​ ringraziare (to thank)
●​ cantare (to sing)
●​ dormire (to sleep)
●​ sedere (to sit)
●​ visitare (to visit)
●​ spostare (to move)
●​ cucinare (to cook)
●​ comprare (to buy)
●​ volare (to fly)
●​ piangere (to cry)
●​ ridere (to laugh)
●​ indossare (to wear)
●​ rompere (to break)
●​ ferire (to injure)
●​ guadagnare (to earn)
●​ camminare (to walk)
●​ viaggiare (to travel)
●​ pescare (to fish)
●​ rubare (to steal)
●​ accendere (to turn on)
●​ sorridere (to smile)
●​ abbassare (to lower)
●​ bruciare (to burn)
●​ fallire (to fail)
●​ fumare (to smoke)
●​ riposare (to rest)
●​ riempire (to fill)
●​ mentire (to lie - tell a lie)
●​ pulire (to clean)
●​ baciare (to kiss)
●​ coltivare (to cultivate)
●​ allenare (to train)
●​ esplorare (to explore)
●​ prenotare (to reserve)
●​ lavare (to wash)
●​ supporre (to suppose)
●​ gridare (to shout)
●​ nuotare (to swim)
●​ svuotare (to empty)
●​ parcheggiare (to park)
●​ riparare (to repair)
●​ pianificare (to plan)
●​ asciugare (to dry)
 ●​ arrostire (to roast)
●​ accettare (to accept)
●​ dispiacere (to be sorry / to displease)
●​ friggere (to fry)
●​ partire (to depart)
●​ migliorare (to improve)
●​ sembrare (to seem)

Italian "Present Perfect" (Passato Prossimo) Notes

This lesson explains the formation and usage of the Italian passato prossimo (present
perfect), a compound tense used for completed past actions related to the present.

I. What is the Passato Prossimo?

●​ Usage: Used to express a completed action that happened in the past, but which has
some relation to the present.
●​ Formation: It's a compound tense, meaning it's formed by combining two verbs:
○​ The present tense of an auxiliary verb (avere or essere).
○​ The past participle of the main verb.
○​ Example: Ho mangiato una fragola per colazione. (I ate a strawberry
for breakfast.) - Ho (from avere) + mangiato (past participle of mangiare).
○​ Example: Sono andato al cinema per vedere un film. (I went to the
cinema to see a movie.) - Sono (from essere) + andato (past participle of
andare).

II. Auxiliary Verbs (Avere or Essere)

●​ The choice between avere and essere as the auxiliary verb is a crucial aspect of
forming the passato prossimo. (The provided text points to another resource for a
detailed explanation of this choice).

III. Past Participle (Participio Passato)

●​ Function: Expresses the meaning of the main verb.​

●​ Regular Formation: Change the ending of the infinitive verb as follows:​

○​ -are verbs: become -ato (e.g., lavorare → lavorato)

○​ -ere verbs: become -uto (e.g., sapere → saputo)
○​ -ire verbs: become -ito (e.g., finire → finito)
 ●​ Irregular Past Participles: Many verbs have irregular past participles that must be
memorized. Some important ones listed:​

○​ aprire → aperto (to open)

○​ bere → bevuto (to drink)
○​ chiedere → chiesto (to ask)
○​ chiudere → chiuso (to close)
○​ correre → corso (to run)
○​ decidere → deciso (to decide)
○​ dire → detto (to say)
○​ essere → stato (to be)
○​ fare → fatto (to do)
○​ leggere → letto (to read)
○​ mettere → messo (to put)
○​ morire → morto (to die)
○​ nascere → nato (to be born)
○​ piangere → pianto (to cry)
○​ prendere → preso (to take)
○​ ridere → riso (to laugh)
○​ rimanere → rimasto (to remain)
○​ rispondere → risposto (to answer)
○​ rompere → rotto (to break)
○​ scegliere → scelto (to choose)
○​ scrivere → scritto (to write)
○​ sorridere → sorriso (to smile)
○​ stare → stato (to stay)
○​ succedere → successo (to happen)
○​ vedere → visto (to see)
○​ venire → venuto (to come)
○​ vincere → vinto (to win)
○​ vivere → vissuto (to live)

IV. Past Participle Agreement Rules (as a "Verbal Adjective")

The past participle acts like an adjective and must agree in gender and number in certain
situations:

1.​ With Third Person Direct Object Clitics (lo, la, l', li, le): The past participle
must match the gender and number of the direct object clitic.
 ○​ Example (not explicitly in text, but implied): L'ho vista. (I saw her.) - vista (fem.
sing.) agrees with la (her).
2.​ When the Auxiliary Verb is Essere: The past participle must match the gender and
number of the subject.
○​ Example: Maria è **andata** al cinema. (Maria went to the cinema.) -
andata (fem. sing.) agrees with Maria (fem. sing.).
○​ Example: I ragazzi sono **venuti** a casa. (The boys came home.) -
venuti (masc. plural) agrees with ragazzi (masc. plural).
3.​ In all other cases (e.g., when the auxiliary is avere and no direct object clitic
precedes the verb): The masculine singular form of the past participle is used.
○​ Example: Ho **mangiato** una fragola. (I ate a strawberry.) - mangiato
(masc. sing.) despite fragola being feminine.

V. Vocabulary (Past Participles and Phrases)

●​ avuto (had)
●​ ho fatto (I have done)
●​ siamo venuti (we have come)
●​ hanno bevuto (they have drunk)
●​ hai detto (you have told)
●​ siamo conosciuti (we have met - masc. plural)
●​ sono andati (they went - masc. plural)
●​ ho voluto (wanted)
●​ ha preso (has taken)
●​ sono arrivati (they have arrived - masc. plural)
●​ ha dato (he has given)
●​ ha portato (she has brought - past participle agrees with direct object la implied from
context, or if it's lei ha portato without an object, it would be portato)
●​ ha messo (he has put)
●​ ha pensato (she has thought)
●​ ho lasciato (I have left)
●​ siamo diventate (we have become - fem. plural)
●​ ho sentito (I have heard)
●​ ho creduto (I have believed)
●​ ha tenuto (she has kept)
●​ ho capito (I have understood)
●​ ha chiesto (he has asked)
●​ è rimasto (he has stayed)
●​ hanno lavorato (they have worked)
●​ abbiamo vissuti (we have lived - note agreement, usually vissuto with avere unless
there's a preceding direct object)
●​ è passato (it has passed)
 ●​ sono aperti (they are open - past participle of aprire used adjectivally)
●​ hai seguito (you have followed)
●​ è morto (he has died)
●​ ho aspettato (I have waited)
●​ hanno guardato (they have watched)
●​ ho chiamato (I have called)
●​ siamo piaciuti (we have liked - masc. plural, referring to being pleasing)
●​ ha vinto (he has won)
●​ ho perso (I have lost)
●​ ho iniziato (I have started)
●​ ho ricevuto (I have received)
●​ ho deciso (I have decided)
●​ ha scritto (she had written)
●​ ho tentato (I have tried)
●​ ha insistito (he has insisted)
●​ siamo incontrati (we have met - masc. plural)
●​ ha prodotto (it has produced)
●​ è cambiato (it has changed)
●​ abbiamo cominciati (we have started - note agreement, usually cominciato with avere
unless there's a preceding direct object)
●​ ho pagato (I have paid)

Italian "Adjectives 2" Notes

This lesson focuses on adjectives commonly used with the verb essere (to be) and provides
important tips on specific adjective types and their agreement.

I. Adjectives with Essere

●​ Most adjectives, particularly those describing states, qualities, or characteristics, are

used with the Italian verb essere.
●​ Remember that these adjectives must agree in gender and number with the subject of
the verb essere.
○​ Example: Sono arrabbiato. (I’m angry - if speaker is masculine)
○​ Example: Sono arrabbiata. (I’m angry - if speaker is feminine)
●​ Examples provided (all using io sono as the implied subject):
○​ sono arrabbiato (I’m angry)
○​ sono arrogante (I’m arrogant)
○​ sono coraggioso (I’m brave)
○​ sono pigro (I’m lazy)
○​ sono studioso (I’m studious)
○​ sono timido (I’m shy)
II. Tips

●​ Vicino (Neighbor vs. Near):​

○​ The noun vicino (masculine) / vicina (feminine) means "neighbor" (as

introduced in the "People" lesson).
○​ The adjective vicino (masculine) / vicina (feminine) means "to be near or
close."
■​ Example: La casa è vicina al parco. (The house is near the
park.)
●​ Second Class Adjectives (-e ending):​

○​ Be aware of adjectives like legale (legal), which are "second class" adjectives.
○​ This means they have the same form for both masculine and feminine
singular (ending in -e).
○​ In the plural, they take -i for both masculine and feminine plural forms.
○​ Example:
■​ l'uomo legale (the legal man)
■​ la donna legale (the legal woman)
■​ gli uomini legali (the legal men)
■​ le donne legali (the legal women)

III. Vocabulary (Adjectives)

●​ positivo (positive)
●​ negativo (negative)
●​ culturale (cultural)
●​ storico (historical)
●​ antico (antique)
●​ tradizionale (traditional)
●​ familiare (familiar)
●​ globale (global)
●​ statale (state)
●​ regionali (regional - plural)
●​ locale (local)
●​ provinciale (provincial)
●​ pubblica (public - feminine)
●​ divertente (funny)
●​ veloce (fast)
●​ indipendente (independent)
●​ fresco (fresh)
 ●​ attento (attentive, alert)
●​ puro (pure)
●​ migliore (best)
●​ industriale (industrial)
●​ commerciale (commercial)
●​ professionale (professional)
●​ avanzato (advanced)
●​ efficace (effective)
●​ responsabile (responsible)
●​ legale (legal)
●​ originale (original)
●​ recente (recent)
●​ seguente (following)
●​ finale (final)
●​ definitiva (definite - feminine)
●​ numerosa (numerous - feminine)
●​ dolce (sweet)
●​ cattivo (bad)
●​ povero (poor)
●​ grave (serious)
●​ generale (general)
●​ necessario (necessary)
●​ naturale (natural)
●​ personale (personal)
●​ particolare (particular)
●​ vicino (near)
●​ scorso (last)
●​ superiore (superior)
●​ simile (similar)
●​ fondamentale (fundamental)
●​ semplice (simple)
●​ fisico (physical)
●​ profondo (profound)
●​ futuro (future)
●​ differente (different)
●​ leggero (light (weight))
●​ arrabbiato (angry)
●​ arrogante (arrogant)
●​ coraggioso (brave)
●​ pigro (lazy)
●​ studioso (studious)
●​ timido (shy)

Italian "Infinitive (Verbs) 1" Notes

This lesson explores the various uses of the Italian infinitive verb, particularly how it functions as
a noun, in imperatives, and in common "infinitive propositions" (subordinate clauses where the
verb is in the infinitive).

I. Uses of the Italian Infinitive

The Italian infinitive (the base form of the verb, ending in -are, -ere, or -ire) has several
important uses:

1.​ As a Noun: It's a common way to turn a verb into a noun, often corresponding to the
English gerund (-ing form).
○​ Example: Il **mangiare** è importante. (Eating is important.)
2.​ Negative or Generic Imperatives: Used to give commands in a negative or general
sense (e.g., instructions, prohibitions).
○​ Example: **Non toccare**! (Do not touch!)
3.​ In "Infinitive Propositions" (Subordinate Clauses):
○​ Rule: When the subject of a subordinate sentence is the same as the main
sentence, the subordinate sentence is often "shortened" into an infinitive
proposition.
○​ This also frequently happens when the infinitive refers to or acts as the object of
the main sentence.
○​ Challenge: There is no clear-cut rule for which preposition to use before each
infinitive. Synonyms might require different prepositions, and a verb might require
a different preposition when used reflexively.

II. Verbs Followed Directly by an Infinitive (No Preposition)

Some categories of verbs can be followed immediately by another infinitive verb, without any
intervening preposition:

●​ Modal verbs:
○​ potere (to be able to, can)
○​ dovere (to have to, must)
○​ volere (to want)
○​ sapere (to know how to)
●​ Perception verbs:
○​ vedere (to see)
○​ sentire (to hear, feel)
●​ Feeling verbs:
○​ piacere (to like)
○​ amare (to love)
○​ odiare (to hate)
○​ preferire (to prefer)
 ●​ Causative verbs:
○​ fare (to make/have something done)
○​ lasciare (to let/allow)
○​ Note: Not all causative verbs follow this rule; permettere (to permit) and
ordinare (to order) require di.

III. Verbs That Need a Preposition Before the Infinitive

Most verbs in Italian require a preposition before a following infinitive.

●​ di (by far the most common):

○​ Used after verbs of expression (dire - to say, chiedere - to ask).
○​ Used after verbs of thought (pensare - to think, credere - to believe).
○​ Used after verbs of attempt (cercare - to search for, tentare - to attempt).
○​ Exception: provare (to try) uses a.
●​ a (mainly for "after" actions):
○​ Used for subordinates that are somewhat "after" or in a sequence to the main
sentence.
○​ Includes verbs of movement (andare - to go, venire - to come).
○​ Includes verbs of preparation (provare - to try, prendere - to take, mettersi
- to put on/start).
○​ Includes verbs of hesitation (esitare - to hesitate, indugiare - to delay,
tardare - to delay).
○​ Important Restriction: If the main verb has an object, a cannot be used to refer
to the same subject as the main verb.

IV. Other Sentence Elements Introducing Infinitives (with Prepositions)

Infinitives can also be introduced by other words, with prepositions indicating different nuances:

●​ di (specification):
○​ Expresses "having need to" or "needing."
○​ Example: aver bisogno **di dormire** (having need to sleep, needing
sleep).
●​ da (passive meaning):
○​ Usually expresses a passive meaning ("to be done").
○​ Example: bollette **da pagare** (bills to be paid).
●​ a (conditional meaning):
○​ Can have a conditional meaning ("if...").
○​ Example: **a sentire** lui (if hearing him, if you listen to his opinion).
○​ Passive meaning with adjectives: With some adjectives, it has the same
passive meaning as da.
 ○​ Example: facile **a dirsi** (easy to say).
●​ per (purpose/finality):
○​ Expresses purpose or finality ("in order to").
○​ Example: **per viaggiare** (in order to travel).
●​ in (time/simultaneous action):
○​ Refers to the time during which the action is happening, or a simultaneous action.
○​ Example: **nel tornare** a casa (while coming back home). - Note: nel
is in + il.

V. Vocabulary (Infinitives)

●​ aggiungere (to add)

●​ aiutare (to help)
●​ amare (to love)
●​ andare (to go)
●​ aprire (to open)
●​ arrivare (to arrive)
●​ aspettare (to wait for)
●​ avere (to have)
●​ bere (to drink)
●​ cambiare (to change)
●​ capire (to understand)
●​ chiamare (to call)
●​ chiedere (to ask)
●​ chiudere (to close)
●​ conoscere (to know someone)
●​ costruire (to construct)
●​ correre (to run)
●​ credere (to believe)
●​ decidere (to decide)
●​ dimostrare (to demonstrate)
●​ dire (to say)
●​ diventare (to become)
●​ entrare (to enter)
●​ essere (to be)
●​ fare (to do, make)
●​ finire (to finish)
●​ giocare (to play)
●​ guardare (to watch)
●​ guidare (to drive)
●​ indicare (to indicate)
●​ lasciare (to leave)
 ●​ leggere (to read)
●​ mancare (to miss)
●​ mangiare (to eat)
●​ mettere (to put)
●​ morire (to die)
●​ noleggiare (to rent)
●​ offrire (to offer)
●​ parlare (to speak)
●​ passare (to pass)
●​ pensare (to think)
●​ perdere (to lose)
●​ piacere (to like)
●​ portare (to bring)
●​ prendere (to take)
●​ ricevere (to receive)
●​ ricordare (to remember)
●​ rimanere (to remain)
●​ ripetere (to repeat)
●​ rispondere (to respond)
●​ sapere (to know something)
●​ scegliere (to select)
●​ scrivere (to write)
●​ seguire (to follow)
●​ sentire (to feel, hear)
●​ stare (to be, to stay)
●​ succedere (to happen)
●​ suonare (to play an instrument)
●​ svegliare (to waken)
●​ tenere (to hold, keep)
●​ tirare (to pull)
●​ trovare (to find)
●​ unire (to unite)
●​ usare (to use)
●​ vedere (to see)
●​ venire (to come)
●​ vivere (to live)

Italian "Pronouns" Notes

This lesson introduces several Italian pronouns, focusing on those that can be particularly
confusing due to their multiple meanings or unique usage, such as nessuno, niente, che,
qualcuno, and especially ciò.

I. Confusing Italian Pronouns

 ●​ nessuno: Can mean "no one," "nobody," "anybody," or "none." Its specific meaning
depends on context and sentence structure (e.g., whether it's used in a negative
construction).
●​ niente: Means "no," "nothing," or "anything." Similar to nessuno, its translation
depends on whether it's used with a negation.
●​ che: A versatile pronoun/conjunction that can mean "what," "who," or "which." Its
function changes based on context (e.g., interrogative, relative pronoun).
●​ qualcuno: Means "someone" or "somebody."

II. The Pronoun Ciò

●​ Gender and Number: Ciò is a masculine singular pronoun only.

●​ Function: It indicates or replaces the noun of a thing, generally referring to a verb or a
phrase. It can function as both a subject and a complement (object).
●​ Meaning: Often translates to "this thing" or "that thing," referring to something previously
discussed or understood.
●​ Examples:
○​ Tutto **ciò** è vero. (That's all true. / All this is true.)
○​ Parlammo a lungo di **ciò** che gli era accaduto. (We talked a
lot about what happened to him.)
○​ Hai fatto **ciò** che ho detto? (Have you done what I told you?)
●​ Ciò che: This phrase literally means "that which," but it commonly translates to "what"
in English.
○​ Vedo **ciò che** fai. (I see what you’re doing.)
○​ (Literally: I see that which you are doing.)

III. Vocabulary (Pronouns and Related Words)

●​ che (what, who, which)

●​ altro (other)
●​ qualcuno (someone, somebody)
●​ qualsiasi (any - also a determiner)
●​ entrambe (both - feminine plural)
●​ ognuno (each one)
●​ tutto (all, whole - masculine singular)
●​ nessuno (no one, nobody, anybody, none)
●​ niente (no, nothing, anything)
●​ nulla (nothing - synonym of niente)
●​ qualcosa (something)
●​ alcuno (any - masculine singular)
●​ quello (that - also a determiner)
 ●​ questo (this - also a determiner)
●​ quale (which - also a determiner)
●​ chi (who)
●​ ciò (that, it - formal)
●​ cui (whose, of which)
●​ chiunque (anyone, whoever)
●​ quelli (those - plural of quello, also a determiner)
●​ questi (these - plural of questo, also a determiner)
●​ alcuni (some - masculine plural)

Italian "Formal You" Notes

This lesson introduces the formal way of saying "you" in Italian, emphasizing the use of Lei and
when it's appropriate to use this polite form.

I. Lei - The Formal "You"

●​ Form: Lei (capitalized) is the formal way of saying "you" when it is the subject of a
verb.
●​ Distinction: It must be capitalized to distinguish it from lei (she).
●​ Verb Agreement: When using Lei as the formal "you," the verb is conjugated in the
third-person singular form (the same as lui/lei - he/she).

II. When to Use Lei (Polite Form)

The general rule is to use Lei when talking to:

●​ An unknown person who is older than you.​

●​ For respectful address in various professional and public settings.​

●​ Specific Situations where Lei is Best Practice:​

○​ Doctors in hospitals
○​ Lawyers in their offices
○​ Bosses at work
○​ Policemen
○​ Professors at universities
●​ Consequence of Not Using Lei: Not using Lei in these circumstances could
potentially be considered disrespectful.​

III. Vocabulary (and Example Phrases demonstrating Lei usage)

 ●​ salve (hello)
●​ prego (you're welcome)
●​ Lei (you - formal)
●​ preghiamo (we beg/ask - from the verb pregare)
●​ Chi è Lei? (Who are you? - Formal)
●​ La prego di arrivare presto. (I beg you to arrive soon. - Formal, La is the formal direct
object pronoun for Lei)
●​ La preghiamo di entrare. (We beg you to enter. - Formal, La is formal direct object,
preghiamo is noi form)
●​ La prego di entrare. (I beg you to enter. - Formal, La is formal direct object, prego is
io form)
●​ La preghiamo di venire con noi. (We beg you to come with us. - Formal)
●​ Voglio parlare con Lei. (I want to speak with you. - Formal, Lei used as an object after
con)

Italian "Imperative (Verbs)" Notes

This lesson details how to form commands (the imperative mood) in Italian for different
grammatical persons (tu, voi, Lei, noi), covering both affirmative and negative forms, and
pronoun placement.

I. The Imperative (Commands)

●​ Function: Used for giving instructions or orders.

●​ Forms: Different conjugations are used for tu (informal singular), voi (informal/formal
plural), Lei (formal singular), and noi (let's...).

II. TU (Informal Singular "You") Commands

1.​ Affirmative Commands:​

○​ For -ARE verbs: Use the 3rd person singular (same as lui/lei form) in the
present tense.
■​ CHIAMARE (to call) → Chiama! (Call!)
○​ For -ERE and -IRE verbs: Use the normal 2nd person singular (tu) form in
the present tense.
■​ LEGGERE (to read) → Leggi! (Read!)
■​ SENTIRE (to hear) → Senti! (Listen!)
○​ Pronoun Placement (Affirmative): Pronouns are placed at the end of the verb
and attached to it.
■​ Chiamami! (Call me!)
 2.​ Negative Commands:​

○​ For all verbs: Use Non + the infinitive verb.

■​ CHIAMARE → Non chiamare! (Don't call!)
■​ LEGGERE → Non leggere! (Don't read!)
■​ SENTIRE → Non sentire! (Don't listen!)
○​ Pronoun Placement (Negative): Pronouns can be placed either before or at
the end of the verb.
■​ Non mi chiamare! / Non chiamarmi! (Don't call me!)
○​ Note: When attached to the end, the final -e of the infinitive is dropped (e.g.,
chiamare becomes chiamar- before -mi).

III. VOI (Plural "You") & NOI ("Let's...") Commands

●​ Formation: For voi and noi commands, you simply use the normal present tense
form of the verb.
●​ Examples:
○​ VOI:
■​ Chiamate! (Call! - Plural)
■​ Non chiamate! (Don't call! - Plural)
○​ NOI:
■​ Chiamiamo! (Let's call!)
■​ Non chiamiamo! (Let's not call!)
●​ Pronoun Placement (Same as tu):
○​ Affirmative: Pronouns attached to the end.
■​ Chiamatemi! (Call me! - Plural)
■​ Chiamiamoci! (Let's call each other!)
○​ Negative: Pronouns can be before or attached to the end.
■​ Non mi chiamate! / Non chiamatemi!
■​ Non ci chiamiamo! / Non chiamiamoci!

IV. LEI (Formal Singular "You") Commands

●​ Formation: Formal commands with Lei use the present subjunctive mood. (More on
subjunctive later, but here are the regular endings).
●​ Regular Endings for Lei (Subjunctive):
○​ -ARE verbs → -i
■​ CHIAMARE → Chiami! (Call! - Formal)
○​ -ERE verbs → -a
■​ LEGGERE → Legga! (Read! - Formal)
○​ -IRE verbs → -a
 ■​ SENTIRE → Senta! (Listen! - Formal)
○​ -IRE verbs (with -isc-) → -isca
■​ CAPIRE → Capisca! (Understand! - Formal)
●​ Irregular io forms: Verbs with an irregular io form in the present tense will use that
stem for the formal imperative.
○​ Fare (to do/make) → io faccio (I do/make) → (Lei) Faccia! (Do/Make! -
Formal)
●​ Pronoun Placement (Formal): Pronouns are always placed BEFORE the verb in
formal imperatives.
○​ Mi chiami! (Call me! - Formal)
○​ Non mi chiami! (Don't call me! - Formal)

V. Vocabulary (Examples of Imperative Forms and Related Verbs)

●​ fate (you do - voi imperative of fare)

●​ venga (come - Lei imperative of venire)
●​ stai (you are/stay - tu imperative of stare)
●​ andiamo (let's go - noi imperative of andare)
●​ diciamo (let's say - noi imperative of dire)
●​ sappi (know - tu imperative of sapere)
●​ trovate (you find - voi imperative of trovare)
●​ parla (speak - tu imperative of parlare)
●​ metti (put - tu imperative of mettere)
●​ prendi (take - tu imperative of prendere)
●​ porta (bring/carry - tu imperative of portare)
●​ arrivate (arrive - voi imperative of arrivare)
●​ chiedi (you ask - tu imperative of chiedere)
●​ lascia (leave - tu imperative of lasciare)
●​ senti (feel/hear/listen - tu imperative of sentire)
●​ tieni (you hold/keep - tu imperative of tenere)
●​ rimanga (remain - Lei imperative of rimanere)
●​ passa (pass - tu imperative of passare)
●​ entra (enter - tu imperative of entrare)
●​ lavora (work - tu imperative of lavorare)
●​ vivete (live - voi imperative of vivere)
●​ ricordate (remember - voi imperative of ricordare)
●​ usi (use - tu imperative of usare OR Lei imperative of usare)
●​ chiama (call - tu imperative of chiamare)
 ●​ guarda (look - tu imperative of guardare)
●​ apri (open - tu imperative of aprire)
●​ segui (follow - tu imperative of seguire)
●​ aspetta (wait - tu imperative of aspettare)
●​ dimmi (tell me - tu imperative of dire + mi)
●​ chiamiamoci (let's call each other - noi imperative of chiamarsi + ci)
●​ dammi (give me - tu imperative of dare + mi)
●​ pensiamoci (let's think about it - noi imperative of pensarci + ci)
●​ passiamola (let's pass it - noi imperative of passare + la)

Italian "Education" System Notes

This lesson outlines the structure of the Italian education system, from early childhood to
university, including compulsory stages and types of secondary schools.

I. Non-Compulsory Education (Before Age 6)

Free state education is available to all children in Italy, regardless of nationality. Before
compulsory education, children have these non-mandatory options:

●​ asilo nido (Daycare Centres): For children aged 0-3 years.

●​ scuola materna (Pre-School or Nursery School): For children aged 3-5 years.

II. Compulsory Education (Ages 6-16)

Education is mandatory for children from 6 to 16 years old in Italy. This period covers the first 8
years of education, structured as:

●​ scuola primaria or scuola elementare (Primary or Elementary School): Ages

6-11 years (5 years).
●​ scuola secondaria di primo grado or scuola media (First Grade Secondary
School or Middle School): Ages 11-14 years (3 years).

After completing this first cycle, students take a state examination to advance to upper
secondary education.

III. Upper Secondary Education (Ages 14-19)

Students complete the final 5 years of their state education at this level.

●​ scuola secondaria di secondo grado or scuola superiore (Second Grade

Secondary School or High School): Ages 14-19 years.​
 ●​ At this stage, students have two main choices:​

○​ liceo: Similar to an American high school, this is more academic in nature.

○​ istituto: Essentially a vocational school, focusing on practical skills.
●​ Curriculum (First Two Years): All students follow the same state-mandated curriculum,
covering: Italian language and literature, science, mathematics, foreign language,
religion, geography, history, social studies, and physical education. This fulfills the 10
years of "mandatory compulsory education."​

●​ Specialized Courses (indirizzi): These begin in the third year.​

●​ Types of Licei (Italian High Schools):​

○​ liceo classico (Classical High School)

○​ liceo scientifico (Scientific High School)
○​ liceo linguistico (Linguistic High School)
○​ liceo artistico (Fine Arts High School)
○​ liceo musicale e coreutico (Music and Dance High School)
○​ liceo delle scienze umane (Human Sciences High School)
●​ Types of Istituti (Italian Vocational Schools):​

○​ istituto magistrale (Teacher Training School)

○​ istituto tecnico economico (Economic Institute)
○​ istituti tecnico tecnologico (Technical Institute)
○​ istituti professionali (Professional Institutes)

IV. University (Università)

●​ Eligibility: Available to all students who have completed five years of secondary school
and received an upper secondary school diploma. Students from vocational schools can
also attend university.
●​ Bachelor's Degree (laurea): Typically takes three years to achieve (four years for
teaching qualifications).

Vocabulary

●​ il libro (book)
●​ l'insegnante (teacher)
●​ il professore (professor)
●​ lo studente (student)
●​ gli alunni (pupils)
●​ il principiante (beginner)
●​ la classe (class)
●​ la scuola (school)
●​ l'università (university)
●​ il liceo (high school - academic)
●​ l'educazione (education)
●​ la capitale (capital - might be a typo in the original for "capitol" if referring to a school
building)
●​ l'aula (classroom)
●​ il concetto (concept)
●​ il corso (course)
●​ la laurea (graduation, Bachelor's Degree)
●​ il dipartimento (department)
●​ la descrizione (description)
●​ il dizionario (dictionary)
●​ la diploma (diploma)
●​ la tesi (thesis)
●​ gli esempi (examples)
●​ l'esame (exam)
●​ l'esercizio (exercise)
●​ la spiegazione (explanation)
●​ i voti (grades, votes)
●​ i compiti (homework)
●​ l'istituzione (institution)
●​ l'istruzioni (instructions)
●​ la lingua (language)
●​ la lezione (lesson)
●​ la biblioteca (library)
●​ l'errore (error)
●​ la pagina (page)
●​ la carta (paper)
●​ i paragrafi (paragraphs)
●​ la matita (pencil)
●​ la penna (pen)
●​ il progetto (project)
●​ le pagelle (report cards)
●​ il semestre (semester)
●​ la frase (sentence)
●​ la prova (test)
●​ il testo (text)
●​ il titolo (title)
●​ la parola (word)
●​ le regole (rules)
 ●​ il livello (level)
●​ la storia (history)
●​ studiare (to study)

Italian "Travel" Notes

This lesson introduces basic vocabulary for transportation and common introductory phrases
useful for traveling in Italy.

I. Basic Introductory Phrases

●​ Di dove sei? (Where are you from?)

○​ This is an informal way to ask someone's origin.
●​ Responses often include nationality and city:
○​ Sono italiano, di Milano. (I am Italian, from Milan.)
○​ Roberto è spagnolo, di Madrid. (Robert is Spanish, from Madrid.)

II. Means of Transportation Vocabulary

This section provides essential words for getting around in Italian:

●​ l'aeroplano (airplane)
●​ l'aeroporto (airport)
●​ la barca (boat)
●​ l'autobus (bus)
●​ la motocicletta (motorcycle)
●​ l'aereo (plane - shorter form of aeroplano)
●​ il treno (train)
●​ il pullman (coach bus)

III. Other Travel-Related Vocabulary & Tips

●​ Straniero (Foreigner / Foreign):

○​ The Italian adjective straniero (foreign) can also be used as a noun: il
straniero (the foreigner).
●​ General Travel Terms:
○​ l'avventura (adventure)
○​ campeggio (camping)
○​ il continente (continent)
○​ il volo (flight)
○​ guida (driving)
○​ l'isola (island)
○​ il passeggero (passenger)
○​ il passaporto (passport)
○​ il pilota (pilot)
 ○​ la vista (view)
○​ la valigia (suitcase)
○​ il biglietto (ticket)
○​ turismo (tourism)
○​ il turista (tourist)
○​ traffico (traffic)
○​ viaggio (trip)
○​ la vacanza (holiday, vacation)
○​ visita (visit)
○​ destinazione (destination)
○​ il luogo (place - singular)
○​ i luoghi (places - plural)
○​ la mappa (map)
○​ trasporti (transport, transportation)
○​ estero (abroad)
○​ il conto (bill, check - e.g., at a restaurant)
○​ la prenotazione (reservation)
○​ la moneta (currency)

IV. Countries and Nationalities

This section includes vocabulary for various countries and their corresponding nationalities,
which are important for discussions about origin:

●​ Africa
●​ America
●​ americano (American)
●​ Asia
●​ brasiliano (Brazilian)
●​ Brasile (Brazil)
●​ argentini (Argentines - plural)
●​ Cina (China)
●​ cinese (Chinese)
●​ Inghilterra (England)
●​ inglese (English)
●​ Europa (Europe)
●​ europeo (European)
●​ Francia (France)
●​ francese (French)
●​ Germania (Germany)
●​ tedesco (German)
●​ italiano (Italian)
●​ Italia (Italy)
●​ portoghese (Portuguese)
●​ Spagna (Spain)
 ●​ spagnolo (Spanish)

Italian "Directions" Notes

This lesson provides essential phrases and vocabulary for asking and giving directions in Italy,
as well as clarifying the usage of similar verbs.

I. Asking for Directions

●​ Beginning Politely: When approaching someone for help, always start with a polite
phrase:​

○​ Mi scusi (Excuse me - formal)

○​ Scusi (Excuse me - slightly less formal, still polite)
●​ Asking "Where is...?":​

○​ Dov’è l’ufficio postale? (Where is the post office?)

●​ Asking about a Street:​

○​ È questa via Napoli? (Is this Naples Street?)

○​ Dov’è via Roma? (Where is Rome Street?)
●​ Asking "Where are we?":​

○​ Dove siamo adesso? (Where are we now?)

II. Giving Directions (Common Responses)

You might hear these standard responses:

●​ Sempre dritto. (Straight ahead.)

●​ Vada/Vai sempre dritto. (You go straight ahead.)
○​ Vada is the formal (Lei) imperative.
○​ Vai is the informal (tu) imperative.
●​ Segua/Segui questa strada. (Follow this road.)
○​ Segua is the formal (Lei) imperative.
○​ Segui is the informal (tu) imperative.
●​ Gira a destra/sinistra. (Turn right/left.)
●​ È dietro la stazione. (It’s behind the station.)

III. Tips: Cominciare vs. Iniziare

●​ Synonyms: Cominciare and iniziare both mean "to begin" or "to start" and are
essentially synonymous.
 ●​ Usage Factors: Their use is largely based on personal preference, regional location,
and possibly generation (younger speakers might prefer iniziare, older might prefer
cominciare).
●​ Archaic Term: Some older Italians might even use principiare.

Vocabulary

●​ inizio (beginning)
●​ distanza (distance)
●​ fine (end)
●​ ingresso (entrance)
●​ uscita (exit)
●​ direzione (direction)
●​ posizione (location)
●​ sinistra (left)
●​ destra (right)
●​ mezzo (half)
●​ davanti (front)
●​ avanti (forward)
●​ dietro (behind)
●​ dentro (inside)
●​ accanto (beside)
●​ attraverso (through)
●​ lato (side)
●​ interiore (interior)
●​ fondo (background, bottom)
●​ fermata (stop)
●​ cima (top, peak)
●​ parte (part)
●​ giù (down)
●​ vicino (close)
●​ lontano (far)
●​ fronte (front)
●​ nord (north)
●​ est (east)
●​ sud (south)
●​ ovest (west)
●​ cominciare (to begin)
●​ iniziare (to start)

Italian "Past Imperfect" (L'Imperfetto) Notes

This lesson introduces the Italian Imperfect tense, a past tense used for ongoing, habitual, or
descriptive actions without a defined beginning or end, contrasting it with the passato
prossimo.

I. What is the Imperfect Tense?

●​ Purpose: Describes completed actions in the past that did not have a set starting and
ending point. It conveys the "background" or "ongoing nature" of past events.
●​ Contrast with Passato Prossimo:
○​ Passato prossimo: Used for defined, completed actions in the past (specific
point in time or specific duration). It marks the beginning or end of an action.
○​ Imperfetto: Used for undefined, ongoing, habitual, or descriptive actions
in the past. It marks the midpoint or background of an action.

II. Primary Uses of the Imperfect

1.​ Descriptions or Background Information:​

○​ Used for general physical or emotional states, appearance, age, weather

conditions, unchanging characteristics, etc.
○​ Example: Paolo **era** alto. (Paolo was tall.) - Describes a characteristic.
○​ Example: Il bambino **aveva** due anni. (The child was two years
old.) - Describes age.
○​ Example: Faceva caldo. (It was hot.) - Describes weather.
2.​ Habitual Actions:​

○​ Actions that were repeated over and over in the past.

○​ Example: Quando ero piccola, **andavamo** sempre al mare.
(When I was little, we always used to go to the beach.) - Repeated action.
3.​ Actions in Progress or Interrupted Actions:​

○​ Used to "catch the middle" of an action, or an action that was ongoing when
another (usually punctual passato prossimo) action occurred.
○​ Example: **Parlavo** con mia madre quando ha suonato il
telefono. (I was talking to my mother when the phone rang.) - Parlavo is the
ongoing action, ha suonato is the interrupting completed action.

III. Translation and Nuance

●​ No Direct English Equivalent: English doesn't have a single imperfect tense. We use
various structures:
○​ "was/were [verb]-ing" (present continuous in the past)
○​ "used to [verb]"
 ○​ "would [verb]" (for habitual past actions)
○​ "simple past" (when context implies ongoing/habitual)
●​ Example Paragraph (all Imperfect in Italian):
○​ "When I was a kid, I always wanted to be an artist. I used to draw pictures
every day. I would take out my markers and I would color all afternoon."
○​ Key: The meaning of the past action (ongoing, habitual, descriptive) dictates the
imperfect, not a direct word-for-word English translation.

IV. Imperfect vs. Passato Prossimo - The "Midpoint" vs. "Beginning/End"

●​ Passato Prossimo: For completed actions tied to a specific point or length of time.
○​ Example: Ieri **sono andata** dal dentista. (Yesterday I went to the
dentist.) - A single, completed event.
●​ Imperfect: For the ongoing nature or "midpoint" of an action.
○​ Example: Quando abitavo a New York, **andavo** dal dentista
ogni anno. (When I lived in New York, I went to the dentist every year.) - A
repeated, habitual action without a clear start/end within the narrative focus.
●​ Combined Usage (Ongoing + Interrupting):
○​ **Andavo** dal dentista quando **ho visto** il cane. (I was
going to the dentist when I saw the dog.)
■​ Andavo (imperfect): The ongoing background action.
■​ ho visto (passato prossimo): The sudden, completed, interrupting
action.

V. Verb Construction (Regular Verbs)

●​ Method: Take the infinitive verb, remove the -re from the end, and add the imperfect
endings:
○​ -vo (io)
○​ -vi (tu)
○​ -va (lui/lei)
○​ -vamo (noi)
○​ -vate (voi)
○​ -vano (loro)
●​ Example with vedere (to see):
○​ io vedevo (I saw / I was seeing)
○​ tu vedevi (you saw / you were seeing)
○​ lui/lei vedeva (he/she saw / he/she was seeing)
○​ noi vedevamo (we saw / we were seeing)
○​ voi vedevate (you all saw / you were all seeing)
○​ loro vedevano (they saw / they were seeing)

VI. Irregular Imperfect Verbs

 ●​ This pattern works for most regular verbs.
●​ Most Important Irregular: essere (to be)
○​ io ero
○​ tu eri
○​ lui/lei era
○​ noi eravamo
○​ voi erate
○​ loro erano

VII. Vocabulary (Examples of Imperfect Conjugations)

●​ era veloce (he was fast)

●​ andavamo (we went / we used to go)
●​ faceva (he did/made / he used to do/make)
●​ poteva (he could / he was able to)
●​ voleva (he wanted / he used to want)
●​ dava (he gave / he used to give)
●​ veniva (he came / he used to come)
●​ stavo meglio (I was better)
●​ dicevo (I said / I was saying)
●​ vedevo (I saw / I was seeing)
●​ sapeva (he knew (something) / he used to know)
●​ mangiavo (I ate / I was eating)
●​ parlava (he talked / he was talking)
●​ prendeva (he took / he was taking)
●​ mi piaceva (I liked / I used to like)
●​ leggevo (I read / I was reading)
●​ bevevano (they drank / they were drinking)
●​ finivamo (we finished / we were finishing)
●​ capivo (I understood / I was understanding)
●​ arrivava (he arrived / he was arriving)
●​ mettevo (I put / I was putting)
●​ scriveva (he wrote / he was writing)
●​ rimanevano (they remained / they were remaining)
●​ conosceva (he knew (someone) / he was acquainted with)
●​ vivevamo (we lived / we used to live)
●​ sentiva (he felt / he was feeling)
●​ chiedeva (he asked / he was asking)
●​ trovavano (they found / they used to find)
●​ giocavano (they played / they used to play)
●​ lavoravo (I worked / I was working)
●​ aprivo (I opened / I was opening)
 ●​ pensavo (I thought / I was thinking)
●​ portava (he wore / he was wearing)
●​ credeva (he believed / he was believing)
●​ lasciavano (they left / they used to leave)
●​ teneva (he kept / he was keeping)
●​ diventava (he became / he was becoming)
●​ passava (he passed / he was passing)
●​ ricordava (he remembered / he used to remember)
●​ entrava (he entered / he was entering)
●​ morivano (they died / they were dying)
●​ chiamava (he called / he was calling)
●​ usavo (I used / I was using)
●​ seguiva (he followed / he was following)
●​ guardava (he watched / he was watching)
●​ decidevamo (we decided / we used to decide)
●​ aspettavo (I waited for / I was waiting for)
●​ cambiava (he changed / he was changing)
●​ suonavano (they played (an instrument) / they were playing)
●​ offriva (he offered / he was offering)
●​ perdevano (they lost / they were losing)
●​ succedeva (it happened / it was happening)
●​ rispondeva (he answered / he was answering)
●​ costruivamo (we built / we were building)
●​ indicava (he indicated / he was indicating)
●​ provavo (I tried / I was trying)

Italian "Feelings" Notes

This lesson focuses on expressing needs using the idiomatic phrase avere bisogno di and
introduces a variety of vocabulary related to emotions and sensations.

I. Expressing Need: Avere bisogno di

●​ Structure: To express "to need something" or "to need to do something," Italians use the
phrase avere bisogno di.​

○​ This literally translates to "to have need of."

●​ Components:​

○​ Avere (to have): Conjugated according to the subject.

○​ bisogno: A masculine noun meaning "need." It remains singular.
○​ di: The preposition "of."
○​ The noun you need, or the infinitive verb of the action you need to do.
 ●​ Examples:​

○​ **Ho bisogno di** un paio di scarpe nuove. (I need a new pair of

shoes.)
○​ **Hai bisogno di** aiuto? (Do you need help?)
○​ **Ha bisogno di** studiare di più. (He needs to study more.)
○​ **Abbiamo bisogno di** un cameriere, per favore. (We need a
waiter, please.)
○​ **Avete bisogno di** qualcosa? (Do you need something?)
○​ **Hanno bisogno di** vendere la loro casa. (They need to sell their
house.)

II. Vocabulary (Emotions, States, and Related Verbs)

●​ bacio (kiss)
●​ emozioni (emotions)
●​ sentimenti (feelings)
●​ pensiero (thought)
●​ sogni (dreams)
●​ rispetto (respect)
●​ arrabbiata (angry - feminine form)
●​ imbarazzata (embarrassed - feminine form)
●​ paura (fear)
●​ odio (hatred)
●​ tranquillo (quiet, calm)
●​ pazienza (patience)
●​ felice (happy)
●​ felicità (happiness)
●​ sorriso (smile)
●​ contenta (happy, content - feminine form)
●​ allegria (cheerfulness)
●​ gioia (joy)
●​ risata (laugh)
●​ divertimento (fun)
●​ fortuna (fortune, luck)
●​ piacere (pleasure)
●​ triste (sad)
●​ seria (serious - feminine form)
●​ sorpresi (surprised - plural form)
●​ stanco (weary, tired - masculine form)
●​ desiderio (desire)
●​ lacrime (tears)
 ●​ soddisfazione (satisfaction)
●​ bisogno (need)
●​ senso (sense)
●​ nervosa (nervous - feminine form)
●​ amicizia (friendship)
●​ bugia (lie)
●​ colpa (guilt, fault)
●​ coraggio (courage)
●​ aiuto (help)
●​ sperare (to hope)
●​ amore (love)
●​ sognare (to dream)
●​ preoccupare (to worry)
●​ spaventare (to scare)
●​ odiare (to hate)
●​ confondere (to confuse)

Italian "Abstract Objects 1" Notes

This lesson focuses on introducing vocabulary for "abstract objects," which are nouns
representing ideas, concepts, or non-physical things. The primary goal is vocabulary
memorization.

I. What are Abstract Objects?

●​ Definition: Nouns that designate ideas, concepts, qualities, states, or events, rather
than physical, tangible things.
●​ Learning Focus: The key aspect of this lesson is simply to memorize a large number of
new vocabulary words.

II. Vocabulary (Abstract Nouns)

●​ caso (case)
●​ volta (time - as in "this time," "last time")
●​ punto (point)
●​ problema (issue, problem)
●​ società (society)
●​ forza (strength, force)
●​ piani (floors - also "plans")
●​ situazione (situation)
●​ programma (program)
●​ risultati (results)
●​ tipo (type)
●​ territorio (territory)
●​ struttura (structure)
●​ effetto (effect)
●​ azione (action)
●​ possibilità (possibility)
●​ processi (processes)
●​ zona (area)
●​ ragione (reason)
●​ presenza (presence)
●​ esperienze (experiences)
●​ sicurezza (security, safety)
●​ fase (phase)
●​ aspetto (appearance, aspect)
●​ occasione (occasion)
●​ qualità (quality)
●​ motivo (motive, reason)
●​ obiettivo (target, objective)
●​ istituto (institute)
●​ rischi (risks)
●​ personaggi (characters)
●​ autorità (authority)
●​ decisione (decision)
●​ movimenti (movements)
●​ necessità (need, necessity)
●​ sezione (section)
●​ versione (version)
●​ origine (source, origin)
●​ passo (step)
●​ costruzione (building, construction)
●​ categoria (category)
●​ vittima (victim)
●​ internet (internet)
●​ capacità (capacity, ability)
●​ conseguenze (aftermath, consequences)
●​ differenza (difference)
●​ maggioranza (majority)
●​ danno (damage)
●​ difficoltà (difficulty)
●​ giudizio (judgment)
●​ epoca (era)
●​ responsabilità (responsibility)
●​ pratica (practice)
●​ crescita (growth)
●​ tradizione (tradition)
●​ fenomeno (phenomenon)
Italian "Sports" Notes

This lesson introduces common Italian sports vocabulary, focusing on the pluralization rules for
borrowed foreign words and highlighting related terms.

I. Cognates and Borrowed Words

●​ Many sports terms in Italian are cognates (words similar to English due to shared origin)
or directly borrowed foreign words.
○​ Examples: tennis, golf, baseball, cricket, and sport itself.
●​ Pluralization Rule for Foreign Words: The general rule in Italian for foreign words
used in the language is that they keep their singular form when used in the plural.
Only the article changes.
○​ Example: Mi piace **lo sport** del pallavolo. (I like the sport of
volleyball.)
○​ Example: Mi piacciono **gli sport**. (I like sports.) - sport remains
singular, but gli (plural masculine article) is used.
●​ Gol (goal): Similar to foreign words, gol (goal) also stays the same in its plural form.
○​ Example: Ho segnato **un gol** giocando a calcio. (I scored a goal
playing soccer.)
○​ Example: Luca ha segnato **due gol**. (Luca scored two goals.)

II. Additional Sports Not Covered in Lesson

●​ pallavolo (volleyball)
●​ nuoto (swimming)
●​ ginnastica (gymnastics)

Vocabulary

●​ attività (activity)
●​ atleta (athlete - singular)
●​ atleti (athletes - plural)
●​ pubblico (audience)
●​ palla (ball)
●​ pallacanestro (basketball)
●​ bicicletta (bicycle)
●​ bici (bike - informal, shortened)
●​ allenatore (coach - masculine singular)
●​ allenatori (coaches - masculine plural)
●​ gara (race)
●​ partita (match, game)
 ●​ rete (net - singular)
●​ reti (nets - plural)
●​ palestra (gym)
●​ giocatore (player - masculine singular)
●​ giocatori (players - masculine plural)
●​ piscina (pool)
●​ premio (prize - singular)
●​ premi (prizes - plural)
●​ calcio (soccer)
●​ sport (sport - singular and plural)
●​ squadra (team)
●​ tennis (tennis)
●​ passeggiata (walk)
●​ campionato (championship)
●​ gioco (game - singular)
●​ giochi (games - plural)
●​ gol (goal - singular and plural)
●​ pista (track)
●​ spettatore (spectator)
●​ torneo (tournament)
●​ campione (champion - masculine singular)
●​ campioni (champions - masculine plural)
●​ mondiale (worldwide)
●​ nuotare (to swim)
●​ vincere (to win)
●​ saltare (to jump)
●​ segnare (to score)

Italian "Past Perfect" (Trapassato Prossimo) Notes

This lesson explains the Italian trapassato prossimo (past perfect), a compound tense
used to describe an action that was completed before another past action.

I. What is the Trapassato Prossimo?

●​ Function: Used to express an action that had finished before another action took
place in the past. It establishes a sequence of past events, indicating which one
occurred first.​

●​ Formation: It's a compound tense formed by combining:​

○​ The Imperfect Tense of the auxiliary verb (avere or essere).

○​ The Past Participle of the main verb.
 ●​ Example for identifying first action:​

○​ Sentence: "The car was sliding because it had snowed."

○​ First action: "it had snowed" (this is the one that uses trapassato prossimo).
○​ Italian: La macchina sbandava perché **aveva nevicato**. (aveva
is imperfect of avere, nevicato is past participle of nevicare).
●​ Additional Examples:​

○​ Prima di venire in Italia **avevi** già **studiato**

l’italiano? (Had you already studied Italian before you came to Italy?)
○​ Quando arrivai in stazione, il treno **era** già
**partito**. (When I arrived at the station the train had already left.)
○​ **Avevo chiuso** le finestre quando è cominciato a piovere.
(I had shut the windows when it started to rain.)

II. Other Use of the Trapassato Prossimo

●​ Can also be used to express actions that took place some time ago and have now
ended, focusing on their completion relative to a past context.
○​ **Ero stato** a casa tutto il fine settimana. (I had been at
home the whole weekend.)
○​ Marco **aveva letto** il giornale. (Marco had read the newspaper.)
○​ Luigi e Simona **avevano** già **visto** il film. (Luigi and
Simona had already seen the film.)

III. Imperfect Tense of Auxiliary Verbs (Avere and Essere)

To form the trapassato prossimo, you need the imperfect conjugations of avere and
essere:

Subject AVERE ESSERE

(Imperfect) (Imperfect)

io avevo ero

tu avevi eri
 lui, lei aveva era

noi avevamo eravamo

voi avevate erate

loro avevano erano

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IV. Past Participle Agreement Rules

●​ The trapassato prossimo follows the same rules for avere and essere auxiliary
choice and past participle agreement as the present perfect (passato
prossimo).
○​ Auxiliary essere: The past participle agrees in gender and number with the
subject.
○​ Auxiliary avere: The past participle generally remains masculine singular
unless a direct object clitic (like lo, la, li, le) precedes the verb, in which case
it agrees with the clitic.

V. Vocabulary (Examples of Trapassato Prossimo Conjugations)

●​ avevamo guardato (we had watched)

●​ aveva scritto (he had written)
●​ avevo aperto (I had opened)
●​ aveva fatto (he had made)
●​ erano arrivati (they had arrived - masculine plural, with essere)
●​ ero detto (I was told - or I had said, if a specific context means it's a passive use of a
reflexive verb with essere)
●​ era andato (he had gone - masculine singular, with essere)
●​ ero stato (I had been - masculine singular, with essere)
●​ erano usciti (they had exited - masculine plural, with essere)
●​ avevi dato (you had given)
●​ avevano conosciuto (they had known (someone))
 ●​ aveva saputo (he had known (something))
●​ avevamo lavorato (we had worked)
●​ erano rimasti (they had remained - masculine plural, with essere)
●​ avevo visto (I had seen)
●​ avevano voluto (they had wanted)
●​ eravamo venuti (we had come - masculine plural, with essere)
●​ aveva trovato (he had found)
●​ avevamo pensato (we had thought)
●​ avevo parlato (I had spoken)
●​ avevi messo (you had put)
●​ aveva preso (he had taken)
●​ avevamo portato (we had brought)
●​ avete chiesto (you (all) had asked)
●​ avevo creduto (I had believed)
●​ avevano lasciato (they had left)
●​ aveva sentito (he had heard)
●​ avevo tenuto (I had kept)
●​ erano diventati (they had become - masculine plural, with essere)
●​ avevo capito (I had understood)
●​ erano passati (they had passed - masculine plural, with essere)
●​ era entrata (she had entered - feminine singular, with essere)
●​ aveva vissuto (he had lived)
●​ eravamo ricordati (we had remembered - masculine plural, with essere)
●​ avevi usato (you had used)
●​ avevo chiamato (I had called)
●​ erano morti (they had died - masculine plural, with essere)
●​ mi era piaciuto (I had liked - literally: "it had pleased to me")
●​ avevano seguito (they had followed)
●​ avevamo aspettato (we had waited)

Italian "Adjectives 3" Notes

This lesson focuses on differentiating between Italian adjectives that seem similar but have
distinct nuances in meaning or usage, providing clear examples for common pairs like
sottile/magro and impegnato/occupato.

I. Differentiating Similar Adjectives

1.​ Sottile vs. Magro (thin)​

○​ Magro: Most commonly used to describe people (referring to a thin physique).

■​ Example: Quel ragazzo è troppo **magro**. (That boy is too
thin.)
 ○​ Sottile: Used to describe objects (referring to a small thickness).
■​ Example: Ho scritto su un **sottile** foglio di carta. (I
wrote on a thin sheet of paper.)
2.​ Soffice vs. Morbido (soft)​

○​ Considered synonyms, but with subtle differences:

○​ Soffice: Means soft as in fluffy or airy (e.g., a pillow, cloud).
■​ Example: Il mio cuscino è molto **soffice**. (My pillow is
very soft.)
○​ Morbido: Means soft as in easily pliable to pressure, smooth, or pleasant on
contact (e.g., skin, fabric).
■​ Example: Lei ha la pelle **morbida**. (She has soft skin.)
○​ Morbido (Figurative Use): Can also describe something with a figurative
meaning or something that passed unhindered.
■​ Example: L’aereo fece un atterraggio **morbido**. (The
airplane made a soft landing.)
■​ Example: Il governatore ha preso una linea **morbida**
sul crimine. (The governor has taken a soft line on crime.)
3.​ Corretto vs. Giusto (correct)​

○​ Both can translate to "correct."

○​ Giusto: More flexible, can also mean "fair," "right," or "just." It implies a moral
or appropriate correctness.
■​ Example: La risposta **corretta**. (The correct answer.)
■​ Example: La mia traduzione della frase è **corretta**.
(My translation of the sentence is correct.)
■​ Example: Il **giusto** prezzo. (The right price.)
■​ Example: Non mi sembra **giusto**. (It doesn’t seem fair to me.)
4.​ Impegnato vs. Occupato (busy)​

○​ These are often confused:

○​ Occupato: Refers to anything or anyone that is unavailable at a particular
moment (e.g., a phone line, a seat, or a person who is simply unavailable).
■​ Example: Il telefono è **occupato**. (The phone line is busy.)
■​ Example: Sono **occupato** al momento. (I am busy/unavailable
at the moment.)
○​ Impegnato: References someone who is actively busy doing something;
someone who is "engaged" or "committed" to an activity.
■​ Example: È **impegnato** a lavorare oggi. (He is busy working
today.)
 ■​ Example: Sono **impegnato** a giocare a tennis domani.
(I’m busy playing tennis tomorrow.)

II. Vocabulary (Adjectives)

●​ gentile (kind)
●​ crescente (growing)
●​ terribile (terrible)
●​ corretto (correct)
●​ brutto (ugly, bad)
●​ probabile (likely, probable)
●​ debole (weak)
●​ presto (soon - also an adverb, here likely used as "early" or "quick" as an adjective)
●​ intellettuale (intellectual)
●​ morto (dead)
●​ costante (constant)
●​ uguale (equal)
●​ consapevole (aware)
●​ vuoto (empty)
●​ radicale (radical)
●​ meraviglioso (wonderful)
●​ logico (logical)
●​ etico (ethical)
●​ lento (slow)
●​ ideale (ideal)
●​ rivoluzionario (revolutionary)
●​ intelligente (intelligent)
●​ frequente (frequent)
●​ formale (formal)
●​ sottile (thin - objects)
●​ carino (cute, pretty)
●​ scuro (dark)
●​ costoso (expensive)
●​ sbagliato (wrong)
●​ preferito (favorite)
●​ brillante (brilliant)
●​ eccellente (excellent)
●​ fortunato (fortunate)
●​ peggiore (worst)
●​ infantile (childish)
●​ pulito (clean)
●​ amichevole (friendly)
●​ impegnato (busy - engaged in an activity)
 ●​ vivace (lively)
●​ grasso (fat)
●​ grandioso (great, grandiose)
●​ selvaggio (wild)
●​ biondo (blonde)
●​ silenzioso (silent)
●​ abituale (usual, habitual)
●​ potenziale (potential)
●​ sporco (dirty)
●​ secco (dry)
●​ magro (thin - people)
●​ emozionante (exciting)
●​ comodo (comfortable)
●​ tondo (round)
●​ bagnato (wet)
●​ dritto (straight)
●​ noioso (boring)
●​ soffice (soft - fluffy)
●​ annoiato (bored)
●​ furbo (cunning, sly)
●​ rumoroso (noisy)
●​ disponibile (available)

Italian "Adverbs 2" Notes

This lesson focuses on specific Italian adverbs, notably ecco, ben vs. bene, and others,
highlighting their distinct meanings and usage patterns.

I. Ecco (here is, here are, there is, there are, look)

●​ Function: Used to indicate or point out something or someone directly. It creates a

sense of immediate presentation or discovery.
●​ Invariability: Ecco is invariable; it does not change its form for gender or number.
●​ Examples:
○​ **Ecco** la tua giacca. (Here is your jacket.)
○​ **Ecco** i bambini! (Here are the kids!)
○​ **Ecco** mio fratello! (There is my brother!)
○​ **Ecco** la sua borsa! (There is her purse!)
○​ **Ecco**, una farfalla! (Look, a butterfly!)
●​ Distinction from c'è / ci sono: While c'è (there is) and ci sono (there are) state
the existence of something, ecco points out or presents it. This distinction can be
confusing for beginners but becomes clearer with practice.
II. Ben vs. Bene (well)

Both mean "well," but their usage and placement differ:

1.​ Ben:
○​ Used BEFORE the modified verb (or past participle acting adjectivally) or
adjective.
○​ Implies "well-" or "fully."
○​ Examples:
■​ è **ben** cotto (it is well cooked)
■​ **ben** detto! (well said!)
■​ è arrivato **ben** prima di mezzogiorno (he arrived well
before noon)
2.​ Bene:
○​ More commonly used in everyday conversation.
○​ Placed AFTER the modified verb.
○​ Examples:
■​ Sto **bene**, grazie! (I’m well, thank you.)
■​ Cucino molto **bene**. (I cook very well.)
■​ Non conosco **bene** Maria. (I don’t know Maria well.)
●​ Interchangeable Examples (depending on position):
○​ **Ben** fatto! (Well done!) | Fatto **bene**. (Done well.)
○​ **Ben** vestito. (Well dressed.) | Vestito **bene**. (Dressed well.)
○​ **Ben** piazzato. (Well placed.) | Piazzato **bene**. (Placed well.)

III. Tips

●​ Uguale (equal): The lesson notes that uguale is an adjective (covered in "Adjectives")
but is included here, suggesting its use is similar to stesso (same). It's a reminder to
differentiate between adjectives and adverbs.
●​ Neanch'io (me neither):
○​ neanche translates to "neither" or "not even."
○​ The common phrase neanch’io means "me neither" or "neither am I."
●​ Perciò (therefore):
○​ Perciò can be used as an alternative to quindi (therefore, so).

IV. Vocabulary (Adverbs)

●​ certamente (certainly)
●​ immediatamente (immediately)
●​ naturalmente (naturally)
●​ addirittura (even - emphasizes surprise or extent)
●​ esattamente (exactly)
●​ semplicemente (simply)
●​ facilmente (easily)
●​ praticamente (practically)
●​ chiaramente (clearly)
●​ neppure (not even - synonym of neanche)
●​ recentemente (recently)
●​ solamente (only - synonym of solo, as an adverb)
●​ specialmente (especially)
●​ effettivamente (actually, effectively)
●​ estremamente (extremely)
●​ generalmente (generally)
●​ perfettamente (perfectly)
●​ fortemente (strongly)
●​ totalmente (totally)
●​ normalmente (normally)
●​ talmente (so, such a - emphasizes degree)
●​ ugualmente (equally)
●​ necessariamente (necessarily)
●​ lentamente (slowly)
●​ sinceramente (sincerely)
●​ raramente (rarely)
●​ fortunatamente (luckily)
●​ essenzialmente (essentially)
●​ dappertutto (everywhere)
●​ oltretutto (moreover, besides)
●​ frequentemente (frequently)
●​ possibilmente (possibly)
●​ neanche (neither, not even)
●​ via (away)
●​ nemmeno (not even - synonym of neanche/neppure)
●​ gravemente (seriously, gravely)
●​ invece (instead, on the other hand)
●​ ben (well - before verb/adjective)
●​ uguale (equal - adjective, but listed here)
●​ eppure (and yet, however)
●​ ecco (here is/are, there is/are, look)
●​ quindi (therefore, so)
●​ infatti (in fact, indeed)
●​ probabilmente (probably)
●​ direttamente (directly)
●​ velocemente (quickly)
●​ magari (perhaps, if only)
 ●​ sicuramente (certainly, surely)
●​ finalmente (finally)
●​ particolarmente (particularly)
●​ altrimenti (otherwise)
●​ anzi (on the contrary, in fact)
●​ chissà (who knows)

Italian "Abstract Objects 2" Notes

This lesson continues to expand vocabulary for abstract concepts, with a special focus on
distinguishing between the two Italian words for "language" (linguaggio and lingua), and
providing useful tips on related verbs and phrases.

I. Linguaggio vs. Lingua ("Language")

Italian has two distinct words that can translate to "language," each with a specific nuance:

1.​ Linguaggio:​

○​ Refers to the general human ability to communicate (or the communication

ability of intelligent creatures).
○​ Can refer to various forms of communication beyond just spoken words (e.g.,
verbal, music, poetry, body language, programming languages).
○​ Example: Dove ha imparato quel **linguaggio** volgare? (Where
did he learn that vulgar language?) - Referring to a style or type of speech.
○​ Example: Il suo **linguaggio** del corpo è cattivo. (His body
language is bad.)
2.​ Lingua:​

○​ Refers to a specific system of communication used by particular groups of

people or communities (e.g., English, Italian). This is what we typically mean by
"a language."
○​ Also the anatomical term for "tongue."
○​ Example: Sto imparando la **lingua** italiana. (I’m learning the
Italian language.)
○​ Example: Ho bruciato la **lingua** sull’acqua calda. (I burned
my tongue on the hot water.)

II. Tips

●​ Mancare for "Time Left":

○​ While rimanere means "to remain," the verb mancare (to miss, to lack) is likely
used when discussing how much time "is left until" something (i.e., how much
time is lacking).
 ●​ Cambio and Dare il cambio:
○​ The word cambio means "change" (as in "exchange" or "change of clothes").
○​ The phrase dare il cambio is an idiom that translates to "to take over for"
or "to relieve someone" from work or an assigned duty.
■​ Example: Devo **dare il cambio** a Isobella. (I’ve got to
relieve Isobella.)
■​ Example: Vado a **dare il cambio** ad Matthew al
negozio? (Should I relieve Matthew at the store?)

III. Vocabulary (Abstract Nouns and Concepts)

●​ vantaggio (advantage)
●​ rappresentante (representative)
●​ protezione (protection)
●​ maniera (fashion, manner)
●​ comportamento (behavior)
●​ verità (truth)
●​ nazione (nation)
●​ visione (vision)
●​ pericolo (danger)
●​ ritorno (return)
●​ importanza (importance)
●​ segno (sign, mark)
●​ proprietà (property)
●​ durata (duration)
●​ cambio (change, exchange)
●​ velocità (speed)
●​ elenco (list)
●​ violenza (violence)
●​ arrivo (arrival)
●​ partenza (departure)
●​ intenzione (intention)
●​ quantità (quantity)
●​ opportunità (opportunity)
●​ esecuzione (execution)
●​ pressione (pressure)
●​ significato (significance, meaning)
●​ interpretazione (interpretation)
●​ riflessione (reflection)
●​ divisione (division)
●​ perdita (loss, waste)
●​ linguaggio (language - general ability/style)
 ●​ segnale (signal)
●​ nemico (enemy)
●​ silenzio (silence)
●​ passione (passion)
●​ bellezza (beauty)
●​ parete (wall - reiterated from Household lesson, still an abstract concept if referring to a
barrier)
●​ sforzo (effort)
●​ dettaglio (detail)
●​ altezza (height)
●​ onore (honor)
●​ opzione (option)
●​ sorpresa (surprise)
●​ segreto (secret)
●​ influenza (influence)
●​ ritmo (rhythm)
●​ frequenza (frequency)
●​ radice (root)
●​ infanzia (childhood)
●​ collezione (collection)
●​ appetito (appetite)
●​ buio (darkness)

Italian "Infinitive (Verbs) 2" Notes

This lesson serves as a recap of the Italian infinitive verb and introduces a broad range of new
infinitive vocabulary for various actions.

I. Recap of the Italian Infinitive

●​ Definition: The infinitive is the verb in its most basic form, without any changes to it.
●​ Structure: It consists of one word in Italian, unlike the two words (e.g., "to stop") in
English.
○​ Examples: fermare (to stop), piangere (to cry), pulire (to clean).
●​ Groups/Conjugations: Italian infinitive verbs are consistently divided into three main
groups based on their endings:
○​ Verbs ending in -are
○​ Verbs ending in -ere
○​ Verbs ending in -ire

II. Vocabulary (New Infinitive Verbs)

●​ pagare (to pay)
●​ crescere (to grow)
●​ spiegare (to explain)
●​ cadere (to fall)
●​ colpire (to hit, strike)
●​ ascoltare (to listen)
●​ fermare (to stop)
●​ controllare (to check, verify)
●​ migliorare (to improve)
●​ mandare (to send)
●​ girare (to turn)
●​ ritornare (to return)
●​ dimenticare (to forget)
●​ vendere (to sell)
●​ descrivere (to describe)
●​ salvare (to save)
●​ scusare (to excuse)
●​ attraversare (to go across, to cross)
●​ preferire (to prefer)
●​ prestare (to lend)
●​ ringraziare (to thank)
●​ insegnare (to teach)
●​ spingere (to push)
●​ costare (to cost)
●​ cantare (to sing)
●​ dormire (to sleep)
●​ sedere (to sit)
●​ giudicare (to judge)
●​ visitare (to visit)
●​ spostare (to move)
●​ comprare (to buy)
●​ ridere (to laugh)
●​ volare (to fly)
●​ ferire (to hurt, injure)
●​ indossare (to wear)
●​ guadagnare (to earn)
●​ concordare (to agree)
●​ rompere (to break)
●​ piangere (to cry)
●​ disegnare (to draw)
●​ viaggiare (to travel)
●​ sorridere (to smile)
●​ camminare (to walk)
●​ rubare (to steal)
 ●​ abbassare (to lower)
●​ accendere (to turn on)
●​ pescare (to fish)
●​ bruciare (to burn)
●​ riempire (to fill)
●​ mentire (to lie - tell a lie)
●​ pulire (to clean)
●​ fallire (to fail)
●​ riposare (to rest)
●​ fumare (to smoke)
●​ supporre (to suppose)
●​ prenotare (to reserve)
●​ coltivare (to grow - e.g., plants)
●​ lavare (to wash)
●​ incontrare (to meet, encounter)
●​ immaginare (to imagine)
●​ lasciare (to leave)
●​ mettere (to put)
●​ dire (to say)
●​ pensare (to think)
●​ passare (to pass)
●​ fare (to do, make)
●​ andare (to go)

Italian "Medical" Notes

This lesson covers basic information about healthcare in Italy, essential phrases for discussing
symptoms and seeking medical attention, and tips regarding body parts and pharmacies.

I. Healthcare in Italy

●​ National Health Plan: Italy has a national health plan that provides care to all Italian
citizens and legal residents (including U.S. and Canadian citizens who are legal
residents).
●​ Costs: Healthcare costs are generally reasonable, varying by region.
●​ Hospital Visits:
○​ Urgent cases: Reportedly free.
○​ Non-urgent cases: May require a small co-pay.

II. Useful Phrases for Medical Situations

These phrases can help you communicate common ailments:

●​ Ho dolori. (I’m in pain.)

●​ Ho mal di testa. (I have a headache.)
 ●​ Ho mal di stomaco. (I have a stomach ache.)
●​ Ho mal di gola. (I have a sore throat.)
●​ Ho mal di denti. (I have a toothache.)
●​ Sono malato/a. (I’m sick. - Use -o for masculine, -a for feminine)
●​ Ho la febbre. (I have a fever.)
●​ Ho la nausea. (I’m feeling sick.)
●​ Ho vomitato. (I threw up.)
●​ Sono stato punto da un’ape/una vespa. (I’ve been stung by a bee/a wasp. -
stato for masculine, stata for feminine)

III. Tips

●​ Possessives with Body Parts: The possessive adjective is generally not included
when referencing body parts, as long as the owner is clear from the sentence's context.
○​ Example: Il giocatore **si lava la faccia** dopo la partita.
(The player washes his face after the game.) - Literally "washes himself the
face."
●​ Pharmacies (farmacia): In Italy, pharmacies are typically stand-alone shops. You
won't usually find them inside grocery stores as you might in some other countries (like
the United States).

IV. Vocabulary

●​ incidente (accident)
●​ ambulanza (ambulance)
●​ caviglia (ankle)
●​ braccio (arm)
●​ schiena (back)
●​ nascita (birth)
●​ sangue (blood)
●​ dito (finger)
●​ corpo (body)
●​ dita (fingers - note irregular plural)
●​ cervello (brain)
●​ cure (care, treatments)
●​ petto (chest)
●​ clinica (clinic)
●​ dentista (dentist)
●​ orecchio (ear)
●​ occhi (eyes - note plural of occhio)
●​ faccia (face)
 ●​ piedi (feet - note plural of piede)
●​ capelli (hair - always plural in Italian)
●​ mano (hand)
●​ testa (head)
●​ sano (healthy)
●​ salute (health)
●​ cuore (heart)
●​ ospedale (hospital)
●​ malattia (disease)
●​ ginocchio (knee)
●​ gambe (legs)
●​ medicina (medicine)
●​ bocca (mouth)
●​ muscoli (muscles)
●​ unghie (nails)
●​ collo (neck)
●​ naso (nose)
●​ infermiera (nurse)
●​ organo (organ)
●​ dolore (pain)
●​ paziente (patient)
●​ farmacia (pharmacy)
●​ spalla (shoulder)
●​ malata (sick - feminine form)
●​ pelle (skin)
●​ stomaco (stomach)
●​ gola (throat)
●​ denti (teeth - note plural of dente)
●​ trattamento (treatment)
●​ virus (virus)
●​ voce (voice)
●​ benessere (welfare, well-being)
●​ diagnosi (diagnosis)
●​ intervento (intervention, surgery)
●​ labbra (lips - note irregular plural)
●​ medico (doctor)
●​ osso (bone)
●​ dieta (diet)
●​ emergenza (emergency)
●​ male (bad, ache)
●​ mal (ache - shortened form of male)
●​ febbre (fever)

Here are notes from the "Future (Verbs)" Duolingo review content you provided:
Italian "Future Tense" (Futuro Semplice) Notes

This lesson explains the formation and usage of the Italian simple future tense, including regular
and irregular conjugations, and when to use it versus the present tense for future actions.

I. What is the Future Tense?

●​ Function: Used to talk about something that will happen in the future.
●​ Contrast with English: In English, we use "will" or "shall" before the verb. In Italian, the
verb ending changes.
●​ No andare for Future Intention: Unlike "to be going to" in English, the Italian verb
andare (to go) is NEVER used to express a future intention.
○​ Example: Ti **scriverò** l’anno prossimo. (I am going to write you
next year. / I will write you next year.)

II. Regular Future Tense Conjugation

●​ General Rule: Take the infinitive, adjust the stem slightly, and add the future tense
endings.
1.​ -ARE Verbs:​

○​ Change the infinitive ending from -are to -er and add the future endings.
○​ Example: PARLARE (to speak)
■​ io parlerò
■​ tu parlerai
■​ lui, lei parlerà
■​ noi parleremo
■​ voi parlerete
■​ loro parleranno
○​ Examples:
■​ **Nuoteranno** con i delfini. (They will swim with the
dolphins.)
■​ **Ballerai** al mio matrimonio! (You will dance at my
wedding!)
2.​ -ERE, -IRE Verbs:​

○​ Drop the final -e from the infinitive and add the same endings as -are verbs
(after converting to -er).
○​ Example: SCRIVERE (to write)
■​ io scriverò
 ■​ tu scriverai
■​ lui, lei scriverà
■​ noi scriveremo
■​ voi scriverete
■​ loro scriveranno
○​ Example: CAPIRE (to understand)
■​ io capirò
■​ tu capirai
■​ lui, lei capirà
■​ noi capiremo
■​ voi capirete
■​ loro capiranno
○​ Examples:
■​ **Chiederò** il permesso. (I will ask for permission.)
■​ **Pulirà** la cucina. (She will clean the kitchen.)
●​ Tip: The 1st person singular (-ò) and 3rd person singular (-à) endings have an accent,
meaning the last syllable is stressed.

III. Exceptions to Regular Future Formation

1.​ Verbs ending in -care and -gare:

○​ Add an h to the future tense stem (before the endings) to maintain the hard c or
g sound.
○​ pagare (to pay) → pagherò (I’ll pay)
○​ giocare (to play) → giocherò (I’ll play)
2.​ Verbs ending in -ciare and -giare:
○​ Drop the i in the future tense stem.
○​ cominciare (to begin) → comincerò (I’ll begin)
○​ mangiare (to eat) → mangerò (I’ll eat)

IV. Irregular Future Verbs

●​ Common Irregularity: Many irregular verbs lose the vowel before the last r in their
stem.​

○​ avere → avr- (e.g., io avrò)

○​ vedere → vedr- (e.g., loro vedranno)
●​ List of Common Irregular Stems (vowel dropped):​

○​ andare → andr-
○​ avere → avr-
 ○​ bere → berr- (doubled r)
○​ cadere → cadr-
○​ dovere → dovr-
○​ potere → potr-
○​ sapere → sapr-
○​ vedere → vedr-
○​ vivere → vivr-
●​ Verbs with Root Changes: Some irregular verbs change their root entirely.​

○​ ESSERE (to be)

■​ io sarò
■​ tu sarai
■​ lui, lei sarà
■​ noi saremo
■​ voi sarete
■​ loro saranno
○​ TENERE (to hold/keep)
■​ io terrò
■​ tu terrai
■​ lui, lei terrà
■​ noi terremi
■​ voi terrete
■​ loro terranno
○​ VENIRE (to come)
■​ io verrò
■​ tu verrai
■​ lui, lei verrà
■​ noi verremo
■​ voi verrete
■​ loro verranno
○​
○​ VOLERE (to want)
■​ io vorrò
■​ tu vorrai
■​ lui, lei vorrà
■​ noi vorremo
■​ voi vorrete
■​ loro vorranno
 ●​ Verbs Maintaining -ar- Form: dare, fare, and stare maintain their original -ar-
form before adding the future endings.​

○​ DARE (to give)

■​ io darò
■​ tu darai
■​ etc.
○​ FARE (to do/make)
■​ io farò
■​ tu farai
■​ etc.
○​ STARE (to be/stay)
■​ io starò
■​ tu starai
■​ etc.

V. Conjunctions with Future Tense

●​ The Italian future tense is used after certain conjunctions, even when English uses the
present tense.
●​ Common Conjunctions: appena (as soon as), finché (as long as), quando (when),
se (if, whether).
●​ Examples:
○​ **Quando salverò** abbastanza soldi, **inizierò** a cercare
una casa. (When I save enough money, I will start looking for a house.)
○​ **Se partiremo** presto, **avremo** posti migliori. (If we leave
early, we will get better seats.)

VI. Tip: Present Tense for Future Actions

●​ When the time is already specified (l’anno prossimo - next year, domani - tomorrow,
un giorno - one day), you don't necessarily have to use the future tense. The present
tense can be sufficient to indicate a future action.
○​ Un giorno **nuoto** con i delfini. (One day I will swim with the
dolphins.)
○​ Domani **pulisce** la cucina. (Tomorrow she will clean the kitchen.)

VII. Vocabulary (Future Tense Conjugations)

●​ sarà (he/she/it will be)

●​ avremo (we will have)
●​ potrà (he/she/it can)
●​ farà (he/she/it will do/make)
●​ verremo (we will come)
●​ staremo (we will stay)
●​ vorranno (they will want)
●​ andremo (we will go)
●​ dirà (he/she/it will say)
●​ conoscerete (you (all) will meet/know)
●​ saprà (he/she/it will know (something))
●​ vedremo (we will see)
●​ troverà (he/she/it will find)
●​ darò (I will give)
●​ penseranno (they will think)
●​ parlerò (I will speak)
●​ metterai (you will put)
●​ prenderà (he/she/it will take)
●​ porterò (I will bring)
●​ arriverà (he/she/it will arrive)
●​ chiederò (I will ask)
●​ crederà (he/she/it will believe)
●​ lascerà (he/she/it will leave)
●​ sentirò (I will feel/hear)
●​ terrà (he/she/it will keep/hold)
●​ diventeremo (we will become)
●​ capiremo (we will understand)
●​ rimarrai (you will remain)
●​ passerai (you will pass)
●​ entrerà (he/she/it will enter)
●​ lavoreranno (they will work)
●​ vivrà (he/she/it will live)
●​ ricorderà (he/she/it will remember)
●​ useremo (we will use)
●​ chiamerò (I will call)
●​ morirà (he/she/it will die)
●​ piacerà (he/she/it will like)
●​ guarderai (you will look)
●​ aprirà (he/she/it will open)
●​ seguirò (I will follow)
●​ aspetteremo (we will wait)
●​ deciderò (I will decide)
●​ scriverò (I will write)
●​ finiranno (they will finish)
●​ leggerà (he/she/it will read)
●​ cambierà (he/she/it will change)
 ●​ offriranno (they will offer)
●​ giocherò (I will play)
●​ suonerò (I will play (music/instrument))
●​ perderò (I will lose)
●​ proverò (I will try)
●​ costruiranno (they will build)
●​ risponderà (he/she/it will answer)
●​ indicherò (I will indicate)
●​ succederò (I will succeed/happen)
●​ resterò (I will stay)
●​ partirò (I will leave/depart)

Italian "Gerund" (Gerundio) Notes

This lesson explains the formation and primary use of the Italian simple gerund, particularly in
forming the present continuous tense with the verb stare.

I. Simple Gerund Formation

●​ Definition: The Italian gerund (gerundio) corresponds to the "-ing" form of a verb in
English (e.g., "walking," "eating").
●​ Formation Rules:
○​ -ARE verbs: Add -ando to the verb stem.
■​ Example: parlare (to speak) → parl-ando (parlando)
○​ -ERE verbs: Add -endo to the verb stem.
■​ Example: vendere (to sell) → vend-endo (vendendo)
○​ -IRE verbs: Add -endo to the verb stem.
■​ Example: dormire (to sleep) → dorm-endo (dormendo)

II. Using the Gerund for Present Continuous

●​ Formation: The gerund is primarily used with the present tense of the verb stare (to
be, to stay) to form the present continuous tense.
●​ Structure: Stare (conjugated) + Gerund
●​ Examples:
○​ **Sto camminando** verso il negozio. (I am walking to the store.)
○​ **Stai giocando** a tennis? (Are you playing tennis?)
○​ Giuseppe **sta lavorando** stasera. (Giuseppe is working tonight.)
○​ La **stiamo chiamando** al telefono. (We are calling her on the
phone.) - Note: The direct object pronoun la comes before stare.
○​ **State** tutti **guardando** il gioco? (Are you all watching the
game?)
 ○​ Le patate **stanno cucendo**. (The potatoes are cooking.)

III. Tip: Potere Gerund

●​ The gerund for potere (to be able to) is potendo (being able to).
●​ It rarely uses the verb stare to form a continuous tense. Instead, it's often used
independently to express "being able to" in a causal or circumstantial sense.
○​ Example: Non **potendo** volare, ho guidato a Roma. (Not being
able to fly, I drove to Rome.)

IV. Vocabulary (Gerund Forms)

●​ dicendo (saying)
●​ trovando (finding)
●​ dando (giving)
●​ pensando (thinking)
●​ conoscendo (knowing/meeting)
●​ parlando (talking)
●​ sapendo (knowing)
●​ mettendo (putting)
●​ prendendo (taking)
●​ portando (bringing/carrying)
●​ arrivando (arriving)
●​ chiedendo (asking)
●​ credendo (believing)
●​ lavorando (working)
●​ usando (using)
●​ chiamando (calling)
●​ morendo (dying)
●​ piacendo (liking/pleasing)
●​ guardando (watching)
●​ aprendo (opening)
●​ essendo (being - irregular gerund of essere)
●​ avendo (having - irregular gerund of avere)
●​ potendo (being able - irregular gerund of potere)
●​ facendo (doing - irregular gerund of fare)
●​ venendo (coming - irregular gerund of venire)
●​ volendo (wanting - irregular gerund of volere)
●​ andando (going - irregular gerund of andare)
●​ sentendo (hearing/feeling)
●​ tenendo (holding/keeping)
 ●​ diventando (becoming)
●​ capendo (understanding)
●​ rimanendo (remaining)
●​ passando (passing)
●​ entrando (entering)
●​ seguendo (following)
●​ aspettando (waiting)
●​ decidendo (deciding)
●​ scrivendo (writing)
●​ finendo (finishing)
●​ leggendo (reading)
●​ unendo (uniting)
●​ cambiando (changing)
●​ offrendo (offering)
●​ giocando (playing)
●​ suonando (playing (music/instrument))
●​ perdendo (losing)
●​ provando (trying)
●​ costruendo (building)
●​ rispondendo (responding)
●​ indicando (indicating)
●​ succedendo (happening)
●​ mangiando (eating)
●​ bevendo (drinking)
●​ camminando (walking)
●​ nuotando (swimming)
●​ pagando (paying)
●​ dormendo (sleeping)
●​ cercando (looking for)
●​ piovendo (raining - from piovere)
●​ correndo (running)
●​ cucinando (cooking)
●​ studiando (studying)
●​ toccando (touching)
●​ tentando (trying/attempting)
●​ includendo (including)
●​ preparando (preparing)

Italian "Arts" Notes

This lesson highlights Italy's rich artistic and cultural heritage, provides examples of famous
sites, and introduces vocabulary related to arts and culture, with specific tips on related terms.

I. Italy: A Center of Art and Culture

 ●​ Italy is renowned globally as a center of history, culture, and art, boasting numerous
historical and cultural wonders.​

●​ It has the most UNESCO World Heritage Sites (53) of any country.​

●​ Well-known UNESCO Sites include (but are not limited to):​

○​ Valley of the Temples (Agrigento)

○​ Amalfi Coast
○​ Aeolian Volcanic Islands
○​ Mount Etna
○​ Medici Villas (Tuscany)
○​ Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Torre Annunziata
●​ Famous Cities of Art and Marvels:​

○​ Rome, Florence, Venice, Naples, Milan, and Vatican City are recognized for their
artistic heritage.
○​ Notable landmarks include:
■​ Castel Nuovo
■​ The Colosseum
■​ Grand Canals (of Venice)
■​ Ponte Vecchio
■​ Sistine Chapel
■​ St. Peter’s Basilica
●​ Abundance of Landmarks (Approximate Numbers):​

○​ 95,000 monumental churches

○​ 40,000 forts and castles
○​ 36,000 archives and libraries
○​ 5,600 museums
○​ 30,000 historical residences of ancient and noble families.
●​ Italy offers a historical journey from Ancient Greek times to the Roman Empire and the
present day.​

II. Tips for Arts-Related Terms

●​ Complesso (Group, Band):

○​ The Italian term complesso can be an adjective or a noun meaning "complex."
○​ In this lesson, it's used as a noun meaning "group" or "band" (e.g., a musical
group).
●​ Musicista (Musician):
○​ The noun musicista refers to both male (il musicista) and female (la
musicista) musicians in the singular.
 ○​ Only the plural forms change to reflect gender: i musicisti (male musicians)
and le musiciste (female musicians).

III. Vocabulary

●​ attore (actor)
●​ architettura (architecture)
●​ artista (artist)
●​ arte (art)
●​ complesso (group, band)
●​ macchina fotografica (camera)
●​ cinema (cinema)
●​ circo (circus)
●​ classica (classical - feminine)
●​ concerto (concert)
●​ cultura (culture)
●​ disegno (drawing)
●​ tamburo (drum)
●​ esibizione (exhibition)
●​ moda (fashion)
●​ film (movie)
●​ galleria (gallery)
●​ chitarra (guitar)
●​ fila (row)
●​ letteratura (literature)
●​ musicista (musician)
●​ musica (music)
●​ fotografia (photography)
●​ pianoforte (piano)
●​ immagine (picture)
●​ scena (scene)
●​ mostra (exhibit)
●​ spettacolo (show)
●​ canzone (song)
●​ studi (studies)
●​ stile (style)
●​ video (video)
●​ danza (dance)
●​ fama (fame)
●​ foto (photo - informal, from fotografia)
●​ palcoscenico (stage)
●​ pittore (painter)
 ●​ poesia (poetry)
●​ poeta (poet)
●​ romanzo (novel)
●​ fotografica (photographic - feminine)
●​ ballare (to dance)
●​ dipingere (to paint)
●​ filmare (to film)
●​ fotografare (to photograph)

Italian "Future Perfect" (Futuro Anteriore) Notes

This lesson explains the formation and specific uses of the Italian future perfect tense, which
describes an action that will have been completed before another future action.

I. What is the Future Perfect?

●​ Function: Used to talk about an action that will have finished by a certain point in the
future, or before another future action occurs.
●​ Formation: It's a compound tense, formed by combining:
○​ The future tense of the auxiliary verb (avere or essere).
○​ The past participle of the main verb (-ato, -uto, -ito).
●​ Agreement Rules: The choice of auxiliary verb (avere or essere) and the agreement
of the past participle follow the same rules as the passato prossimo (present
perfect) and other perfect tenses.
○​ (Reminder: Verbs of motion, change of state, and some others use essere;
most transitive verbs use avere. Past participles agree with the subject when
essere is used, and with a preceding direct object pronoun when avere is
used.)
●​ Direct Translation: Can be translated literally as the English future perfect ("will have
played").

II. Unique Uses of the Future Perfect in Italian

1.​ Conjectural Future Tense (Conjecture about the past):​

○​ The future perfect can express a conjecture or probability about an action in

the past.
○​ For statements, this is often translated as "must have" or "probably."
■​ Example: Marta **avrà voluto** un gatto. (Marta must have
wanted a cat.)
○​ For questions, it can express conjecture about a past event, often translated with
"could," "can," "might," etc.
■​ Example: Chi **l’avrà preso**? (Who can have taken it?)
 2.​ In Adverbial Clauses (Referring to a future action):​

○​ Italian uses the future perfect (or simple future) in certain adverbial clauses
(especially after conjunctions like quando - when) when referring to an action
that will be completed in the future.
○​ English often uses the present or present perfect in these clauses.
■​ Example: **Quando avrò finito** i compiti, ti chiamerò.
(When I have finished my homework, I will call you.) - Literally: "When I
will have finished..."

III. Tip: Auxiliary Verb Rules

●​ The lesson re-emphasizes that the choice between avere and essere and the past
participle agreement rules for the future perfect are identical to those for the passato
prossimo and trapassato prossimo.

IV. Vocabulary (Examples of Future Perfect Conjugations)

●​ avrà avuto (he/she/it will have had)

●​ sarà stato (he/she/it will have been)
●​ avrai potuto (you will have been able to)
●​ sarà venuto (he/she/it will have come)
●​ avrò fatto (I will have made)
●​ avrà trovato (he/she/it will have found)
●​ avrò saputo (I will have known (something))
●​ avremo visto (we will have seen)
●​ avrà conosciuto (he/she/it will have met (someone))
●​ avrà voluto (he/she/it will have wanted)
●​ avranno detto (they will have told)
●​ saranno andati (they will have gone)
●​ avrai dato (you will have given)
●​ avranno pensato (they will have thought)
●​ avremo parlato (we will have talked)
●​ avrà messo (he/she/it will have put)
●​ avrà preso (he/she/it will have taken)
●​ avremo portato (we will have brought)
●​ saranno arrivati (they will have arrived)
●​ avrà chiesto (he/she/it will have asked)
●​ avrò creduto (I will have believed)
●​ avrà lasciato (he/she/it will have left)
●​ saranno sentiti (they will have felt - agreeing with masculine plural subject)
●​ avrò tenuto (I will have held)
 ●​ saranno diventati (they will have become - agreeing with masculine plural subject)
●​ avrà capito (he/she/it will have understood)
●​ saremo rimasti (we will have remained - agreeing with masculine plural subject)
●​ saranno passati (they will have passed - agreeing with masculine plural subject)
●​ sarai entrato (you will have entered - agreeing with masculine singular subject)
●​ avrò lavorato (I will have worked)
●​ avrai vissuto (you will have lived)
●​ avranno ricordato (they will have remembered)
●​ avranno usato (they will have used)
●​ avremo chiamato (we will have called)
●​ sarai morto (you will be dead / you will have died - agreeing with masculine singular
subject)
●​ sarà piaciuta (he/she/it will have liked - literally: it will have pleased (feminine subject))
●​ avremo guardato (we will have watched)
●​ avrò aperto (I will have opened)
●​ avrà seguito (he/she/it will have followed)
●​ avrà aspettato (he/she/it will have waited for)
●​ sarà stato aperto (it will have been opened - passive construction)
●​ sarà stato chiamato (he must have been named / he will have been called - conjectural
or passive future perfect)

Italian "Abstract Objects 3" Notes

This lesson continues to introduce vocabulary for abstract concepts and highlights a few words
with alternative meanings or common synonyms, such as delitti, sonno, and coda.

I. Words with Alternate Meanings or Synonyms

This lesson points out some Italian words that have more than one common translation or have
widely used synonyms:

●​ delitti (crimes): This word for "crimes" is also commonly expressed as crimini.
●​ sonno (sleep): While sonno is a noun for "sleep," the noun dormita is also used to
refer to a period of sleep or a nap.

II. The Confusing Case of Coda

●​ Coda is a word with two distinct common meanings:

1.​ "Tail": Refers to the tail of an animal.
2.​ "Line" or "Queue": In this lesson's context, it means a line of people or things.
■​ Example: I passeggeri sono in **coda**. (The passengers are
in line.)
●​ More Common Synonym for "Line": For "line" or "queue" of people, the Italian word
fila (line, row, queue) is actually more commonly used than coda.
III. Tip: Causa and A causa

●​ The Italian word causa means "cause."

●​ It can also be used in the phrase a causa, which translates to "because" or "due to" in
English. This is a common way to express causality.

Vocabulary (Abstract Nouns and Concepts)

●​ ombra (shadow, shade)

●​ concorrenza (competition)
●​ coda (line, tail)
●​ sensazione (feeling, sensation)
●​ caduta (fall)
●​ viso (face - an anatomical part, but can refer to appearance as an abstract concept)
●​ rumore (noise)
●​ delitti (crimes)
●​ timore (fear)
●​ indipendenza (independence)
●​ dignità (dignity)
●​ ricchezza (wealth)
●​ povertà (poverty)
●​ fallimento (failure)
●​ successo (success)
●​ liberazione (liberation, freedom)
●​ abitudine (habit)
●​ odore (smell, odor)
●​ intelligenza (intelligence)
●​ compromessi (compromises)
●​ guaio (trouble)
●​ sonno (sleep)
●​ essenza (essence)
●​ immaginazione (imagination)
●​ grido (scream, shout)
●​ eguaglianza (equality)
●​ sviluppo (development)
●​ ruolo (role)
●​ causa (cause)

Italian "Subjunctive Present" (Congiuntivo Presente) Notes

This lesson introduces the Italian present subjunctive mood, explaining its purpose, common
triggers, and regular conjugation patterns, along with various examples.
I. What is the Subjunctive Mood?

●​ Function: The subjunctive is a grammatical mood (not a tense) used to express:​

○​ Doubt
○​ Emotion
○​ Wishes
○​ Orders (formal commands)
○​ Opinions
●​ Key Concept: It does not refer to facts or actual, verifiable events. Instead, it expresses
feelings, uncertainties, possibilities, desires, or situations that are subjective.​

●​ Difficulty: Mastering the subjunctive can be challenging, even for native speakers, as it
requires understanding nuanced contexts.​

●​ Introduction: Often introduced by the conjunction che (that), though not always.​

●​ Examples:​

○​ È importante **che tu sia** onesto. (It’s important that you be

honest.) - Opinion/Order
○​ Penso **che tu sia** il migliore. (I think (that) you’re the best.) -
Opinion
○​ Sono contento **che tu abbia** un nuovo hobby. (I’m glad (that)
you have a new hobby.) - Emotion
○​ Voglio **che tu mi faccia** un favore. (I want you to do me a
favor.) - Wish
○​ Vogliono **che io dica** qualcosa. (They want me to say something.)
- Wish
○​ Dubito **che lei voglia** vedermi. (I doubt (that) she wants to see
me.) - Doubt
○​ È impossibile **che la squadra perda** due volte. (It’s
impossible for the team to lose twice.) - Uncertainty (future prediction)

II. Conjunctions that Always Trigger the Subjunctive

Certain conjunctions always require the subjunctive mood in the following clause. Even if some
native speakers occasionally ignore this rule, it's grammatically correct to use the subjunctive.

●​ nonostante (even though)​

●​ sebbene (even though)​

 ●​ malgrado (even though)​

●​ benché (even though)​

●​ Examples:​

○​ **Nonostante (io) faccia** sempre del mio meglio, non è mai

abbastanza. (Even though I always do my best, it’s never enough.)
○​ **Nonostante (io) faccia** sempre del mio meglio, sembra
**che non sia** mai abbastanza. (Even though I always do my best, it
seems like it’s never enough.)

III. Regular Verb Conjugation Patterns

Regular verbs follow these patterns for the present subjunctive:

Subject -ARE (parlare) -ERE (vedere) -IRE (partire) -IRE (capire, -isc-)

(che) io parli veda parta capisca

(che) tu parli veda parta capisca

(che) lui/lei parli veda parta capisca

(che) noi parliamo vediamo partiamo capiamo

(che) voi parliate vediate partiate capiate

(che) loro parlino vedano partano capiscano

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●​ Key Observations:
 ○​ The io, tu, lui/lei forms are often identical for regular verbs within each
conjugation group.
○​ -ARE verbs end in -i.
○​ -ERE verbs end in -a.
○​ -IRE verbs end in -a, but -isc- verbs (capire type) end in -isca.
○​ noi and voi forms are identical to the present indicative.

IV. Vocabulary (Examples of Subjunctive Conjugations)

●​ lavorino (they work)

●​ loro prendano (they take)
●​ lei capisca (she understands)
●​ tu giochi (you play)
●​ io abbia (I have)
●​ lui sia (he is)
●​ tu faccia (you do/make)
●​ tu vada (you go)
●​ noi diamo (we give)
●​ tu stia (you stay/are)
●​ voi possiate (you (all) can)
●​ voi rimaniate (you (all) remain)
●​ noi sappiamo (we know (something))
●​ io tenga (I hold/keep)
●​ lui voglia (he wants)
●​ io dica (I say)
●​ loro muoiano (they die)
●​ io venga (I come)
●​ lui conosca (he knows (someone))
●​ tu veda (you see)
●​ lui trovi (he finds)
●​ io pensi (I think)
●​ loro parlino (they talk)
●​ io metta (I put)
●​ lui porti (he brings)
●​ lei arrivi (she arrives)
●​ tu chieda (you ask)
●​ lui creda (he believes)
●​ io lasci (I leave)
●​ loro sentano (they feel/hear)
●​ loro diventino (they become)
●​ lui passi (he passes)
●​ tu entri (you enter)
 ●​ lei viva (she lives)
●​ io ricordi (I remember)
●​ loro usino (they use)
●​ lui chiami (he calls)
●​ io piaccia (I like/please)
●​ lei guardi (she watches)
●​ tu apra (you open)
●​ tu segua (you follow)
●​ io aspetti (I wait for)
●​ lei decida (she decides)
●​ io scriva (I write)
●​ lui finisca (he finishes)
●​ loro leggano (they read)
●​ tu cambi (you change)
●​ lei offra (she offers)
●​ loro suonino (they play (instruments))
●​ tu perda (you lose)
●​ io provi (I try)
●​ lui costruisca (he builds)
●​ lei indichi (she indicates)
●​ lei succeda (she happens)
●​ io risponda (I answer)

Italian "Science" Notes

This lesson highlights Italy's significant contributions to science throughout history and
introduces key vocabulary related to scientific fields and concepts.

I. Italy's Scientific Legacy

Italy boasts a rich history of scientific innovation, with numerous important inventions and
discoveries dating back to the Renaissance. Notable Italian scientists and their contributions
include:

●​ Archimedes: Credited with the discovery of gravity.

●​ Galileo Galilei: Often referred to as the "Father of Modern Science."
●​ Guglielmo Marconi: Invented wireless telegraphy.
●​ Alessandro Volta: Invented the electric battery.
●​ Eugenio Barsanti: Developed the first internal combustion gas engine.
●​ Giovanni Caselli: Invented the pantelegraph (an early fax machine).
●​ Salvino D'Armate: Credited with the invention of the first reading glasses.
●​ Antonio Meucci: Recognized as an early inventor of the telephone.
●​ Pellegrino Turri: Built the first typewriter.
●​ Evangelista Torricelli: Invented the barometer.
II. Vocabulary

●​ biologia (biology)
●​ definizione (definition)
●​ scoperta (discovery)
●​ energia (energy)
●​ esperto (expert)
●​ formula (formula)
●​ gas (gas)
●​ idea (idea)
●​ invenzione (invention)
●​ conoscenza (knowledge)
●​ matematica (mathematics)
●​ metodo (method)
●​ filosofia (philosophy)
●​ fisica (physics)
●​ plastica (plastic)
●​ psicologia (psychology)
●​ scienza (science)
●​ scienziato (scientist)
●​ tecnologia (technology)
●​ temperatura (temperature)
●​ teoria (theory)
●​ geografia (geography)
●​ chimica (chemistry)
●​ elemento (element)
●​ evoluzione (evolution)
●​ gravità (gravity)
●​ laboratorio (laboratory, workshop)
●​ meccanismi (mechanisms)
●​ tecnico (technical, technician)
●​ universo (universe)
●​ elettricità (electricity)
●​ metallo (metal)
●​ modo (way, manner)
●​ tecnici (technicians)
●​ collegamento (connection)
●​ ricercare (to research)
●​ significare (to mean)

Italian "Conditional (Verbs)" Notes

This lesson explains the Italian conditional mood, which expresses actions dependent on
conditions, and its uses for polite requests, advice, hypothetical situations, and expressing
doubt.

I. What is the Conditional?

●​ Function: Used to express actions that depend on certain conditions. It's the equivalent
of English "would," "could," "might," or "should."​

●​ Common Uses:​

○​ Polite requests
○​ Advice
○​ Hypothetical situations
○​ Expressing doubt
●​ Examples:​

○​ Lo **farei** solo per te. (I would do it only for you.)

○​ Lei **potrebbe leggere** un libro. (She could/might read a book.)
○​ Tu **dovresti essere** qui. (You should be here.)
●​ Relationship with Modal Verbs:​

○​ Instead of separate words like "could" or "might," you use the conditional form of
potere (to be able to, can).
○​ Instead of "should," you use the conditional form of dovere (to have to, must).
○​ For "would," you simply use the conditional form of the main verb (no extra verb
needed).

II. Formation of the Conditional

●​ Root: The conditional is formed by taking the root of the future tense (which often
involves dropping the final -e or adjusting the stem for -are verbs).
●​ Endings: Add these consistent endings to the future stem:

Subject -ARE (amare) -ERE (vedere) -IRE (capire)

io -erei -erei -irei

tu -eresti -eresti -iresti

 lui, lei -erebbe -erebbe -irebbe

noi -eremmo -eremmo -iremmo

voi -ereste -ereste -ireste

loro -erebbero -erebbero -irebbero

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●​ Examples:
○​ AMARE (to love)
■​ io amerei
■​ tu ameresti
■​ lui, lei amerebbe
■​ noi ameremmo
■​ voi amereste
■​ loro amerebbero
○​ VEDERE (to see)
■​ io vedrei (note future stem vedr-)
■​ tu vedresti
■​ etc.
○​ CAPIRE (to understand)
■​ io capirei
■​ tu capiresti
■​ etc.

III. Irregular Volere in the Conditional

●​ Volere (to want) is a common irregular verb in the conditional.

●​ Meaning: In the conditional, volere is used to say or ask what you "would like." This
is a very common polite request.
●​ Conjugation:
 Subject VOLERE English Meaning
(Conditional)

io vorrei I would like

tu vorresti you would like

lui, lei vorrebbe he, she would like

noi vorremmo we would like

voi vorreste you (all) would like

loro vorrebbero they would like

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●​ Examples with volere + infinitive:

○​ Che cosa **vorresti** bere, signore? (What would you like to drink,
sir?)
○​ **Vorrei** una birra, per favore. (I would like a beer, please.)
○​ Dove **vorreste** mangiare stasera? (Where would you like to eat
tonight?)
○​ **Vorremmo** mangiare al ristorante di Marco. (We would like to
eat at Marco’s restaurant.)

IV. Tip: Using Piacere in the Conditional

●​ You can also use piacere (to like/to please) in the conditional (piacerebbe) to say
what you "would like."
●​ Structure: Mi piacerebbe + infinitive/noun (remember piacere's indirect object
structure).
 ●​ Commonality: It's not as commonly used in this specific manner as vorrei and might
be slightly more difficult for beginners.
○​ Example: **Mi piacerebbe** vedere quel film. (I would like to see that
movie.)

V. Vocabulary (Examples of Conditional Conjugations)

●​ lavorerebbero (they would work)

●​ prenderebbero (they would take)
●​ avrebbe (he/she/it would have)
●​ sarebbe (he/she/it would be)
●​ daresti (you would give)
●​ farei (I would make/do)
●​ starei (I would stay/be)
●​ andrebbero (they would go)
●​ potrebbe (he/she/it would be able to)
●​ saprei (I would know (something))
●​ vedrei (I would see)
●​ vivrebbe (he/she/it would live)
●​ vorremmo (we would want/like)
●​ leggereste (you (all) would read)
●​ verresti (you would come)
●​ parlerei (I would talk)
●​ diremmo (we would say)
●​ scriverei (I would write)
●​ finireste (you (all) would finish)
●​ conosceresti (you would know (someone))
●​ troverebbe (he/she/it would find)
●​ penserei (I would think)
●​ metterebbe (he/she/it would put)
●​ porteresti (you would take/bring/wear)
●​ crederebbero (they would believe)
●​ lascerebbe (he/she/it would leave)
●​ capirebbe (he/she/it would understand)
●​ sentirei (I would feel/hear)
●​ terrei (I would keep/hold)
●​ diventerebbe (he/she/it would become)
●​ passeremmo (we would pass)
●​ entrerebbe (he/she/it would enter)
●​ morirebbero (they would die)
●​ piacerebbe (he/she/it would like/would please)
●​ guarderemmo (we would look)
 ●​ aprirebbe (he/she/it would open)
●​ unirei (I would join/unite)
●​ cambierebbe (he/she/it would change)
●​ offrirebbe (he/she/it would offer)
●​ suoneresti (you would play (an instrument))
●​ perderemmo (we would lose)
●​ proverebbe (he/she/it would try)
●​ costruirei (I would build)

Italian "Modal Verbs" (Verbi Servili) Notes

This lesson introduces Italian modal verbs, also known as "helper verbs," which precede an
infinitive to express a particular "mode" such as necessity, possibility, or desire.

I. What are Modal Verbs?

●​ Definition: Italian verbi servili (servile verbs) or modal verbs are verbs that
indicate a "mode" (a necessity, a requirement, a possibility, a wish, an ability).
●​ Structure: They always precede the infinitive of another verb. The infinitive verb is the
main action, and the modal verb adds a nuance to that action.
●​ Common Italian Modal Verbs:
○​ dovere (to have to, must) - expresses necessity or obligation.
○​ potere (to be able to, can) - expresses ability or possibility.
○​ volere (to want to, would) - expresses desire or will.

II. Examples of Modal Verb Usage

●​ dovere (to have to, must):

○​ **Devo andare** al negozio. (I have to go to the store.)
○​ **Dobbiamo giocare** a pallacanestro stasera. (We have to play
basketball tonight.)
●​ potere (to be able to, can):
○​ **Posso vedere** la luna. (I can see the moon.)
○​ **Potete aiutare**? (Can you help? / Can you all help?)
●​ volere (to want to):
○​ **Vuoi comprare** una nuova borsa? (Do you want to buy a new
purse?)
○​ **Vogliono volare** a Roma. (They want to fly to Rome.)

III. Vocabulary (Conjugations of Common Modal Verbs in Present Tense)

●​ potere (to be able to, can):​

 ○​ posso (I can)
○​ puoi (you (singular) can)
○​ può (he/she/it can)
○​ possiamo (we can)
○​ potete (you (plural) can)
○​ possono (they can)
●​ volere (to want):​

○​ voglio (I want)
○​ vuoi (you (singular) want)
○​ vuole (he/she/it wants)
○​ vogliamo (we want)
○​ volete (you (plural) want)
○​ vogliono (they want)
●​ dovere (to have to, must):​

○​ devo (I must)
○​ devi (you (singular) must)
○​ deve (he/she/it must)
○​ dobbiamo (we must)
○​ dovete (you (plural) must)
○​ devono (they must)

Italian "Conditional Perfect" (Condizionale Passato) Notes

This lesson explains the formation and usage of the Italian conditional perfect tense, which
describes actions that would have happened under certain conditions.

I. What is the Conditional Perfect?

●​ Function: Used to express actions that would have happened under certain
conditions. It's the equivalent of English "would have," "could have," "might have," or
"should have." It often refers to hypothetical past situations.
●​ Formation: It's a compound tense, formed by combining:
○​ The present conditional of the auxiliary verb (avere or essere).
○​ The past participle of the main verb (-ato, -uto, -ito).
●​ Agreement Rules: The choice of auxiliary verb (avere or essere) and the agreement
of the past participle follow the same rules as the passato prossimo (present
perfect) and other perfect tenses.
○​ (Reminder: Verbs of motion, change of state, and some others use essere;
most transitive verbs use avere. Past participles agree with the subject when
essere is used, and with a preceding direct object pronoun when avere is
used.)
 ●​ Examples:
○​ **Avremmo potuto ballare** tutta la notte. (We could have
danced all night.)
○​ **Avreste dovuto invitare**la. (You should have invited her.)
○​ **Saremmo andati volentieri** alla Roma. (We would gladly have
gone to Rome.)
○​ Sophia **sarebbe andata volentieri** al ristorante. (Sophia
would have been happy to go to the restaurant.)

II. Auxiliary Verbs in the Conditional Present

●​ AVERE (to have) - Conditional Present

○​ io avrei
○​ tu avresti
○​ lui, lei avrebbe
○​ noi avremmo
○​ voi avreste
○​ loro avrebbero
●​ ESSERE (to be) - Conditional Present
○​ io sarei
○​ tu saresti
○​ lui, lei sarebbe
○​ noi saremmo
○​ voi sareste
○​ loro sarebbero

III. Tip: Auxiliary Verb Rules

●​ The lesson re-emphasizes that the choice between avere and essere and the past
participle agreement rules for the conditional perfect are identical to those for the
passato prossimo, trapassato prossimo, and futuro anteriore.

IV. Vocabulary (Examples of Conditional Perfect Conjugations)

●​ sarei andato (I would have gone)

●​ sarebbe venuto (he would have come)
●​ sarebbe diventata (she would have become)
●​ avrebbero capito (they would have understood)
●​ avresti vissuto (you would have lived)
●​ avrebbero sentito (they would have heard/felt)
 ●​ avrebbe preso (he would have taken)
●​ sarebbe stato (he would have been)
●​ avremmo passato (we would have passed)
●​ avrebbe dato (he would have given)
●​ avrei pensato (I would have thought)
●​ avrebbero chiesto (they would have asked)
●​ avresti trovato (you would have found)
●​ avrei lavorato (I would have worked)
●​ avresti parlato (you would have spoken/talked)
●​ avrei avuto (I would have had)
●​ avrebbero visto (they would have seen)
●​ avrei messo (I would have put)
●​ avresti portato (you would have brought/carried)
●​ saremmo arrivati (we would have arrived)
●​ avrei voluto (I would have wanted)
●​ avrei detto (I would have said)
●​ avresti conosciuto (you would have met/known (someone))
●​ avrebbe saputo (he would have known (something))
●​ avrebbero fatto (they would have done/made)
●​ avremmo potuto (we could have)
●​ avresti creduto (you would have believed)
●​ avrei tenuto (I would have kept/held)
●​ avrei lasciato (I would have left)
●​ avresti usato (you would have used)
●​ sarei ricordato (I would have remembered)
●​ sarebbe rimasta (she would have remained)
●​ saresti entrato (you would have entered)
●​ avrei seguito (I would have followed)
●​ avrebbe aperto (he would have opened)
●​ avrei chiamato (I would have called)
●​ sarei morto (I would have died)
●​ saremmo aspettati (we would have waited for)
●​ sarebbe piaciuto (he would have liked/it would have pleased)
●​ avrei guardato (I would have watched)

Italian "Communications" Notes

This lesson focuses on specific Italian vocabulary related to information and media, highlighting
important distinctions between seemingly similar terms like "information" and "news," and the
two words for "television."

I. Informazione (Information)
 ●​ Countable Noun: Unlike English "information" (which is uncountable), the Italian
informazione is a fully countable noun.
●​ Usage: It can be used in both singular and plural forms. You do not use words like
pezzo (piece) with it.
●​ Examples:
○​ Quale **informazione** è più importante? (Which piece of
information is most important?)
○​ Ci sono alcune **informazioni** utili. (There are some useful
pieces of information.)

II. Notizie (News)

●​ Countable Noun: The same rule applies to notizie (news) as to informazione. It's
a countable noun in Italian, despite being uncountable in English.
●​ Usage: Can be singular (notizia) or plural (notizie).
●​ Examples:
○​ Questa è una **notizia** interessante. (This is an interesting piece
of news.)
○​ Abbiamo buone **notizie**. (We have good news.)

III. Television: Il televisore vs. La televisione

Italian distinguishes between the physical television set and the broadcast content:

●​ Il televisore: Refers to the actual appliance or television set (the machine).

○​ Example: You have a televisore in your family room.
●​ La televisione: Refers to the service or content that you watch on the television
(e.g., TV programming, broadcast media).
○​ Example: You watch televisione on your televisore.

IV. Tips: Stampa (Print, Printing, Press)

●​ The Italian word stampa has multiple meanings.

●​ It's related to the verb stampare (to print).
●​ Meanings of stampa as a noun:
1.​ "Print": As in written text.
■​ Example: Mio figlio ha scritto il suo nome in
**stampa**. (My son wrote his name in print.)
2.​ "Printing": Refers to a specific edition or run of a book.
■​ Example: Il libro è già alla sua terza **stampa**. (The
book is already in its third printing.)
3.​ "Press": As in the news media or journalism industry.
 ■​ Example: Sono una giornalista e lavoro per **la
stampa**. (I am a journalist and I work for the press.)

V. Vocabulary

●​ indirizzo (address)
●​ articolo (article)
●​ chiamata (calling, call)
●​ canale (channel)
●​ codice (code)
●​ commento (comment)
●​ conversazione (conversation)
●​ discussione (discussion)
●​ informazione (information)
●​ intervista (interview)
●​ affare (deal, business)
●​ giornalista (journalist)
●​ lettera (letter)
●​ rivista (magazine)
●​ posta (mail)
●​ messaggio (message)
●​ notizie (news)
●​ note (notes)
●​ opinione (opinion)
●​ radio (radio)
●​ soggetto (subject)
●​ la televisione (television - service/content)
●​ il televisore (television - appliance)
●​ argomento (topic)
●​ traduzione (translation)
●​ comunicazione (communication)
●​ dialoghi (dialogues)
●​ lettore (reader)
●​ stampa (print, printing, press)
●​ discorso (speech)
●​ cartolina (postcard)
●​ invitare (to invite)
●​ inviare (to send)
●​ telefonare (to phone)
●​ stampare (to print)

Italian "Nature" Notes

This lesson introduces vocabulary related to natural elements and landscapes, with a specific
focus on how to refer to general natural areas like "mountains," "countryside," and "sea,"
including the prepositions used with them.

I. General Natural Areas (Montagna, Campagna, Mare)

In Italian, some nouns refer to a type of place or general area rather than a specific instance of
it. This affects how prepositions are used.

●​ Montagna (mountain/mountains): Refers to the mountainous area in general, not a

single peak.
○​ Preposition: in
○​ Example: Vado **in montagna**. (I’m going to the mountains. / I go in the
mountains.)
●​ Campagna (countryside): Refers to the countryside area in general.
○​ Preposition: in
○​ Example: Andiamo **in campagna**. (Let’s go to the country. / We go in the
countryside.)
●​ Mare (sea/seaside): Refers to the seaside or the sea as a general area, not a
particular beach or specific body of water.
○​ Preposition: a (often contracted with the article il to form al)
○​ Example: Lei è andata **al mare**. (She went to the sea/seaside.)

II. Vocabulary

●​ aria (air)
●​ atmosfera (atmosphere)
●​ spiaggia (beach)
●​ clima (climate)
●​ nuvola (cloud)
●​ terra (earth, land)
●​ ambiente (environment)
●​ fuoco (fire)
●​ fiore (flower)
●​ nebbia (fog)
●​ foresta (forest)
●​ giardino (garden)
●​ erba (grass)
●​ lago (lake)
●​ paesaggio (landscape)
●​ luna (moon)
●​ montagna (mountain/mountains)
●​ natura (nature)
●​ oceano (ocean)
 ●​ pianeta (planet)
●​ pianta (plant)
●​ pioggia (rain)
●​ fiume (river)
●​ roccia (rock)
●​ mare (sea/seaside)
●​ argento (silver)
●​ cielo (sky)
●​ neve (snow)
●​ spazio (space)
●​ stella (star)
●​ pietra (stone)
●​ temporale (thunderstorm)
●​ sole (sun)
●​ albero (tree)
●​ cascata (waterfall)
●​ vento (wind)
●​ bosco (woods, forest)
●​ mondo (world)
●​ alba (dawn)
●​ campagna (countryside)
●​ fumo (smoke)
●​ legno (wood)
●​ sabbia (sand)
●​ stagione (season)
●​ vulcano (volcano)
●​ caldo (hot)
●​ agricoltura (agriculture)
●​ terreno (ground, soil)
●​ nuvoloso (cloudy)
●​ ventosa (windy - feminine)
●​ soleggiato (sunny)
●​ vivo (alive)
●​ nevicare (to snow)
●​ piovere (to rain)

Italian "Subjunctive Perfect" (Congiuntivo Passato) Notes

This lesson explains the formation and usage of the Italian subjunctive perfect tense, which
expresses doubt, emotion, wishes, or opinions about past actions.

I. What is the Subjunctive Perfect?

 ●​ Function: This tense is used to express doubt, emotion, wishes, orders, or opinions
about actions that have already occurred in the past. It's about a subjective take on
a past event, not a factual statement about it.​

●​ Formation: It's a compound tense, formed by combining:​

○​ The Present Subjunctive of the auxiliary verb (essere or avere).

○​ The Past Participle of the main verb.
●​ Auxiliary Verb Choice:​

○​ Transitive verbs (verbs that take a direct object) typically require the auxiliary
avere.
○​ Intransitive verbs (verbs that do not take a direct object, often verbs of motion
or change of state) and Reflexive verbs require the auxiliary essere.
●​ Past Participle Agreement: The past participle agrees in gender and number with the
subject when essere is the auxiliary, and with a preceding direct object clitic when
avere is the auxiliary (same rules as passato prossimo).​

●​ Examples:​

○​ Spero che non **abbia piovuto**. (I hope that it hasn't rained.) -

Emotion/doubt about a past event.
○​ Non credo che **siano andati** in Italia. (I don’t believe that they
went to Italy.) - Doubt about a past event.
○​ Sembra che Giorgio **abbia cambiato** lavoro. (It seems that
Giorgio has changed jobs.) - Opinion about a past event.
○​ Sofia pensa che Maria **sia partita** ieri per la Germania.
(Sofia thinks that Maria left for Germany yesterday.) - Opinion about a past
event.

II. Tips

●​ Common Trigger (che): You will frequently notice that the subjunctive perfect tense
follows conjunctions built with che (that). This is a strong indicator that the subjunctive is
needed.
●​ Auxiliary Verb Rules Consistency: The subjunctive perfect follows the same rules
regarding the choice of avere or essere and the agreement of the past participle as
the present perfect (passato prossimo), past perfect (trapassato prossimo),
future perfect (futuro anteriore), and conditional perfect (condizionale
passato).
III. Vocabulary (Examples of Subjunctive Perfect Conjugations)

●​ che tu sia venuto (that you have come - masculine singular)

●​ che abbia fatto (that he/she/it has done/made)
●​ che abbia potuto (that he/she/it has been able)
●​ che abbia avuto (that he/she/it has had)
●​ che sia stato (that he/she/it has been - masculine singular)
●​ che sia andato (that he/she/it has gone - masculine singular)
●​ che abbia trovato (that he/she/it has found)
●​ che io abbia detto (that I have said/told)
●​ che loro abbiano saputo (that they have known (something))
●​ che abbia voluto (that he/she/it has wanted)
●​ che abbia visto (that he/she/it has seen)
●​ che io abbia conosciuto (that I have known (someone))
●​ che abbia dato (that he/she/it has given)
●​ che abbia pensato (that he/she/it has thought)
●​ che tu abbia parlato (that you had spoken)
●​ che abbia preso (that he/she/it has taken)
●​ che abbia messo (that he/she/it has put)
●​ che sia arrivata (that she has arrived - feminine singular)
●​ che abbia portato (that he/she/it has brought)
●​ che abbia lasciato (that he/she/it has left)
●​ che loro siano diventati (that they have become - masculine plural)
●​ che abbia creduto (that he/she/it has believed)
●​ che loro abbiano capito (that they have understood)
●​ che tu abbia tenuto (that you have kept/held)
●​ che abbia sentito (that he/she/it has heard/felt)
●​ che abbia chiesto (that he/she/it has asked)
●​ che tu sia rimasto (that you have stayed/remained - masculine singular)
●​ che abbiamo passato (that we have passed)
●​ che abbia lavorato (that he/she/it has worked)
●​ che abbia usato (that he/she/it has used)
●​ che abbia vissuto (that he/she/it has lived)
●​ che sia entrata (that she has entered - feminine singular)
●​ che abbiamo ricordato (that we have remembered)
●​ che abbia chiamato (that he/she/it has called)
●​ che abbia aperto (that he/she/it has opened)
●​ che loro abbiano seguito (that they have followed)
●​ che vi sia piaciuto (that you (all) have liked/it has pleased to you (all) - piaciuto agrees
with the implied singular subject, e.g., 'it')
●​ che tu abbia aspettato (that you have waited)
●​ che tu abbia guardato (that you have watched)
●​ che sia morta (that she has died - feminine singular)
Italian "Business" Notes

This lesson provides an overview of Italian business etiquette, including appropriate attire,
punctuality, greetings, business card exchange, typical operating hours, and crucial timing
considerations for meetings. It also differentiates between verbs for "to rent."

I. Italian Business Etiquette

●​ First Impressions: Highly important in the Italian business world.

●​ Attire:
○​ Men: Typically wear dark-colored suits.
○​ Women: Business suits or conservative dresses.
○​ Perception: Attire can reflect social standing and success.
●​ Punctuality:
○​ Expected in some regions, more relaxed in others.
○​ Always best practice to be punctual out of respect.
●​ Addressing Executives:
○​ Address Italian executives as Signore (Mr.) or Signora (Mrs./Ms.) plus their
surname.
○​ Use last names and appropriate titles until explicitly invited to use a first name.
●​ Greetings & Departures:
○​ Always say buongiorno (good morning) and buonasera (good evening) upon
greeting and departure.
●​ Handshakes:
○​ Customary to shake hands individually with everyone in a group during both
introductions and departures.
●​ Business Cards:
○​ Commonplace: Always have business cards ready.
○​ Translation: Have it translated into Italian on the reverse side.
○​ Content: Include any advanced educational degrees and your full title on both
sides.
○​ Respect: Always look closely at a received business card before putting it away.

II. Business Operations & Timing

●​ Typical Hours: Monday through Friday, 8:30/9:00 a.m. to 6:00/6:30 p.m., with one or
two hours for lunch.
●​ August Closures: Many companies are closed in August due to hot temperatures. Even
if open, many Italians take month-long holidays (ferie). It's best to avoid scheduling
meetings in August.
●​ Catholic Festivities: Avoid organizing meetings during periods of Catholic festivities
due to the country's religious culture.
●​ Meeting Purpose: Initial business meetings in Italy often prioritize developing personal
relationships, mutual trust, and respect over immediate deal-making.
III. Affittare vs. Noleggiare (to rent)

These two verbs both mean "to rent" but are used in different contexts:

●​ Affittare:
○​ Can be used in most circumstances.
○​ More commonly utilized when renting real estate (houses, apartments).
●​ Noleggiare:
○​ Often used when renting movable property (cars, motorcycles, bikes, boats).
○​ Also used for various media (video games, movies).

IV. Tip: Related Renting Nouns

●​ affitto: The noun for "rent" (the payment).

●​ affitto mensile: "Monthly rent."
●​ inquilino / inquilina: "Tenant" (masculine/feminine).

V. Vocabulary

●​ pubblicità (publicity, advertising)

●​ appuntamento (appointment)
●​ banca (bank)
●​ bolletta (bill)
●​ consiglio (advice)
●​ capo (boss)
●​ imprenditore (entrepreneur)
●​ ditta (company, firm)
●​ carriera (career)
●​ contanti (cash)
●​ moneta (coin)
●​ collega (colleague)
●​ compagnia (company - as in companionship or business entity)
●​ contratto (contract)
●​ costo (cost)
●​ cliente (customer)
●​ sconti (discounts)
●​ documenti (documents)
●​ dollari (dollars)
●​ euro (euro)
●​ fabbrica (factory)
●​ finanza (finance)
●​ industria (industry)
●​ assicurazione (insurance)
 ●​ interesse (interest)
●​ dirigenza (management)
●​ mercato (market)
●​ incontro (meeting)
●​ soldi (money)
●​ offerta (offer)
●​ ufficio (office)
●​ organizzazione (organization)
●​ proprietario (owner)
●​ pagamento (payment)
●​ prezzi (prices)
●​ produzione (production)
●​ prodotti (produce, products)
●​ risorsa (resource)
●​ stipendio (salary)
●​ venditori (sellers)
●​ vendita (sale)
●​ servizio (service)
●​ personale (staff)
●​ tasse (tax, taxes)
●​ commercio (trade)
●​ valore (value)
●​ associazione (association)
●​ conferenza (conference)
●​ assegno (check - e.g., bank check)
●​ denaro (money, currency)
●​ finanziamenti (funding)
●​ impresa (enterprise)
●​ proposta (proposal)
●​ riunione (reunion, meeting)
●​ economia (economy)
●​ credito (credit)
●​ affittare (to rent - real estate)
●​ lavorare (to work)
●​ prelevare (to withdraw)
●​ versare (to deposit)

Italian "Imperfect Subjunctive" (Congiuntivo Imperfetto) Notes

This lesson explains the Italian imperfect subjunctive tense, focusing on its usage in
past-triggered subordinate clauses and hypothetical "if" statements.

I. What is the Imperfect Subjunctive?

 ●​ Function: Used in situations similar to the present subjunctive (expressing wishes,
hopes, emotions, doubts, orders, etc.), but specifically when the main verb of the
sentence is in a past tense.
●​ Timing: When the main verb is in the past, the imperfect subjunctive indicates an action
occurring:
○​ At the same time as the main verb's action.
○​ After the main verb's action.
●​ Examples:
○​ Volevo che **fosse** vero. (I wanted it to be true.) - volevo (imperfect)
triggers fosse (imperfect subjunctive) for a simultaneous or later action.
○​ Non credevamo che Anna **avesse** paura. (We didn’t believe that
Anna was afraid.) - credevamo (imperfect) triggers avesse (imperfect
subjunctive).
●​ Exception (Preceding Action): Occasionally, the imperfect subjunctive can follow a
present tense main verb to show an action occurring before the main verb.
○​ Non credo che ci **fosse**. (I don’t think he was there.) - credo
(present) triggers fosse (imperfect subjunctive) for a past action.

II. "If" Statements (Hypothetical Situations)

●​ Function: A major use of the imperfect subjunctive is in hypothetical "if" statements

(often called "contrary-to-fact" statements, as they describe situations different from
reality).
●​ Structure: Used after se (if) when referring to a hypothetical situation.
●​ Pairing: In these conditional sentences, the imperfect subjunctive is typically paired with
the conditional tense in the main clause.
●​ Examples:
○​ **Se fossi** miliardaria, comprerei un castello. (If I were a
billionaire, I would buy a castle.)
○​ **Se i cani parlassero**, cosa direbbero di noi? (If dogs talked,
what would they say about us?)
●​ Tip: English also uses a past tense for these hypothetical statements ("if I were," "if dogs
talked"), so remember to use the past subjunctive in Italian.

III. Regular Verb Conjugation Patterns

The imperfect subjunctive follows these patterns:

Subject -ARE (parlare) -ERE (vedere) -IRE (capire)

 (che) io -assi -essi -issi

(che) tu -assi -essi -issi

(che) lui,lei -asse -esse -isse

(che) noi -assimo -essimo -issimo

(che) voi -aste -este -iste

(che) loro -assero -essero -issero

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●​ Examples:
○​ PARLARE
■​ io parlassi
■​ tu parlassi
■​ lui, lei parlasse
■​ noi parlassimo
■​ voi parlaste
■​ loro parlassero
○​ VEDERE
■​ io vedessi
■​ tu vedessi
■​ lui, lei vedesse
■​ noi vedessimo
■​ voi vedeste
■​ loro vedessero
○​ CAPIRE (Note: -isc- verbs do not use -isc- in imperfect subjunctive)
■​ io capissi
■​ tu capissi
■​ lui, lei capisse
 ■​ noi capissimo
■​ voi capiste
■​ loro capissero

IV. Vocabulary (Examples of Imperfect Subjunctive Conjugations)

●​ facessi (I/you did, made)

●​ facesse (he/she/it did, made)
●​ avessi (I/you had)
●​ avesse (he/she/it had)
●​ venissi (I/you came)
●​ venisse (he/she/it came)
●​ volessi (I/you wanted)
●​ volesse (he/she/it wanted)
●​ volessimo (we wanted)
●​ fossimo (we were)
●​ potesse (he/she/it could)
●​ stessero (they stayed)
●​ desse (he/she/it gave)
●​ vedessi (I/you saw)
●​ vedesse (he/she/it saw)
●​ vedeste (you (all) saw)
●​ trovasse (he/she/it found)
●​ trovassimo (we found)
●​ dicessimo (we said)
●​ dicessero (they said)
●​ sapessero (they knew (something))
●​ andassi (I/you went)
●​ andasse (he/she/it went)
●​ parlassi (I/you talked)
●​ parlasse (he/she/it talked)
●​ portassimo (we brought)
●​ arrivasse (he/she/it arrived)
●​ prendessi (I/you took)
●​ mettessero (they put)
●​ chiedesse (he/she/it asked)
●​ diventassi (I/you became)
●​ tenesse (he/she/it kept)
●​ credesse (he/she/it believed)
●​ capissi (I/you understood)
●​ usasse (he/she/it used)
●​ chiamasse (he/she/it called)
 ●​ entrasse (he/she/it entered)
●​ parlaste (you (all) talked) - Note: Original text says "you (all) liked" which is likely a typo
and should be piaceste for piacere.
●​ ricordasse (he/she/it remembered)
●​ capiste (you (all) understood)
●​ vivesse (he/she/it lived)
●​ lavorasse (he/she/it worked)
●​ seguissero (they followed)
●​ guardasse (he/she/it watched)
●​ aprissi (I/you opened)
●​ aspettasse (he/she/it waited)
●​ morissi (I/you died)
●​ decidesse (he/she/it decided)
●​ leggessero (they read)
●​ scrivesse (he/she/it wrote)
●​ cambiasse (he/she/it changed)
●​ finissero (they finished)
●​ unisse (he/she/it joined/united)
●​ giocasse (he/she/it played)
●​ offrissi (I/you offered)
●​ succedesse (it happened)
●​ costruissero (they built)
●​ perdessimo (we lost)
●​ provassimo (we tried)

Italian "Past (Verbs)" - The Passato Remoto Notes

This lesson introduces the passato remoto (remote past), a tense used for single, completed
actions that happened a long time ago. It highlights its irregularities and common usage in
literature, contrasting it with the imperfetto and passato prossimo.

I. What is the Passato Remoto?

●​ Function: Indicates a single action that was completed a long time ago.
●​ Contrast with Imperfetto: Unlike the imperfetto (which describes continuous or
habitual actions in the past), the passato remoto focuses on a definite, non-repeated
event in the distant past.
●​ Irregularities: This tense has lots of irregularities, and some verbs even have multiple
correct conjugations.
●​ Usage in Spoken Language: Native speakers often find this tense difficult. In spoken
Italian, it's frequently replaced by the passato prossimo (e.g., ho mangiato, ho
bevuto) because the passato prossimo is easier and more regular.
 ○​ Regional Exception: Oddly, in southern Italy, the opposite can happen, with
passato remoto sometimes used for even recent events.

II. Why Learn the Passato Remoto?

1.​ Native Speaker Usage: Despite its difficulty, native speakers still use it, especially for
certain common verbs.
2.​ Literary Importance: It is without a doubt the most common tense in Italian
literature. Events in narratives often take place at an indefinite or distant point in the
past from the narrator's perspective.
3.​ Skill Advancement: Learning it will significantly elevate your Italian language skills.

III. Example Differentiating Past Tenses

This example clearly shows the distinction between the three main past tenses:

●​ Lui mi **diede** un consiglio. [passato remoto] = He gave me advice.

(Once, a long time ago.)
●​ Lui mi **ha dato** un consiglio. [passato prossimo] = He gave me
advice. (Once, maybe recently.)
●​ Lui mi **dava** consigli. [imperfetto] = He gave me advice, for a period of
time. / He used to give me advice.

IV. Regular Passato Remoto Conjugation Rules

●​ General Method: Drop the infinitive ending and add specific endings to the root.
1.​ -ARE Verbs:​

○​ Endings: -ai, -asti, -ò, -ammo, -aste, -arono

○​ Example: PARLARE (to speak)
■​ io parlai
■​ tu parlasti
■​ lui, lei parlò
■​ noi parlammo
■​ voi parlaste
■​ loro parlarono
2.​ -ERE Verbs:​

○​ Endings: -ei, -esti, -é, -emmo, -este, -erono

○​ Example: RICEVERE (to receive)
 ■​ io ricevei / ricevetti (Note: the lesson's table shows ricevetti for
io, ricevette for lui,lei, and ricevettero for loro indicating
common alternative forms for -ere verbs.)
■​ tu ricevesti
■​ lui, lei ricevé / ricevette
■​ noi ricevemmo
■​ voi riceveste
■​ loro riceverono / ricevettero
○​ Tip: Many regular -ere verbs have alternative forms for the 1st singular, 3rd
singular, and 3rd plural (as seen with ricevere).
3.​ -IRE Verbs:​

○​ Endings: -ii, -isti, -ì, -immo, -iste, -irono

○​ Example: PARTIRE (to depart)
■​ io partii
■​ tu partisti
■​ lui, lei partì
■​ noi partimmo
■​ voi partiste
■​ loro partirono

V. Irregular Passato Remoto Verbs

●​ Learning Tip: Native speakers learn these through exposure, especially reading.
Many irregular verbs share patterns.​

●​ Common Irregular Verbs with Full Conjugation Examples:​

○​ ESSERE (to be)​

■​ io fui
■​ tu fosti
■​ lui, lei fu
■​ noi fummo
■​ voi foste
■​ loro furono
○​
○​ AVERE (to have)​

■​ io ebbi
 ■​ tu avesti
■​ lui, lei ebbe
■​ noi avemmo
■​ voi aveste
■​ loro ebbero
○​ DIRE (to say)​

■​ io dissi
■​ tu dicesti
■​ lui, lei disse
■​ noi dicemmo
■​ voi diceste
■​ loro dissero
○​ FARE (to do/make)​

■​ io feci
■​ tu facesti
■​ lui, lei fece
■​ noi facemmo
■​ voi faceste
■​ loro fecero
○​ STARE (to be/stay)​

■​ io stetti
■​ tu stesti
■​ lui, lei stette
■​ noi stemmo
■​ voi steste
■​ loro stettero
○​ DARE (to give)​

■​ io diedi
■​ tu desti
■​ lui, lei diede
■​ noi demmo
■​ voi deste
■​ loro diedero
●​ Verbs with Partial Irregularities (some conjugations in RED in original text):​
 ○​ VIVERE (to live)​

■​ io vissi
■​ tu vivesti
■​ lui, lei visse
■​ noi vivemmo
■​ voi viveste
■​ loro vissero
○​ SCRIVERE (to write)​

■​ io scrissi
■​ tu scrivesti
■​ lui, lei scrisse
■​ noi scrivemmo
■​ voi scriveste
■​ loro scrissero
○​ TENERE (to hold/keep)​

■​ io tenni
■​ tu tenesti
■​ lui, lei tenne
■​ noi tenemmo
■​ voi teneste
■​ loro tennero

VI. Vocabulary (Examples of Passato Remoto Conjugations)

●​ fui (I was)
●​ fosti (you were)
●​ fu (he/she/it was)
●​ fummo (we were)
●​ foste (you (all) were)
●​ furono (they were)
●​ venni (I came)
●​ venisti (you came)
●​ venne (he/she/it came)
●​ venimmo (we came)
●​ veniste (you (all) came)
●​ vennero (they came)
●​ feci (I did, made)
●​ facesti (you did, made)
●​ fece (he/she/it did, made)
●​ facemmo (we did, made)
●​ faceste (you (all) did, made)
●​ fecero (they did, made)
●​ parlai (I talked)
●​ parlasti (you talked)
●​ parlò (he/she/it talked)
●​ parlammo (we talked)
●​ parlaste (you (all) talked)
●​ parlarono (they talked)
●​ ricevetti (I received)
●​ ricevesti (you received)
●​ ricevette (he/she/it received)
●​ ricevemmo (we received)
●​ receveste (you (all) received)
●​ ricevettero (they received)
●​ partii (I departed)
●​ partisti (you departed)
●​ partì (he/she/it departed)
●​ partimmo (we departed)
●​ partiste (you (all) departed)
●​ partirono (they departed)
●​ volli (I wanted)
●​ volesti (you wanted)
●​ volle (he/she/it wanted)
●​ volemmo (we wanted)
●​ voleste (you (all) wanted)
●​ vollero (they wanted)
●​ potei (I could)
●​ potemmo (we could)
●​ ebbi (I had)
●​ avesti (you had)
●​ ebbe (he/she/it had)
●​ avemmo (we had)
●​ aveste (you (all) had)
●​ ebbero (they had)
●​ andai (I went)
●​ andasti (you went)
●​ he went (this appears to be a typo for "andò" as the third person singular of andare)
●​ andammo (we went)
●​ andaste (you (all) went)
●​ andarono (they went)
●​ desti (you gave)
●​ trovai (I found)
●​ trovammo (we found)
●​ vidi (I saw)
●​ videro (they saw)
●​ dissi (I said)
●​ misi (I put)
●​ mettesti (you put)
●​ mise (he/she/it put)
●​ mettemmo (we put)
●​ metteste (you (all) put)
●​ misero (they put)
●​ presero (they took)
●​ arrivai (I arrived)
●​ pensarono (they thought)
●​ chiesi (I asked)
●​ chiedesti (you asked)
●​ chiese (he/she/it asked)
●​ chiedemmo (we asked)
●​ chiedeste (you (all) asked)
●​ chiesero (they asked)
●​ credemmo (we believed)
●​ credettero (they believed)
●​ capii (I understood)
●​ capimmo (we understood)
●​ diventò (he/she/it became)
●​ tenne (he/she/it kept)
●​ menemmo (we kept - likely typo for tenemmo)
●​ lasciai (I left)
●​ decidesti (you decided)
●​ decise (he/she/it decided)
●​ aspettai (I waited)
●​ morì (he/she/it died)
●​ morii (I died)
●​ guardai (I watched)
●​ aprii (I opened)
●​ aprì (he/she/it opened)
●​ seguì (he/she/it followed)
●​ offrii (I offered)
●​ cambiarono (they changed)
●​ giocammo (we played)
●​ finì (he/she/it finished)
●​ lessi (I read)
●​ leggesti (you read)
 ●​ scrivesti (you wrote)
●​ scrisse (he/she/it wrote)
●​ successe (it happened)
●​ costruì (he/she/it built)
●​ perdesti (you lost)
●​ perse (he/she/it lost)
●​ provò (he/she/it tried)

talian "Spiritual" Notes

This lesson discusses the significant role of religion, particularly Roman Catholicism, in Italian
culture and traditions, and introduces related vocabulary.

I. Religion in Italy

●​ Dominant Religion: Religion plays an extremely important role in Italian culture and
traditions. The majority of native Italians are Roman Catholic.
○​ Baptism Rate: Reportedly over 95% of native Italians are baptized Catholic.
○​ Church Attendance: Less than half of baptized Catholics regularly attend
church.
●​ The Pope and Vatican City: The Pope leads the independent city-state of Vatican City
(located within Rome). He is the head of the Catholic Church and the Bishop of Rome.
●​ Historical Influence: The Catholic Church has historically been very influential in Italian
government and public affairs.
●​ Religious Minorities: Besides Catholicism, Italy has several other religious minorities,
including:
○​ Greek Orthodox
○​ Protestants
○​ Jews
○​ Jehovah’s Witnesses
○​ Muslims
●​ Religious Festivals: Many religious festivals and celebrations occur throughout Italy,
mostly dedicated to the Madonna (Virgin Mary) or various Saints of the Roman Catholic
religion.
○​ Nearly every city and village has a patron saint, celebrated on a special day.

II. Vocabulary

●​ angelo (angel)
●​ fede (faith)
●​ fantasma (ghost)
●​ cattedrale (cathedral)
●​ sonno (sleep - also means "sleep" as a noun, not directly spiritual but listed here)
 ●​ chiesa (church)
●​ speranza (hope)
●​ religione (religion)
●​ meditazione (meditation)
●​ anima (soul)
●​ moschea (the mosque)
●​ preghiera (prayer)
●​ depressione (depression - likely included as a state of mind/feeling)
●​ realtà (reality)
●​ sogno (dream)
●​ coscienza (conscience)
●​ simbolo (symbol)
●​ celebrazione (celebration)
●​ memoria (memory)
●​ virtù (virtue)
●​ pazienza (patience)
●​ destino (destiny)
●​ spirito (spirit)
●​ santa (holy - feminine, also saint)
●​ mente (mind)
●​ trasformazione (transformation)
●​ esistenza (existence)

Italian "Politics" Notes

This lesson provides a concise overview of modern Italian political history, its current
governmental structure, and related vocabulary, along with tips on specific word usage.

I. Modern Italian Political History

●​ End of Monarchy: Italy was ruled by kings until after World War II.
○​ King Victor Emmanuel III had Benito Mussolini arrested and joined the Allied
opposition.
○​ He was forced to abdicate his throne in 1946.
○​ His son, Umberto II, briefly replaced him.
●​ Birth of the Republic: In 1946, Italy held a referendum where 12 million people voted
for a Republic (vs. 10 million for the monarchy).
○​ The new Italian Republic officially began on January 1st, 1948, with the
formation of its constitution.
●​ The Constitution:
○​ Consisted of 139 articles, divided into: Fundamental Principles, Rights and Duties
of the Citizens, and Organization of the Republic.
○​ Designed to be difficult to amend (only 13 amendments since its inception) to
prevent dictatorial power grabs.
II. Branches of Power in Italy Today

Italy operates with three distinct branches of government:

1.​ Executive Branch:​

○​ Composed of the Council of Ministers, presided over by the President of the

Council (known as the Prime Minister).
○​ Responsible for executing laws and other political decisions.
2.​ Legislative Branch:​

○​ Known as Parliament, it consists of two houses: the Chamber of Deputies and

the Senate.
○​ Responsible for making laws and amending the constitution.
○​ Also reviews and guides the government.
3.​ Judicial Branch:​

○​ Composed of judges who are responsible for implementing laws passed by

parliament.
○​ Judges are chosen based on exam results and internal commissions (they
are not elected).
○​ They serve for life.

III. Italian President

●​ Election: Italy's presidents are not elected by the people directly. They are elected by
parliament and regional representatives via a secret ballot.
●​ Term: They serve seven-year terms to ensure they are not re-elected by the same
parliament (both houses of parliament have five-year terms).

IV. Tips on Vocabulary

●​ Frontiera vs. Confine (Border):

○​ frontiera (border) can also translate to "frontier."
○​ confine is actually more commonly used for "border."
●​ Arma (Weapon):
○​ arma is a feminine noun.
○​ It has an irregular plural: armi (weapons) or le armi (the weapons).

V. Vocabulary

●​ l'accordo (agreement)
●​ la dittatura (dictatorship)
●​ la democrazia (democracy)
●​ il crimine (crime)
●​ la crisi (crisis)
●​ la dimostrazione (demonstration, protest)
●​ il congresso (congress)
●​ l'elezione (election)
●​ il giudice (judge)
●​ la libertà (liberty, freedom)
●​ il governo (government)
●​ la diplomazia (diplomacy)
●​ il governatore (governor)
●​ il presidente (president)
●​ l'amministrazione (administration)
●​ l'essenza (essence)
●​ il sindaco (mayor)
●​ il re (king)
●​ la pace (peace)
●​ la polizia (police)
●​ il partito (party - political)
●​ il parlamento (parliament)
●​ la legge (law)
●​ la regina (queen)
●​ il potere (power)
●​ il senatore (senator)
●​ i diritti (rights)
●​ la politica (politics)
●​ la strategia (strategy)
●​ la guerra (war)
●​ l'arma (weapon)
●​ la bandiera (flag)
●​ l'ambasciatore (ambassador)
●​ il sistema (system)
●​ i sindacati (unions)
●​ il candidato (candidate)
●​ l'esercito (army)
●​ la frontiera (border, frontier)
●​ la corona (crown)
●​ la battaglia (battle)
●​ il carcere (jail, prison)
●​ il tribunale (court)
●​ la rivoluzione (revolution)
●​ la giustizia (justice)
●​ la negoziazione (negotiation)
●​ la repubblica (republic)
 ●​ la presidenza (presidency)
●​ la resistenza (resistance)
●​ la petizione (petition)
●​ lo sciopero (strike)
●​ la patria (homeland)
●​ la corruzione (corruption)
●​ i democratici (democrats)
●​ i colonnelli (colonels)
●​ gli attacchi (attacks)
●​ democratico (democratic)
●​ votare (to vote)

Italian Auxiliary Verbs: AVERE or ESSERE?

This explanation is crucial for understanding how to form compound tenses (like the passato
prossimo, trapassato prossimo, etc.) in Italian. The choice of auxiliary verb (avere or
essere) depends on the type of main verb, and this choice also affects past participle
agreement.

I. Understanding Verb Types

To properly use auxiliary verbs, it's essential to differentiate between verb types:

1.​ Transitive Verbs:​

○​ Definition: Verbs that take a direct object. The action moves directly from the
subject to the object, without a preposition.
○​ Answers: "What?" or "Whom?"
○​ Example: Io **mangio la mela**. (I eat the apple.)
■​ mangio is the transitive verb.
■​ la mela is the direct object.
○​ Example: Il ragazzo **lancia la palla**. (The boy throws the ball.)
■​ ragazzo (subject) → lancia (transitive verb) → palla (direct object).
2.​ Intransitive Verbs:​

○​ Definition: Verbs that do not take a direct object. If an object is present, it's an
indirect object and is introduced by a preposition (a, di, da, in, per, etc.).
○​ Example: Giovanni **sta dormendo**. (Johnny is sleeping.) - No object.
○​ Example: Il treno **arriva in stazione**. (The train arrives at the
station.)
■​ treno (subject) → arriva (intransitive verb) → in (preposition) →
stazione (indirect object).
 3.​ Reflexive Verbs:​

○​ Definition: Verbs whose infinitive form has the reflexive pronoun si attached
(-si). The action is performed by the subject on him/herself.
○​ Example: lavare (to wash) vs. lavarsi (to wash oneself).
○​ Example: Julia **lava la macchina**. (Julie washes the car.) -
Transitive.
○​ Example: Julia **si lava**. (Julie washes herself.) - Reflexive.
○​ (See "Clitics 1" for more detail on reflexive verbs and pronouns.)

II. Why is This Important? (Rules for Auxiliary Verb Choice)

Knowing the difference between these verb types directly determines which auxiliary verb
(avere or essere) to use in compound past tenses.

●​ Rule 1: All Transitive Verbs use AVERE as the Auxiliary.​

○​ If a verb takes a direct object, its compound tenses (like passato prossimo,
trapassato prossimo, etc.) will always use avere.
○​ Example: Lui **ha mangiato** la mela ieri. (He ate the apple
yesterday.) - mela is a direct object, so ha (from avere) is used.
○​ Example: Giuseppe **ha guidato** la sua macchina a lavoro.
(Joseph drove his car to work.) - la macchina is a direct object, so ha
guidato.
○​ Example: Giuseppe **avrebbe guidato** la sua macchina a
lavoro. (Joseph would have driven his car to work.) - avrebbe (conditional of
avere) is used.
●​ Rule 2: All Reflexive Verbs use ESSERE as the Auxiliary.​

○​ Example: Ti **sei lavato** le mani? (Have you washed your hands?) -

lavarsi is reflexive, so sei (from essere) is used.
○​ Example: Oggi gli studenti **si sono addormentati** in
classe. (Today the students fell asleep in class.) - addormentarsi (to fall
asleep) is reflexive, so sono (from essere) is used.
●​ Rule 3: Intransitive Verbs can use AVERE or ESSERE as an Auxiliary.​

○​ This is the trickiest category. While many intransitive verbs take avere, a
significant group takes essere.
○​ Example (using essere):
 ■​ Il treno **è arrivato** in stazione. (The train arrived at the
station.) - arrivato is intransitive, so è (from essere).
■​ **Siamo partiti** per Milano in treno. (We left for Milan by
train.) - partiti is intransitive, so siamo (from essere).

III. Helpful Hints with ESSERE (for Intransitive Verbs)

●​ It's often simpler to memorize the list of intransitive verbs that take essere. Most
others take avere.​

●​ Common Intransitive Verbs that take ESSERE:​

○​ andare (to go)

○​ arrivare (to arrive)
○​ cadere (to fall)
○​ crescere (to grow)
○​ diventare (to become)
○​ entrare (to enter)
○​ essere (to be) - always uses itself as auxiliary
○​ morire (to die)
○​ nascere (to be born)
○​ partire (to depart)
○​ piacere (to like)
○​ rimanere (to remain, stay)
○​ salire (to climb)
○​ scendere (to descend)
○​ stare (to feel, stay)
○​ tornare (to return)
○​ uscire (to exit)
○​ venire (to come)
●​ Tip for ESSERE Verbs: They often involve a state of being or the movement of the
subject from one point to another. They are almost always followed by a preposition.​

IV. Agreement of the Past Participle

The past participle (e.g., -ato, -uto, -ito) behaves like a "verbal adjective" and its ending
changes based on certain rules:
 ●​ When the auxiliary verb is ESSERE: The past participle agrees in gender and number
with the subject of the verb.​

○​ Julia **è arrivata** da Venezia. (Julie has arrived from Venice.) -

arrivata (feminine singular) agrees with Julia (feminine singular).
○​ Kathy e sua sorella **sono arrivate** da Firenze. (Kathy and
her sister have arrived from Florence.) - arrivate (feminine plural) agrees with
Kathy e sua sorella (feminine plural).
●​ When the auxiliary verb is AVERE: The past participle generally remains in the
masculine singular form (-o), UNLESS there is a direct object pronoun that
PRECEDES the verb in the sentence. In that case, the past participle agrees in gender
and number with the direct object pronoun.​

○​ Quando hai visto Vincenzo? (When did you see Vincent?)

○​ **L’ho visto** ieri. (I saw him yesterday.) - visto (masculine singular)
agrees with lo (him).
○​ Quando hai visto Isobella? (When did you see Isobel?)
○​ **L’ho vista** lunedì. (I saw her on Monday.) - vista (feminine singular)
agrees with la (her).
○​ Quando hai visto Vincenzo e suo fratello? (When did you see
Vincent and his brother?)
○​ **Li ho visti** la settimana scorsa. (I saw them last week.) - visti
(masculine plural) agrees with li (them).

V. Exceptions for Intransitive Verbs using AVERE

●​ There are exceptions among intransitive verbs, particularly those of movement, that take
avere when referring to the activity itself (rather than movement to/from a specific
place).
○​ Camminare (to walk)
○​ Correre (to run)
○​ Nuotare (to swim)
○​ Examples:
■​ **Ho camminato** tutto il giorno. (I walked all day.)
■​ Loro **hanno corso** tre chilometri. (They ran three
kilometers.)
●​ Contextual Exception for correre: When correre means "to hurry" or "to rush"
(implying movement to a destination), it takes essere.
○​ Io **sono corsa** a casa. (I rushed home.)
Italian Idioms: AVERE and FARE

This lesson highlights common Italian idiomatic expressions that use the verbs avere (to have)
and fare (to do/make), often contrasting them with English phrases that use "to be" or other
verbs.

I. Idioms with AVERE (to have)

●​ General Rule: In many Italian idioms, English uses "to be" while Italian uses avere (to
have), literally translating as "to have" a certain state.​

●​ Examples with Literal Translations:​

○​ Ho fame! (I am hungry!)
■​ Literal: I have hunger!
○​ Ha paura del buio. (She is afraid of the dark.)
■​ Literal: She has fear of the dark.
○​ Hanno bisogno di aiuto. (They need help.)
■​ Literal: They have need of help.
●​ Other Common Idiomatic Expressions with avere:​

○​ avere sete (to be thirsty)

○​ avere sonno (to be sleepy)
○​ avere caldo (to be hot)
○​ avere freddo (to be cold)
○​ avere ragione (to be right)
○​ avere torto (to be wrong)
●​ Expressing Age with avere:​

○​ Quanti anni hai? (How old are you?)

■​ Literal: How many years do you have?
○​ Ho quarantuno anni. (I am 41.)
■​ Literal: I have 41 years.
○​ Quanti anni ha? (How old is he?)
■​ Literal: How many years does he have?
○​ Mio figlio ha sette anni. (My son is 7.)
■​ Literal: My son has 7 years.

II. Idioms with FARE (to do, make)

●​ The verb fare is also used in many idiomatic expressions and proverbs in Italian.​
 ●​ Examples with Literal Translations:​

○​ Faccio una passeggiata. (I take a walk.)

■​ Literal: I do a walk.
○​ Lei fa una domanda. (She asks a question.)
■​ Literal: She does a question.
●​ Additional Common Examples with fare:​

○​ fare le spese (to go shopping - general shopping)

○​ fare la spesa (to go grocery shopping)
○​ fare il bagno (to take a bath)
○​ fare la doccia (to take a shower)
○​ fare colazione (to have breakfast)
○​ fare un viaggio (to take a trip)
○​ fare una foto (to take a photograph)
●​ Weather Expressions with fare:​

○​ Che tempo fa? (How is the weather?)

■​ Literal: How the weather does?
○​ Fa cattivo tempo. (The weather is bad.)
■​ Literal: It does bad weather.
○​ Qui fa sempre freddo. (It’s always cold here.)
■​ Literal: Here it does always cold.

III. Tip for Learning Idioms

●​ There are no hard and fast rules to explain these idiomatic differences; they must be
learned.
●​ Key: Be sure to know the present indicative forms of both avere and fare.
●​ Method: Immersion and practice are the most effective ways to internalize these idioms.

Italian Adverbs of Place: Qui vs. Qua | Lì vs. Là

This lesson explores the nuances between Italian adverbs of place, which all translate to "here"
or "there" in English, focusing on their precise vs. approximate meanings and common usage.

I. The Four Adverbs of Place

Italian has four adverbs that correspond to English "here" and "there":

●​ qui (here)
●​ qua (here)
 ●​ lì (there)
●​ là (there)

II. Differences in Precision (According to Grammar Books)

●​ Qui and Lì (Precise Location): These are used to indicate a precise, exact location.​

○​ Example: Ho messo la tazza **qui** sul tavolo. (I put the cup here
on the table.) - Implies a specific spot on the table.
○​ Example: Ho messo le mie scarpe **lì** sul pavimento. (I put my
shoes there on the floor.) - Implies a specific spot on the floor.
●​ Qua and Là (Approximate Location): These are used to indicate a more approximate
or general area.​

○​ Example: Ho messo la tazza **qua** sul tavolo. (I put the cup here
on the table.) - Implies it could be anywhere on the table.
○​ Example: Ho messo le mie scarpe **là** sul pavimento. (I put my
shoes there on the floor.) - Implies they could be anywhere on the floor.

III. Usage in Spoken Italian

●​ Interchangeability: In spoken Italian, people often do not differentiate strictly between

qui/qua and lì/là. Using them imprecisely is usually not noticed.
●​ Adding Specificity: To make the location more specific or emphatic in spoken Italian,
additional descriptive words and phrases are sometimes used:
○​ Ho messo la tazza **proprio** [ qui / qua ]! (I put the cup right
here!)
○​ Ho messo le mie scarpe **proprio** [ lì / là ]! (I put my shoes
right there!)

IV. Common Italian Expressions

●​ With Qui and Qua ("Here"):​

○​ vieni [ qui / qua ] (come here)

○​ mettilo [ qui / qua ] (put it here)
○​ [ qua / qui ] dentro (in here)
○​ [ qua / qui ] sotto (under here)
●​ With Lì and Là ("There"):​

○​ mettilo [ là / lì ] (put it there)

○​ là dentro (in there)
 ○​ là fuori (out there)
○​ là sopra (up there)
○​ là sotto (under there)

Essential Italian Travel Phrases

Knowing some basic Italian phrases can significantly enhance your travel experience in Italy,
especially outside of major tourist hubs. While many locals in large cities might understand
some English, those in smaller towns often speak little to none. Trying to converse in Italian
shows respect and often encourages locals to assist you.

Beyond these phrases, it's also helpful to have a basic grasp of Italian numbers and telling time.

Key Travel Tips

●​ Tipping: Generally, Italians and Europeans don't tip in restaurants. Waiters are
well-paid and don't rely on tips to supplement their salaries.
●​ Public Restrooms: Many public restrooms in Italy require a small fee (around €0.50) to
enter, so keep small change handy.
●​ Interchangeable Terms: Some Italian terms have very similar meanings and are often
interchangeable:
○​ bagno, gabinetto (bathroom, restroom)
○​ auto, macchina (car, automobile)
○​ medico, dottore (medic, doctor)
○​ autobus, pullman (bus)

Phrase Categories

Greetings (Saluti)

●​ Ciao. – Hello/Goodbye. (informal)

●​ Salve. – Hello. (formal)
●​ Buongiorno. – Good morning.
●​ Buonasera. – Good evening.
●​ Come stai? – How are you? (informal)
●​ Come sta? – How are you? (formal)
●​ Come va? – How's it going?
●​ Bene, grazie. – Good, thank you.
●​ Arrivederci. – Goodbye. (formal)

General (Generale)

●​ Vorrei … – I would like …

 ●​ Mi piace … – I like …
●​ Non mi piace … – I don't like …
●​ Mi dispiace. – I'm sorry.
●​ Mi scusi. – Excuse me. (formal)
●​ Scusami. – Excuse me. (informal)
●​ Permesso. – Pardon. (to get by someone)
●​ Grazie. – Thank you.
●​ Prego. – You're welcome.
●​ Andiamo! – Let's go!

Introductions (Introduzioni)

●​ Come ti chiami? – What is your name? (informal)

●​ Come si chiama? – What is your name? (formal)
●​ Piacere di conoscerti. – Pleasure to meet you. (informal)
●​ Di dove sei? – Where are you from? (informal)
●​ Di dov'è Lei? – Where are you from? (formal)
●​ Mi chiamo … – My name is …
●​ Sono di … – I am from …

Communication (Comunicazione)

●​ Non parlo italiano. – I don't speak Italian.

●​ Parla inglese? – Do you speak English?
●​ Qualcuno parla inglese? – Is there someone here who speaks English?
●​ Non capisco. – I don't understand.
●​ Che cosa significa? – What does it mean?
●​ Parlo solo un po 'di italiano. – I only speak a bit of Italian.
●​ Parli più lentamente, per favore. – Speak more slowly, please.

Currency (Moneta)

●​ Dove posso trovare un bancomat? – Where can I find an ATM?

●​ Quant'è il cambio? – What is the exchange rate?
●​ Potete cambiare del denaro per me? – Can you change money for me?
●​ Dove posso cambiare del denaro? – Where can I get money changed?
●​ Accettate dollari Americani? – Do you accept American dollars?
●​ Accettate carte di credito? – Do you accept credit cards?

Automobile (Auto)

●​ Desidero noleggiare una macchina. – I want to rent a car.

●​ Posso avere l'assicurazione? – Can I get insurance?
●​ L'auto è senza benzina. – The car is out of gasoline.
●​ Dove posso ottenere la benzina? – Where can I get gasoline?
●​ Benzinaio. – Gas station.
 ●​ Stazione di servizio. – Service station.

Transportation (Mezzi di transporto)

●​ Taxi! – Taxi!
●​ Fermi qui, per favore! – Stop here, please!
●​ Quanto ti devo? – How much do I owe you?
●​ Quanto costa andare alla spiaggia? – How much does it cost to get to the beach?
●​ Per favore, mi porti in Via Condotti. – Please take me to Condotti Street.
●​ Quanto costa un biglietto per Venezia? – How much is a ticket to Venice?
●​ Un biglietto per Roma, per favore. – One ticket to Rome, please.
●​ Dove va quest'autobus? – Where does this bus go?
●​ Quando parte il treno? – When does the train leave?
●​ Dov'è la metropolitana? – Where is the subway?

Directions (Indicazioni)

●​ Come si arriva alla stazione ferroviaria? – How do I get to the railway station?
●​ Dov'è la stazione degli autobus? – Where is the bus station?
●​ Come si arriva al consolato Americano? – How do I get to the American consulate?
●​ Gira a sinistra. – Turn left.
●​ Gira a destra. – Turn right.
●​ Sempre diritto. – Keep going straight.
●​ Il supermercato è vicino o lontano? – Is the supermarket near or far?

Hotel (Albergo)

●​ Posso prima vedere la stanza? – May I see the room first?

●​ Resterò qui per tre notti. – I will stay for three nights.
●​ È inclusa colazione o pranzo? – Is breakfast or lunch included?
●​ A che ora è la cena? – What time is dinner?
●​ Pulite la mia camera, per favore. – Please clean my room.
●​ Potete svegliarmi alle sei del mattino? – Can you wake me up at 6:00am?
●​ Voglio andare via. – I want to check out.

Restaurant (Ristorante)

●​ Un tavolo per due, per favore. – A table for two people, please.
●​ Mi scusi, cameriere? – Excuse me, waiter?
●​ Posso vedere il menu, per favore? – Can I look at the menu, please?
●​ Un bicchiere di acqua per favore. – A glass of water, please.
●​ Vorrei un antipasto. – I would like an appetizer.
●​ Ho finito. – I'm finished.
●​ Il cibo era delizioso. – The food was delicious.
●​ Il conto, per favore. – The check, please.
●​ Dov'è il bagno? – Where is the restroom?
 ●​ Salute! – Cheers!

Store (Negozio)

●​ Quanto costa? – How much?

●​ È troppo caro. – It's too expensive.
●​ Non lo voglio. – I don't want it.
●​ Sto solo guardando. – I’m just looking.
●​ Non sono interessato. – I'm not interested.
●​ Va bene, lo prendo. – Okay, I'll take it.

Help (Aiuto)

●​ Ho bisogno del tuo aiuto. – I need your help.

●​ È un'emergenza. – It's an emergency.
●​ Mi sono perso. – I'm lost.
●​ Ho perso la mia borsa. – I lost my purse.
●​ Ho perso il mio portafoglio. – I lost my wallet.

Medical (Medico)

●​ Sono malato. – I'm sick.

●​ Mi sono ferito. – I've been injured.
●​ Ho bisogno di un medico. – I need a doctor.
●​ Posso usare il tuo telefono? – Can I use your phone?
●​ Come si arriva all'ospedale? – How do I get to the hospital?

Crime (Crimine)

●​ Aiuto! – Help!
●​ Fermi! Ladro! – Stop! Thief!
●​ Polizia! – Police!
●​ Non mi toccare! – Don't touch me!
●​ Lasciami in pace! – Leave me alone!
●​ Chiamo la polizia. – I'll call the police.

Legal (Legale)

●​ Non ho fatto nulla di male. – I haven't done anything wrong.

●​ È stato un malinteso. – It was a misunderstanding.
●​ Sono in arresto? – Am I under arrest?
●​ Sono cittadino americano. – I am an American citizen.
●​ Voglio parlare con un avvocato. – I want to speak with a lawyer.
●​ Posso pagare la multa adesso? – Can I just pay the fine now?

Travel (Viaggio)
 ●​ Puoi portarmi all'aeroporto? – Can you take me to the airport?
●​ Quando è la partenza? – When is departure?
●​ A che ora atterriamo? – What time do we land?
●​ Quanto dura il volo? – How long is the flight?
●​ Quanto dura la fermata? – How long is the stop over?

Italian "Animals 2" Notes

This lesson provides an expanded vocabulary list of animal names in Italian, including various
mammals, insects, amphibians, birds, fish, and rodents, along with a few associated terms. The
primary goal is memorization to broaden your animal vocabulary.

I. Vocabulary (Expanded Animal List)

●​ il volpe (fox)
●​ il coyote (coyote)
●​ il maiale (pig)
●​ lo scimpanzè (chimpanzee)
●​ il gorilla (gorilla)
●​ il giaguaro (jaguar)
●​ il ghepardo (cheetah)
●​ il leopardo (leopard)
●​ la puma (cougar, puma)
●​ l'ippopotamo (hippopotamus)
●​ il rinoceronte (rhinoceros)
●​ il bufalo (buffalo)
●​ la giraffa (giraffe)
●​ la pecora (sheep)
●​ la capra (goat)
●​ l'agnello (lamb)
●​ l'asino (donkey)
●​ il cammello (camel)
●​ la zebra (zebra)
●​ il cervo (deer)
●​ lo scoiattolo (squirrel)
●​ il castoro (beaver)
●​ il porcospino (porcupine)
●​ il tamia (chipmunk)
●​ il ratto (rat)
●​ il tasso (badger)
●​ il opossum (opossum)
●​ il procione (raccoon)
●​ la puzzola (skunk)
●​ il coniglio (rabbit)
●​ il pipistrello (bat)
 ●​ il nido (nest) - Associated term, not an animal itself.
●​ la coda (tail) - Associated term, not an animal itself.
●​ la zanzara (mosquito)
●​ la vespa (wasp)
●​ il bruco (caterpillar)
●​ il pulce (flea)
●​ il coleottero (beetle)
●​ la coccinella (ladybug)
●​ il baco (worm)
●​ la cavalletta (grasshopper)
●​ la rana (frog)
●​ l'alligatore (alligator)
●​ il coccodrillo (crocodile)
●​ la foca (seal)
●​ il tricheco (walrus)
●​ l'aragosta (lobster)
●​ il polpo (octopus)
●​ il piccione (pigeon)
●​ l'aquila (eagle)
●​ il gufo (owl)
●​ il falco (falcon, hawk)
●​ il pappagallo (parrot)
●​ il gallo (rooster)
●​ l'oca (goose)

Italian "Astronomy" Notes

This lesson defines astronomy and highlights Italy's historical contributions to the field, followed
by a vocabulary list of astronomical terms.

I. What is Astronomy?

●​ Definition: Astronomy is defined as the study of celestial bodies and phenomena

beyond Earth. This includes:
○​ The sun, moon, stars, planets, comets, galaxies.
○​ Other non-Earthly bodies and phenomena like black holes, supernovas, and
quasars.

II. Italian Contributions to Astronomy

Italy has a notable history of contributing to astronomy. Key historical figures who made
significant contributions to this science include:

●​ Galileo Galilei
●​ Giovanni Antonio Magini
 ●​ Giovanni Domenico Cassini

III. Vocabulary (Astronomical Terms)

●​ lo spazio (space)
●​ la sistema solare (solar system)
●​ la galassia (galaxy)
●​ l'universo (universe)
●​ la pianeta (planet)
●​ la stella (star)
●​ la luna (moon)
●​ il sole (Sun)
●​ Mercurio (Mercury)
●​ Venere (Venus)
●​ Terra (Earth)
●​ Marte (Mars)
●​ Giove (Jupiter)
●​ Saturno (Saturn)
●​ Urano (Uranus)
●​ Nettuno (Neptune)
●​ Plutone (Pluto)
●​ la Via Lattea (Milky Way)
●​ la nebulosa (nebula)
●​ l'asteroide (asteroid)
●​ la cometa (comet)
●​ l'orbita (orbit)
●​ la gravità (gravity)
●​ il buco nero (black hole)
●​ la meteora (meteor)
●​ la stella cadente (falling star, shooting star)
●​ la luna piena (full moon)
●​ la luna nuova (new moon)
●​ la mezza luna (half moon)
●​ la luna crescente (crescent moon)
●​ l'eclissi (eclipse)
●​ il mondo (world)
●​ l'atmosfera (atmosphere)
●​ l'astronomia (astronomy)
●​ la costellazione (constellation)
●​ il telescopio (telescope)
●​ l'osservatorio (observatory)
●​ l'extraterrestre (extraterrestrial)
Italian "Clothing 2" Notes

This lesson provides an expanded vocabulary list for various clothing items and accessories in
Italian. The primary goal is to learn and memorize these new terms.

I. Vocabulary

●​ la fibbia (buckle)
●​ la valigetta (briefcase)
●​ la borsetta (handbag)
●​ l'anello (ring)
●​ la fede (wedding ring)
●​ l'orecchino (earring)
●​ la collana (necklace)
●​ il rossetto (lipstick)
●​ il braccialetto (bracelet)
●​ la giacca a vento (windbreaker)
●​ la canottiera (undershirt)
●​ le mutande (underpants)
●​ i pantaloncini (shorts)
●​ il pigiama (pajamas)
●​ il reggiseno (bra)
●​ la biancheria (linen, underwear)
●​ le scarpe da tennis (tennis shoes)
●​ il bottone (button)
●​ la manica (sleeve)
●​ la felpa (sweatshirt)
●​ le infradito (flip flops)
●​ il costume da bagno (bathing suit)
●​ gli occhiali (glasses)
●​ gli occhiali da sole (sunglasses)
●​ la cravatta (tie)
●​ l'impermeabile (raincoat)

Italian Human Anatomy

While Duolingo's Medical lesson covers some basic human anatomy, this section provides a
more extended vocabulary list for various body parts.

I. Additional Anatomy Terms

Here are some terms not included in the provided diagram but are useful to know:

●​ il corpo (body)
●​ il cranio (skull)
 ●​ la mascella (jaw)
●​ l’addome (abdomen)
●​ l’inguine (groin)
●​ lo schiena (back)
●​ la pelle (skin)
●​ l’osso (bone)

II. Tips and Nuances

●​ Petto vs. Torace (Chest):

○​ The human chest is most often referred to as il petto.
○​ il torace (thorax) is also used, particularly in more anatomical or formal contexts.
●​ Stomaco vs. Pancia (Stomach):
○​ lo stomaco (stomach) is the anatomical organ.
○​ la pancia (belly, tummy) refers to the more general abdominal area.
●​ More Specific Anatomy Terms:
○​ il ciglio (eyelash)
○​ l’unghia (nail - fingernail/toenail)
○​ il labbro (lip)
○​ il dente (tooth)
○​ la lingua (tongue)
●​ Calcagno vs. Tallone (Heel):
○​ While often used as synonyms, they have slight differences.
○​ il calcagno specifically refers to the actual heel bone.
○​ il tallone refers to the broader region of the foot that includes the heel bone.
●​ Faccia vs. Viso (Face):
○​ la faccia and il viso are pure synonyms for "face," with subtle, negligible
differences in common usage.

III. Irregular Plurals for Body Parts

The plural forms of some body parts do not follow conventional rules and need to be
memorized:

●​ l’orecchio (ear) → le orecchie (ears)

●​ il braccio (arm) → le braccia (arms)
●​ il dito (finger) → le dita (fingers)
●​ il ginocchio (knee) → le ginocchia (knees)
●​ il labbro (lip) → le labbra (lips)

Vocabulary

●​ il corpo (body)
●​ la pelle (skin)
●​ l'osso (bone)
●​ la testa (head)
●​ i capelli (hair)
●​ l'orecchio (ear)
●​ l'occhio (eye)
●​ il viso, la faccia (face)
●​ il sopracciglio (eyebrow)
●​ la palpebra (eyelid)
●​ il collo (neck)
●​ la gola (throat)
●​ il naso (nose)
●​ la fronte (forehead)
●​ la guancia (cheek)
●​ il mento (chin)
●​ la bocca (mouth)
●​ il petto, il torace (chest)
●​ la costola (rib)
●​ l'anca (hip)
●​ la schiena (back)
●​ il polso (wrist)
●​ il braccio (arm)
●​ il gomito (elbow)
●​ la mano (hand)
●​ il dito (finger)
●​ lo stomaco (stomach)
●​ la pancia (tummy)
●​ il pollice (thumb)
●​ la spalla (shoulder)
●​ l'ascella (armpit)
●​ la gamba (leg)
●​ il ginocchio (knee)
●​ il polpaccio (calf)
●​ la caviglia (ankle)
●​ la coscia (thigh)
●​ il piede (foot)
●​ il dito del piede (toe)
●​ il tallone (heel)
●​ il labbro (lip)
●​ l'unghia (fingernail)
●​ il cranio (skull)
●​ lo stinco (shin)
●​ il mignolo (pinkie finger)
●​ l'anulare (ring finger)
 ●​ il medio (middle finger)
●​ l'indice (index finger)
●​ il ciglio (eyelash)
●​ la lingua (tongue)
●​ il dente (tooth)
●​ l'inguine (groin)
●​ la mascella (jaw)
●​ l'addome (abdomen)

Italian Human Anatomy 2 (Internal Organs)

This lesson builds upon the previous "Human Anatomy" topic by focusing specifically on the
Italian terms for organi interni (internal organs) of the human body.

I. Internal Organs Vocabulary

This section provides a list of common internal organs and related anatomical terms.

●​ gli organi interni (internal organs)

●​ l'ovaia (ovary)
●​ l'utero (uterus)
●​ il pene (penis)
●​ il testicolo (testicle)
●​ il retto (rectum)
●​ l'appendice (appendix)
●​ l'intestino crasso (large intestine)
●​ l'intestino tenue (small intestine)
●​ il rene (kidney)
●​ la vescica (bladder)
●​ l'uretra (urethra)
●​ l'esofago (esophagus)
●​ lo stomaco (stomach)
●​ la milza (spleen)
●​ il pancreas (pancreas)
●​ il cuore (heart)
●​ il fegato (liver)
●​ il diaframma (diaphragm)
●​ il polmone (lung)
●​ la trachea (trachea)
●​ il cervello (brain)

II. Additional Useful Terms

Here are some additional terms not explicitly in the diagram but provided as helpful:
 ●​ la cistifellea (gallbladder)
●​ la laringe (larynx)
●​ l'aorta (aorta)
●​ il colon (colon)
●​ l'ano (anus)
●​ l'arteria (artery)
●​ le vene (veins)
●​ la clavicola (collarbone)
●​ la spina dorsale (spine)
●​ il midollo spinale (spinal cord)
●​ le tonsille (tonsils)

III. Tips

●​ Spina dorsale vs. Colonna vertebrale (Spine):

○​ la spina dorsale is the term for "spine."
○​ la colonna vertebrale is another common reference, literally translating to "the
vertebral column."
●​ Clavicola (Collarbone):
○​ The Italian la clavicola directly translates to "the clavicle" in English.

TLDR:

I. Grammar Lessons (Organized by Topic)

1. Italian Spelling & Pronunciation * The Italian Alphabet: Uses 21 letters (no j, k, w, x, y
natively). * Vowels: Consistent pronunciation. * a: 'ah' as in "bah". * e: Open 'e' as in "bet", or
closed 'e' like short 'ay'. * i: 'ee' as in "beet". * o: Open 'o' as in "bought", or closed 'o' like short
'oa'. * u: 'ooh' as in "boot". * Note on 'i' and 'u' as semi-consonants: 'i' can sound like 'y' in "yes"
or "say"; 'u' can sound like 'w' in "way" or "cow". * Single Consonants: * c: Hard 'k' before a, o,
u; soft 'ch' before e, i. ch (before e, i) sounds like 'k'; ci (before a, o, u) sounds like 'ch' + vowel.
* g: Hard 'g' before a, o, u; soft 'j' before e, i. gh (before e, i) sounds like 'g'; gi (before a, o, u)
sounds like 'j' + vowel. * gli: Distinct 'ly' sound (as in "million"). * gn: 'ny' sound (as in "canyon").
* h: Silent. Used to distinguish verb forms. * r: Rolled 'r'. * s: Voiceless 's' (sip, spin) or voiced 'z'
(casa, sbaglio). * sc: 'sk' before a, o, u; 'sh' before e, i. sch (before e, i) sounds like 'sk'; sci
(before a, o, u) sounds like 'sh' + vowel. * z: Can be 'ts' or 'ds'. * Double Consonants: Held
longer and pronounced with more intensity (e.g., mamma, pizza). Crucial for meaning. *
Spelling Peculiarities & Capitalization: * Accent Marks: On final vowel if stressed (e.g.,
città), also to distinguish homographs (e vs. è). * Capitalization: Standard rules apply
(sentence start, proper nouns). * Not Capitalized: io (I), titles (dottore), months, days of
week, languages/nationalities (italiano). * Polite Forms: Lei (formal you) often capitalized.

2. Nouns & Cognates * Gender: All Italian nouns are masculine or feminine. * Article
Agreement: Articles must agree with noun gender. * General Categories (with Exceptions): *
-o ending: Usually masculine (e.g., il tavolo). Exceptions: la foto, la moto (abbreviated
feminines). * -a ending: Usually feminine (e.g., la sedia). Exceptions: il problema, il
clima, il panorama (Greek origin, masculine). * -e ending: Can be masculine or feminine
(memorization needed). * -ore, -one, -ale: Usually masculine. * -ione: Usually feminine
(especially abstract nouns). * -tore: Feminine often changes to -trice (attore →
attrice). * -ista, -cida: Same form for singular masculine/feminine, different in plural. *
Importance of Gender: Can change meaning (il capitale vs. la capitale). *
Cognates: Words similar in appearance/meaning/pronunciation (often from Latin). Useful for
vocabulary. * False Cognates (False Friends): Words that look similar but have different
meanings (e.g., estate = summer, parenti = relatives).

3. Determiners * Definition: Words that specify or clarify nouns (like articles, demonstratives,
quantifiers). * Agreement: Agree in gender and number with the noun. * Questo (this/these):
Four-form adjective (changes final letter). Can contract to quest’ before a vowel
(quest’amico). * Quello (that/those): Combines with the definite article of the noun it
precedes (e.g., quel divano, quell’amico, quegli squali). * Bello (beautiful):
Follows the same irregular patterns as quello (e.g., bel divano, bell’amico, begli
squali). * Qualsiasi vs. Qualunque (any): Synonyms. Qualsiasi can imply a choice
("whichever"), qualunque is more general.

4. Pronouns * Function: Replace nouns in a sentence. * Confusing Pronouns: * nessuno:

no one, nobody, anybody, none (context-dependent). * niente: no, nothing, anything
(context-dependent). * che: what, who, which (context-dependent). * qualcuno: someone,
somebody. * Ciò (that, it): Masculine singular only. Refers to a thing, verb, or phrase ("this
thing" or "that thing"). Can be subject or complement. * Ciò che = "that which" or commonly
"what".

5. Clitics 1 * Definition: Words or parts of words that depend on a neighboring word and
cannot stand alone (e.g., pronouns attached to verbs). * Direct Object Pronouns: Replace
direct objects ("what?" or "whom?"). No preposition after verb. * Singular: mi (me), ti (you), lo
(him/it), la (her/it). * Plural: ci (us), vi (you), li (them masc.), le (them fem.). * Rules: 1.
Immediately BEFORE a conjugated verb. 2. Attached to the END of an infinitive (dropping final
-e). 3. non comes BEFORE the pronoun in negative sentences. 4. Attach to ecco ("here I
am/you are"). 5. Some verbs take direct objects in Italian but prepositions in English (e.g.,
cercare = "look for"). 6. lo and la shorten to l’ before a vowel. * Tonic Pronouns (Stressed
Pronouns): Carry emphasis. Used after prepositions, for emphasis, in stand-alone responses,
or in comparisons. * Singular: me, te, lui, lei. * Plural: noi, voi, loro. * Indirect Object
Pronouns: Answer "to whom?" or "for whom?". * Singular: mi (to/for me), ti (to/for you), gli
(to/for him/it), le (to/for her/it). * Plural: ci (to/for us), vi (to/for you), loro (to/for them). *
Note: a is usually used before the indirect object noun. * loro is the only indirect object
pronoun that follows the verb and does not require a. * Rules: 1. PRECEDE the verb, except
loro (follows verb). 2. Attached to an infinitive (dropping final -e). 3. With modals (dovere,
potere, volere): can be attached to infinitive OR placed before conjugated modal. *
Reflexive Pronouns: Used with reflexive verbs (action on self). Infinitive ends in -si. *
Singular: mi, ti, si. * Plural: ci, vi, si. * Placement: Usually before the verb. * Passive
and Impersonal si: Used when the actor is unknown or irrelevant. * Form: si + 3rd person
verb (singular or plural). * Verb agrees with object if present; singular if no object. * Tip: For
reflexive verbs with impersonal si, add ci before si (Ci si alza presto). * Ci and Ne
(Replacing Prepositional Phrases): * Ci: Replaces phrases referring to a place (introduced by
a, in, su) or a + person/thing after credere/pensare. Also in idioms (ci vuole). * Ne:
Replaces di + object, or a noun introduced by a quantity expression. Used to avoid repetition
and cannot be omitted.

6. Adjectives 1 * Definition: Words that describe a noun. * Agreement: Agree in gender and
number with the noun they modify. * Placement: Most often FOLLOW the noun. * Common
Adjectives that Generally Precede the Noun: bello, bravo, brutto, buono, caro,
cattivo, giovane, grande, lungo, nuovo, piccolo, stesso, vecchio, vero. *
Exceptions to Pre-Noun Placement (must follow noun): 1. For emphasis or contrast. 2.
When modified by an adverb (molto piccolo). * Tip: Varieties of "Short": * alto (tall) vs.
basso (short): for height. * breve (short): for length of time. * lungo (long) vs. corto (short):
for physical length.

7. Adjectives 2 * Usage with Essere: Most adjectives are used with essere (to be). They
agree with the subject. * Tip: Vicino (Neighbor vs. Near): * Noun vicino/a = neighbor. *
Adjective vicino/a = near, close. * Tip: Second Class Adjectives (-e ending): * Take -e for
both masculine and feminine singular (e.g., legale). * Take -i for both masculine and feminine
plural (e.g., legali).

8. Adjectives 3 * Sottile vs. Magro (thin): * Magro: for people. * Sottile: for objects
(thickness). * Soffice vs. Morbido (soft): * Soffice: fluffy, airy. * Morbido: pliable, smooth,
pleasant on contact. Can be figurative. * Corretto vs. Giusto (correct): * Corretto: correct
(factual). * Giusto: correct, fair, right, just (more flexible, includes moral aspect). * Impegnato
vs. Occupato (busy): * Occupato: unavailable (phone line, person busy/not free). *
Impegnato: actively busy doing something, engaged, committed.

9. Adverbs 1 * Definition: Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Answer "how?", "when?",
"where?". * Formation with -mente: 1. Adjectives ending in -o: change to -a, then add
-mente (lenta + mente = lentamente). 2. Adjectives ending in -e: add -mente (breve +
mente = brevemente). 3. Adjectives ending in -le or -re: drop -e before adding -mente
(gentil + mente = gentilmente). * Anche vs. Pure (also, too, even): * Anche: more
common. * Pure: for emphasis. * Solo vs. Soltanto (only): * Interchangeable as adverbs. *
Solo can also be an adjective ("alone"). * Molto (very, much, a lot): * As ADVERB:
Invariable. After verb, before adjective/adverb. * As ADJECTIVE: Conforms to gender/number.
Before noun. * Tip: sopra (above) and sotto (under) also mean "upstairs" (di sopra) and
"downstairs" (di sotto).

10. Adverbs 2 * Ecco (here is/are, there is/are, look): Invariable. Used to point out directly.
Different from c'è/ci sono. * Ben vs. Bene (well): * Ben: Before verb/adjective (ben cotto -
well cooked). * Bene: After verb (sto bene - I'm well). * Interchangeable in phrases like Ben
fatto! vs. Fatto bene.. * Tips: * uguale (equal): adjective. * neanch’io: me neither. *
perciò: therefore (alternative to quindi).

11. Prepositions * Function: Link nouns, pronouns, phrases. Indicate location, time, direction,
etc. * Challenge: Don't always translate literally from English. * Main Prepositions: di, a, da,
in, con, su, per, tra, fra. * Tra and Fra (between, among, in - for time): Interchangeable,
but avoid same initial sounds. Also mean "in" for time (tra due ore). * Usage Differences: *
Vado **da** Roberto. (To Robert's place). * Penso **di** capire. (Think of
understanding). * La casa **di** Vincenzo. (Vince's house). * When to Use A: *
Geographical (cities): a Londra. * Destinations/directions: a Roma, a sinistra. * Telling
time: alle 19:00. * Before certain nouns: casa, scuola, letto, tavolo, piedi, teatro. *
When to Use IN: * Geographical (larger than cities): in America, in Italia. * Means of
transportation: in barca, in treno. * Before certain nouns: albergo, città, banca,
classe, biblioteca, farmacia, campagna, piscina, chiesa, ufficio. * Apostrophes:
di and da can become d’ before a vowel. * Combined with Definite Articles (Articulated
Prepositions): Many combine (e.g., su + il = sul). * di + article = del, dello, della,
dell', dei, degli, delle. * a + article = al, allo, alla, all', ai, agli, alle. * da +
article = dal, dallo, dalla, dall', dai, dagli, dalle. * in + article = nel, nello, nella,
nell', nei, negli, nelle. * su + article = sul, sullo, sulla, sull', sui, sugli, sulle.
* con: con il/con la is more common than col/colla. * Tip (Piacere with Prepositions):
Alla donna non piacciono le fragole. ("To the woman strawberries are not
pleasing.") Requires preposition a.

12. Definite Articles * English "the" has many forms in Italian. * Forms depend on gender,
number, and first letter of the noun. * Singular: * il: most masculine singular nouns. * l’:
masculine/feminine singular nouns starting with a vowel. * la: most feminine singular nouns. *
lo: masculine singular nouns starting with s + consonant or z (and gn, pn, ps, y). * Plural: *
gli: masculine plural nouns starting with vowels, s + consonant, z, y, gn, pn, ps. * i:
masculine plural nouns in all other cases. * le: all feminine plural nouns.
13. Indefinite Articles * Corresponds to English "a/an." Used with singular nouns. * Singular: *
un: most masculine singular nouns. * un’: for all words (masculine or feminine) beginning with
a vowel. * una: most feminine singular nouns. * uno: masculine singular nouns beginning with s
+ consonant or z (and gn, pn, ps, y).

14. Plurals * Nouns change endings based on gender. * Common Classes: * Singular -a
(fem.) → Plural -e (e.g., la ragazza → le ragazze). * Singular -o (masc.) → Plural -i
(e.g., il ragazzo → i ragazzi). * Singular -e (any gender) → Plural -i (e.g., il pesce
→ i pesci). * Singular -a (masc. of Greek origin) → Plural -i (e.g., il problema → i
problemi). * Exceptions: * Words ending with grave accent (e.g., la città) only change the
article. * Masculine -co → -chi (e.g., cuoco → cuochi). * Feminine -ca → -che (e.g.,
amica → amiche). * gatto (masc.) can be gatta (fem.) for female cats.

15. Personal Subject Pronouns * Singular (4): io (I), tu (you - informal), lui (he), lei (she).
* Plural (3): noi (we), voi (you - plural), loro (they). * Usage: Usually dropped (verb
conjugation determines person). Used for emphasis or clarity.

16. Formal You * Lei (capitalized) is the formal singular "you" (subject). Verb takes 3rd person
singular form. * Use for unknown older people, doctors, lawyers, bosses, police, professors. *
Not using it can be disrespectful.

17. Infinitive Verbs (General Concepts) * Basic verb form, one word (e.g., mangiare). *
Endings: -are, -ere, -ire. * Italian present tense = English simple present or present
continuous. * Can express future with adverbial future expression.

18. Infinitive (Verbs) 1 (Uses & Prepositions) * Uses: * Turn verb into noun (like English
gerund). * Negative or generic imperatives (Non toccare!). * In "infinitive propositions"
(shortened subordinate clauses, subject same as main or acting as object). * No clear rule for
preposition. * Verbs followed directly by infinitive (no preposition): * Modal verbs (potere,
dovere, volere, sapere). * Perception verbs (vedere, sentire). * Feeling verbs
(piacere, amare, odiare, preferire). * Causative verbs (fare, lasciare). * Verbs
needing di before infinitive (most common): Expression (dire), thought (pensare),
attempt (cercare). Exception: provare takes a. * Verbs needing a before infinitive:
Movement (andare), preparation (provare, prendere), hesitation (esitare). If main verb
has object, a cannot refer to same subject. * Other elements introducing infinitive: * di:
specification (aver bisogno di dormire). * da: passive meaning (bollette da
pagare). * a: conditional meaning (a sentire lui), or passive with adjectives (facile a
dirsi). * per: purpose (per viaggiare). * in: time/simultaneous action (nel tornare a
casa).
19. Infinitive (Verbs) 2 (Recap & Vocabulary) * Recap: Infinitive is basic, one word. Ends in
-are, -ere, or -ire.

20. Present (Verbs) 1 (Conjugations & Specific Verbs) * Conjugation: Take verb stem, add
specific endings for each subject. * Essere (to be): Irregular. sono, sei, è, siamo,
siete, sono. * -ARE (mangiare): mangio, mangi, mangia, mangiamo, mangiate,
mangiano. * -ERE (bere): bevo, bevi, beve, beviamo, bevete, bevono. *
Conoscere vs. Sapere ("to know"): * Sapere: to know HOW to do something (verb
following), to know a FACT/INFORMATION (che, dove, etc.). * Conoscere: to know or be
ACQUAINTED with someone/something (noun following). * Piacere ("to like/please"):
Irregular. Indirect object + verb + subject (mi piace la birra). Used mostly in 3rd person
singular (piace) or plural (piacciono). * Tips: * -urre infinitives (e.g., produrre). *
abitare (to live/dwell in a place) vs. vivere (to live generally, in a country/city). * leggere: 'g'
sound changes (soft before i, hard before o). * -care/-gare verbs: add h in tu and noi forms
to maintain hard 'c'/'g' sound (cerchi, paghi).

21. Present (Verbs) 2 (Modal Verbs & Mancare) * Mancare (to miss, to lack): Similar to
piacere (indirect object construction). Mi manca mia moglie. * Modal Verbs (Verbi
Servili): Precede an infinitive to indicate mode (necessity, possibility, wish, ability). Meanings
can change in different tenses. * POTERE (to be able to, can, may). * VOLERE (to want). Can
imply "decide" or "refuse" in past tenses. * DOVERE (to have to, must, should). * Tips: *
provare vs. tentare (to try): provare a vs. tentare di. * Italian prefix ri-: "re-" (repeat)
in English (ripagare - to repay).

22. Present (Verbs) 3 (Vocabulary focus) * Ringraziare (to thank): More formal than
grazie. Takes a direct object pronoun (Ti ringraziamo). * Verb-Noun Correlations: Many
verbs are related to nouns (e.g., allenare / allenatore).

23. Imperative (Verbs) (Commands) * Used for instructions/orders for tu, voi, Lei, noi. * TU
(Informal Singular): * Affirmative: -ARE verbs use 3rd person singular (Chiama!).
-ERE/-IRE use 2nd person singular (Leggi!). Pronouns at end (Chiamami!). * Negative:
Non + infinitive (Non chiamare!). Pronouns before OR at end (Non mi chiamare! / Non
chiamarmi!). * VOI (Plural) & NOI ("Let's..."): Use normal present tense form (Chiamate!,
Chiamiamo!). Pronoun rules same as tu. * LEI (Formal Singular): * Uses present
subjunctive (Chiami!, Legga!, Senta!, Capisca!). * Irregular io forms dictate stem (Fare
→ faccia!). * Pronouns always before the verb (Mi chiami!).

24. Past Imperfect (Verbs) (L'Imperfetto) * Function: Past tense for actions without a set
start/end point. Used for: 1. Descriptions/Background Information: General states,
appearance, age, weather. 2. Habitual Actions: Repeated actions in the past. 3. Actions in
Progress/Interrupted Actions: "Catching the middle" of an action. * No direct English
equivalent: Translate with "was/were -ing," "used to," "would." * Contrast with Passato
Prossimo: Imperfect for ongoing/background, passato prossimo for defined/completed
(beginning/end). * Construction (Regular): Remove -re from infinitive, add: -vo, -vi,
-va, -vamo, -vate, -vano. * Irregular: essere (ero, eri, era, eravamo, erate,
erano).

25. Past Perfect (Verbs) (Trapassato Prossimo) * Function: Action finished before
another action took place in the past. * Formation: Imperfect tense of avere or essere +
Past Participle. * Auxiliary/Participle Agreement: Follows same rules as passato prossimo
(and all perfect tenses). * Can also express actions completed some time ago. * Imperfect of
Auxiliaries: (avere: avevo, avevi, aveva, avevamo, avevate, avevano; essere:
ero, eri, era, eravamo, erate, erano).

26. Past (Verbs) (Passato Remoto) * Function: Single action completed a long time ago. *
Irregularities: Lots of them. * Usage: Often replaced by passato prossimo in spoken Italian
(except in Southern Italy). Most common tense in Italian literature. * Regular Endings: * -ARE:
-ai, -asti, -ò, -ammo, -aste, -arono. * -ERE: -ei/-etti, -esti, -é/-ette,
-emmo, -este, -erono/-ettero. (Many have alternatives for 1st/3rd singular, 3rd plural). *
-IRE: -ii, -isti, -ì, -immo, -iste, -irono. * Irregular Verbs: Many lose vowel
before last r or change root entirely (e.g., essere, avere, dire, fare, stare, dare,
vivere, scrivere, tenere).

27. Future (Verbs) (Futuro Semplice) * Function: Talk about something that will happen in
the future. Italian verb ending changes. * NO andare for Future Intention: Unlike English
"going to". * Regular Conjugation: * -ARE: Change -are to -er, add -ò, -ai, -à, -emo,
-ete, -anno. * -ERE, -IRE: Drop final -e, add same endings. * Tips: 1st & 3rd singular
endings have accent (-ò, -à). * Exceptions: * -care/-gare: add h to stem (pagherò). *
-ciare/-giare: drop i from stem (comincerò). * Irregular Verbs: Many lose vowel before
last r (e.g., avere → avr-). Some change root (essere → sar-). dare, fare, stare
maintain -ar- form. * Conjunctions with Future Tense: Used after appena, finché,
quando, se (even if English uses present). * Tip: Present tense can be used for future if time is
specified (Domani pulisce la cucina).

28. Future Perfect (Verbs) (Futuro Anteriore) * Function: Action that will have finished
by a future point or before another future action. * Formation: Future tense of avere/essere +
Past Participle. * Auxiliary/Participle Agreement: Same rules as passato prossimo. *
Unique Uses: 1. Conjectural Future: Expresses conjecture/probability about the past
("must have"). 2. Adverbial Clauses: Used after quando, etc., for future actions where English
uses present/present perfect.
29. Gerund (Verbs) (Gerundio) * Function: Verb in "-ing" form. * Formation: * -ARE: add
-ando to stem (parlando). * -ERE, -IRE: add -endo to stem (vendendo, dormendo). *
Present Continuous: stare (present tense) + Gerund (Sto camminando). * Tip (Potere
gerund): potendo (being able to). Rarely uses stare; often used independently (Non
potendo volare...).

30. Conditional (Verbs) * Function: Expresses actions dependent on conditions. English

"would," "could," "might," "should." Also for polite requests, advice, hypotheticals, doubt. *
Formation: Future tense root + endings: -erei, -eresti, -erebbe, -eremmo,
-ereste, -erebbero. * Irregular Volere: vorrei, vorresti, vorrebbe,
vorremmo, vorreste, vorrebbero. Used to politely ask "would like." * Tip: Can use
piacere in conditional (Mi piacerebbe), but less common for "would like."

31. Conditional Perfect (Verbs) (Condizionale Passato) * Function: Actions that would
have happened under certain conditions. * Formation: Present conditional of avere/essere +
Past Participle. * Auxiliary/Participle Agreement: Same rules as all perfect tenses. *
Conditional Present of Auxiliaries: (avere: avrei, avresti, avrebbe, avremmo,
avreste, avrebbero; essere: sarei, saresti, sarebbe, saremmo, sareste,
sarebbero).

32. Subjunctive Present (Congiuntivo Presente) * Function: Expresses doubt, emotion,

wishes, orders, opinions. Refers to feelings or uncertain situations. * Often introduced by che
(that). * Conjunctions that Always Trigger Subjunctive: nonostante, sebbene, malgrado,
benché (even though). * Regular Endings: * io, tu, lui/lei: -i (ARE), -a (ERE), -a or
-isca (IRE). * noi, voi: same as present indicative. * loro: -ino (ARE), -ano (ERE), -ano
or -iscano (IRE). * Irregular io forms dictate stem for formal imperative.

33. Subjunctive Perfect (Congiuntivo Passato) * Function: Expresses doubt, emotion,

wishes, opinions about past actions. * Formation: Present Subjunctive of essere/avere +
Past Participle. * Auxiliary/Participle Agreement: Same rules as other perfect tenses. *
Commonly follows che.

34. Imperfect Subjunctive (Congiuntivo Imperfetto) * Function: Similar to present

subjunctive, but triggered by a past tense main verb. Indicates actions occurring at the same
time or after main verb in the past. * Can follow present tense main verb for action occurring
before. * "If" Statements (Hypothetical): Used after se for hypothetical situations
(contrary-to-fact). Paired with conditional tense. * Regular Endings: * io, tu: -assi (ARE),
-essi (ERE), -issi (IRE). * lui, lei: -asse (ARE), -esse (ERE), -isse (IRE). * noi:
-assimo (ARE), -essimo (ERE), -issimo (IRE). * voi: -aste (ARE), -este (ERE), -iste
(IRE). * loro: -assero (ARE), -essero (ERE), -issero (IRE). * capire type verbs do not
use -isc- in imperfect subjunctive.
35. AVERE or ESSERE? (Auxiliary Verb Rules) * Crucial for Compound Tenses. *
Transitive Verbs: Take a direct object. ALWAYS use AVERE as auxiliary. Past participle usually
masculine singular, but agrees with preceding direct object pronoun (L'ho vista). *
Intransitive Verbs: Do not take a direct object (or take indirect object with preposition). Can use
AVERE or ESSERE. * ESSERE Intransitives: Primarily verbs of state of being or movement of
the subject (to/from a point). Memorize list: andare, arrivare, cadere, crescere,
diventare, entrare, essere, morire, nascere, partire, piacere,
rimanere, salire, scendere, stare, tornare, uscire, venire. Past participle
agrees with subject. * AVERE Intransitives (Exceptions): Some verbs of movement
(camminare, correre, nuotare) take avere when referring to the activity itself. correre
takes essere if meaning "to hurry/rush to a place." * Reflexive Verbs: Infinitive ends in -si.
ALWAYS use ESSERE as auxiliary. Past participle agrees with subject.

36. Idioms (Avere, Fare) * Expressions not literally translated. * AVERE (to have) idioms:
Often use "to have" where English uses "to be" (e.g., avere fame - to be hungry, avere
paura - to be afraid, avere bisogno - to need, avere sete, avere sonno, avere
caldo, avere freddo, avere ragione, avere torto). Also used for age (Ho
quarantuno anni). * FARE (to do/make) idioms: Many common uses (e.g., fare una
passeggiata - to take a walk, fare una domanda - to ask a question, fare le spese/la
spesa, fare il bagno/la doccia, fare colazione, fare un viaggio, fare una
foto). Also for weather (Che tempo fa?). * Tip: No hard rules, learn through immersion.

37. Qui vs Qua | Lì vs Là * Qui / Lì: Precise location ("here" / "there"). * Qua / Là:
Approximate or general area ("here" / "there"). * Spoken Italian: Often interchangeable, but
additional words like proprio can add precision. * Common expressions: vieni qui/qua,
mettilo qui/qua, qui/qua dentro, là fuori, là sopra.

II. Vocabulary Lessons (Alphabetical by Topic)

1. Abstract Objects 1 * caso (case) * volta (time - as in "this time") * punto (point) * problema
(issue) * società (society) * forza (strength) * piani (floors - also plans) * situazione (situation) *
programma (program) * risultati (results) * tipo (type) * territorio (territory) * struttura (structure) *
effetto (effect) * azione (action) * possibilità (possibility) * processi (processes) * zona (area) *
ragione (reason) * presenza (presence) * esperienze (experiences) * sicurezza (security) * fase
(phase) * aspetto (appearance) * occasione (occasion) * qualità (quality) * motivo (motive) *
obiettivo (target) * istituto (institute) * rischi (risks) * personaggi (characters) * autorità (authority)
* decisione (decision) * movimenti (movements) * necessità (need) * sezione (section) *
versione (version) * origine (source) * passo (step) * costruzione (building) * categoria (category)
* vittima (victim) * internet (internet) * capacità (capacity) * conseguenze (aftermath) * differenza
(difference) * maggioranza (majority) * danno (damage) * difficoltà (difficulty) * giudizio
(judgment) * epoca (era) * responsabilità (responsibility) * pratica (practice) * crescita (growth) *
tradizione (tradition) * fenomeno (phenomenon)

2. Abstract Objects 2 * vantaggio (advantage) * rappresentante (representative) * protezione

(protection) * maniera (fashion) * comportamento (behavior) * verità (truth) * nazione (nation) *
visione (vision) * pericolo (danger) * ritorno (return) * importanza (importance) * segno (sign) *
proprietà (property) * durata (duration) * cambio (change) * velocità (speed) * elenco (list) *
violenza (violence) * arrivo (arrival) * partenza (departure) * intenzione (intention) * quantità
(quantity) * opportunità (opportunity) * esecuzione (execution) * pressione (pressure) *
significato (significance) * interpretazione (interpretation) * riflessione (reflection) * divisione
(division) * perdita (loss) * linguaggio (language - ability/style) * segnale (signal) * nemico
(enemy) * silenzio (silence) * passione (passion) * bellezza (beauty) * parete (wall) * sforzo
(effort) * dettaglio (detail) * altezza (height) * onore (honor) * opzione (option) * sorpresa
(surprise) * segreto (secret) * influenza (influence) * ritmo (rhythm) * frequenza (frequency) *
radice (root) * infanzia (childhood) * collezione (collection) * appetito (appetite) * buio (darkness)
* Tip: mancare for "time left". * Tip: cambio vs. dare il cambio (take over for).

3. Abstract Objects 3 * ombra (shadow) * concorrenza (competition) * coda (line, tail) *

sensazione (feeling) * caduta (fall) * viso (face) * rumore (noise) * delitti (crimes - also crimini)
* timore (fear) * indipendenza (independence) * dignità (dignity) * ricchezza (wealth) * povertà
(poverty) * fallimento (failure) * successo (success) * liberazione (liberation) * abitudine (habit) *
odore (smell) * intelligenza (intelligence) * compromessi (compromises) * guaio (trouble) * sonno
(sleep - also dormita) * essenza (essence) * immaginazione (imagination) * grido (scream) *
eguaglianza (equality) * sviluppo (development) * ruolo (role) * causa (cause) * Tip: a causa =
because.

4. Animals * l'animale (animal) * il gatto (cat) * il cane (dog) * l'uccello (bird) * il cavallo (horse) *
la scimmia (monkey) * il topo (mouse) * il leone (lion) * la formica (ant) * l'orso (bear) * l'ape
(bee) * la farfalla (butterfly) * la mucca (cow) * il delfino (dolphin) * l'anatra (duck) * l'elefante
(elephant) * la mosca (fly) * l'insetto (insect) * lo squalo (shark) * il serpente (snake) * il ragno
(spider) * la tigre (tiger) * la tartaruga (turtle) * la balena (whale) * il lupo (wolf) * lo zoo (zoo) * il
toro (bull) * il pinguino (penguin)

5. Animals 2 * il volpe (fox) * il coyote (coyote) * il maiale (pig) * lo scimpanzè (chimpanzee) * il

gorilla (gorilla) * il giaguaro (jaguar) * il ghepardo (cheetah) * il leopardo (leopard) * la puma
(cougar) * l'ippopotamo (hippopotamus) * il rinoceronte (rhinoceros) * il bufalo (buffalo) * la
giraffa (giraffe) * la pecora (sheep) * la capra (goat) * l'agnello (lamb) * l'asino (donkey) * il
cammello (camel) * la zebra (zebra) * il cervo (deer) * lo scoiattolo (squirrel) * il castoro (beaver)
* il porcospino (porcupine) * il tamia (chipmunk) * il ratto (rat) * il tasso (badger) * il opossum
(opossum) * il procione (raccoon) * la puzzola (skunk) * il coniglio (rabbit) * il pipistrello (bat) * il
nido (nest) * la coda (tail) * la zanzara (mosquito) * la vespa (wasp) * il bruco (caterpillar) * il
pulce (flea) * il coleottero (beetle) * la coccinella (ladybug) * il baco (worm) * la cavalletta
(grasshopper) * la rana (frog) * l'alligatore (alligator) * il coccodrillo (crocodile) * la foca (seal) * il
tricheco (walrus) * l'aragosta (lobster) * il polpo (octopus) * il piccione (pigeon) * l'aquila (eagle) *
il gufo (owl) * il falco (falcon, hawk) * il pappagallo (parrot) * il gallo (rooster) * l'oca (goose)

6. Arts * attore (actor) * architettura (architecture) * artista (artist) * arte (art) * complesso
(group, band) * macchina fotografica (camera) * cinema (cinema) * circo (circus) * classica
(classical) * concerto (concert) * cultura (culture) * disegno (drawing) * tamburo (drum) *
esibizione (exhibition) * moda (fashion) * film (movie) * galleria (gallery) * chitarra (guitar) * fila
(row) * letteratura (literature) * musicista (musician) * musica (music) * fotografia (photography) *
pianoforte (piano) * immagine (picture) * scena (scene) * mostra (exhibit) * spettacolo (show) *
canzone (song) * studi (studies) * stile (style) * video (video) * danza (dance) * fama (fame) *
foto (photo) * palcoscenico (stage) * pittore (painter) * poesia (poetry) * poeta (poet) * romanzo
(novel) * fotografica (photographic) * ballare (to dance) * dipingere (to paint) * filmare (to film) *
fotografare (to photograph) * Tip: complesso = group/band. * Tip: musicista (masc/fem
sing), musicisti (masc plur), musiciste (fem plur).

7. Astronomy * lo spazio (space) * la sistema solare (solar system) * la galassia (galaxy) *

l'universo (universe) * la pianeta (planet) * la stella (star) * la luna (moon) * il sole (Sun) *
Mercurio (Mercury) * Venere (Venus) * Terra (Earth) * Marte (Mars) * Giove (Jupiter) * Saturno
(Saturn) * Urano (Uranus) * Nettuno (Neptune) * Plutone (Pluto) * la Via Lattea (Milky Way) * la
nebulosa (nebula) * l'asteroide (asteroid) * la cometa (comet) * l'orbita (orbit) * la gravità (gravity)
* il buco nero (black hole) * la meteora (meteor) * la stella cadente (falling star) * la luna piena
(full moon) * la luna nuova (new moon) * la mezza luna (half moon) * la luna crescente (crescent
moon) * l'eclissi (eclipse) * il mondo (world) * l'atmosfera (atmosphere) * l'astronomia
(astronomy) * la costellazione (constellation) * il telescopio (telescope) * l'osservatorio
(observatory) * l'extraterrestre (extraterrestrial)

8. Business * pubblicità (publicity) * appuntamento (appointment) * banca (bank) * bolletta (bill)

* consiglio (advice) * capo (boss) * imprenditore (entrepreneur) * ditta (company - firm) * carriera
(career) * contanti (cash) * moneta (coin) * collega (colleague) * compagnia (company -
companionship) * contratto (contract) * costo (cost) * cliente (customer) * sconti (discounts) *
documenti (documents) * dollari (dollars) * euro (euro) * fabbrica (factory) * finanza (finance) *
industria (industry) * assicurazione (insurance) * interesse (interest) * dirigenza (management) *
mercato (market) * incontro (meeting) * soldi (money) * offerta (offer) * ufficio (office) *
organizzazione (organization) * proprietario (owner) * pagamento (payment) * prezzi (prices) *
produzione (production) * prodotti (produce) * risorsa (resource) * stipendio (salary) * venditori
(sellers) * vendita (sale) * servizio (service) * personale (staff) * tasse (tax) * commercio (trade) *
valore (value) * associazione (association) * conferenza (conference) * assegno (check) *
denaro (coin) * finanziamenti (funding) * impresa (enterprise) * proposta (proposal) * riunione
(reunion) * economia (economy) * credito (credit) * affittare (to rent) * lavorare (to work) *
prelevare (to withdraw) * versare (to deposit) * Tip: affitto (rent), inquilino (tenant).

9. Clothing * l'abbigliamento (clothing) * i pantaloni (pants) * la camicia (dress shirt) * la

camicetta (blouse) * la scarpa (shoe) * il cappello (hat) * il vestito (dress) * la gonna (skirt) * la
borsa (purse, bag) * la cintura (belt) * lo stivale (boot) * il cappotto (coat) * il costume (costume)
* il guanto (glove) * la giacca (jacket) * la gioielleria (jewelry) * il cuoio (leather) * la tasca
(pocket) * il sandalo (sandal) * il calzino (sock) * la maglia (jersey) * la maglietta (t-shirt) * la
calza (stocking) * l'abito (suit) * il maglione (sweater) * l'ombrello (umbrella) * la divisa (uniform)
* il portafoglio (wallet) * l'orologio (watch, clock) * la lana (wool) * la sciarpa (scarf) * comprare
(to buy) * Tip: calza = stocking, calzino = sock.

10. Clothing 2 * la fibbia (buckle) * la valigetta (briefcase) * la borsetta (handbag) * l'anello

(ring) * la fede (wedding ring) * l'orecchino (earring) * la collana (necklace) * il rossetto (lipstick) *
il braccialetto (bracelet) * la giacca a vento (windbreaker) * la canottiera (undershirt) * le
mutande (underpants) * i pantaloncini (shorts) * il pigiama (pajamas) * il reggiseno (bra) * la
biancheria (linen, underwear) * le scarpe da tennis (tennis shoes) * il bottone (button) * la
manica (sleeve) * la felpa (sweatshirt) * le infradito (flip flops) * il costume da bagno (bathing
suit) * gli occhiali (glasses) * gli occhiali da sole (sunglasses) * la cravatta (tie) * l'impermeabile
(raincoat)

11. Colors * nero (black) * azzurro (azure blue) * marrone (brown) * colorati (colored) * colore
(color) * grigio (grey) * verde (green) * arancione (orange) * rosa (pink) * viola (purple) * rosso
(red) * bianco (white) * giallo (yellow) * blu (blue) * colori (colors) * celeste (light blue) * Tip:
Azzurro is national color of Italy.

12. Communications * indirizzo (address) * articolo (article) * chiamata (calling) * canale

(channel) * codice (code) * commento (comment) * conversazione (conversation) * discussione
(discussion) * informazione (information - countable) * intervista (interview) * affare (deal) *
giornalista (journalist) * lettera (letter) * rivista (magazine) * posta (mail) * messaggio (message)
* notizie (news - countable) * note (notes) * opinione (opinion) * radio (radio) * soggetto (subject)
* la televisione (television - service) * il televisore (television - appliance) * argomento (topic) *
traduzione (translation) * comunicazione (communication) * dialoghi (dialogues) * lettore
(reader) * stampa (print, printing, press) * discorso (speech) * cartolina (postcard) * invitare (to
invite) * inviare (to send) * telefonare (to phone) * stampare (to print) * Tip: stampa has multiple
meanings.

13. Conjunctions * e (and) * perché (because) * ma (but) * se (if) * né (nor, neither) * o (or) *
oppure (or else) * che (that) * finché (as long as) * mentre (while) * bensì (but, rather) * sia
(both) * Tip: e vs ed (before vowel).

14. Directions * inizio (beginning) * distanza (distance) * fine (end) * ingresso (entrance) *
uscita (exit) * direzione (direction) * posizione (location) * sinistra (left) * destra (right) * mezzo
(half) * davanti (front) * avanti (forward) * dietro (behind) * dentro (inside) * accanto (beside) *
attraverso (through) * lato (side) * interiore (interior) * fondo (background) * fermata (stop) * cima
(top, peak) * parte (part) * giù (down) * vicino (close) * lontano (far) * fronte (front) * nord (north)
* est (east) * sud (south) * ovest (west) * cominciare (to begin) * iniziare (to start) * Tip:
cominciare vs iniziare are synonyms.
15. Education * il libro (book) * l'insegnante (teacher) * il professore (professor) * lo studente
(student) * gli alunni (pupils) * il principiante (beginner) * la classe (class) * la scuola (school) *
l'università (university) * il liceo (high school) * l'educazione (education) * la capitale (capital) *
l'aula (classroom) * il concetto (concept) * il corso (course) * la laurea (graduation) * il
dipartimento (department) * la descrizione (description) * il dizionario (dictionary) * la diploma
(diploma) * la tesi (thesis) * gli esempi (examples) * l'esame (exam) * l'esercizio (exercise) * la
spiegazione (explanation) * i voti (grades) * i compiti (homework) * l'istituzione (institution) *
l'istruzioni (instructions) * la lingua (language) * la lezione (lesson) * la biblioteca (library) *
l'errore (error) * la pagina (page) * la carta (paper) * i paragrafi (paragraphs) * la matita (pencil) *
la penna (pen) * il progetto (project) * le pagelle (report cards) * il semestre (semester) * la frase
(sentence) * la prova (test) * il testo (text) * il titolo (title) * la parola (word) * le regole (rules) * il
livello (level) * la storia (history) * studiare (to study)

16. Family * la famiglia (family) * la madre (mother) * il padre (father) * il fratello (brother) * la
sorella (sister) * il genitore (parent) * il figlio (son) * la figlia (daughter) * il marito (husband) * la
moglie (wife) * lo zio (uncle) * la zia (aunt) * il cugino (cousin) * il nipote (nephew, niece,
grandchild) * il nonno (grandfather) * la nonna (grandmother) * il bisnonno (great grandfather) *
la bisnonna (great grandmother) * il nome (name) * il cognome (surname) * il papà (dad) * la
mamma (mom) * il suocero (father-in-law) * la suocera (mother-in-law) * il genero (son-in-law) *
la nuora (daughter-in-law) * Tip: nonnino/a for grandparents.

17. Feelings * bacio (kiss) * emozioni (emotions) * sentimenti (feelings) * pensiero (thought) *
sogni (dreams) * rispetto (respect) * arrabbiata (angry) * imbarazzata (embarrassed) * paura
(fear) * odio (hatred) * tranquillo (quiet) * pazienza (patience) * felice (happy) * felicità
(happiness) * sorriso (smile) * contenta (happy) * allegria (cheerfulness) * gioia (joy) * risata
(laugh) * divertimento (fun) * fortuna (fortune) * piacere (pleasure) * triste (sad) * seria (serious) *
sorpresi (surprised) * stanco (weary) * desiderio (desire) * lacrime (tears) * soddisfazione
(satisfaction) * bisogno (need) * senso (sense) * nervosa (nervous) * amicizia (friendship) *
bugia (lie) * colpa (guilt) * coraggio (courage) * aiuto (help) * sperare (to hope) * amore (to love)
* sognare (to dream) * preoccupare (to worry) * spaventare (to scare) * odiare (to hate) *
confondere (to confuse)

18. Food 2 * la fragola (strawberry) * la marmellata (jelly) * la limonata (lemonade) * il limone

(lemon) * l'arancia (orange) * la bistecca (steak) * il tè (tea) * la griglia (grill) * il ghiaccio (ice) *
l'ingrediente (ingredient) * il succo (juice) * la cucina (kitchen) * il coltello (knife) * il pasto (meal)
* la carne (meat) * il menu (menu) * l'olio (oil) * la cipolla (onion) * la pasta (pasta) * il pepe
(pepper) * il maiale (pork) * la patata (potato) * la ricetta (recipe) * il ristorante (restaurant) * il
riso (rice) * l'insalata (salad) * il sale (salt) * il panino (sandwich) * la salsiccia (sausage) * la
zuppa (soup) * il pranzo (lunch) * la cena (dinner) * la colazione (breakfast) * il cucchiaio
(spoon) * il pomodoro (tomato) * il tacchino (turkey) * la verdura (vegetable) * il cameriere
(waiter) * il vegetariano (vegetarian) * il vino (wine) * il fungo (mushroom) * dolce (sweet) * acido
(sour) * gusto (taste) * fame (hunger) * sete (thirst) * pranzare (to have lunch) * cenare (to have
dinner)
19. General Phrases * ciao (hello, goodbye) * arrivederci (goodbye) * sì (yes) * no (no) * non
(not) * buongiorno (good morning) * buonasera (good evening) * buonanotte (good night) *
grazie (thank you) * prego (you're welcome) * per favore (please) * spiacente (sorry) * Tip:
pronto = ready, also "hello" on phone.

20. Household * l'appartamento (apartment) * il balcone (balcony) * il bagno (bathroom) * la

vasca da bagno (bathtub) * il letto (bed) * la coperta (blanket) * il tappeto (carpet) * la sedia
(chair) * limpido (clear) * la sofà (sofa) * la tenda (curtain) * la scrivania (desk) * la porta (door) *
il pavimento (floor) * il frigorifero (refrigerator) * i mobili (furniture) * il cancello (gate) *
riscaldamento (heating) * la casa (house) * la chiave (key) * la lampada (lamp) * la lampadina
(light bulb) * la luce (light) * lo specchio (mirror) * il telefono (telephone) * il cuscino (pillow) * il
tetto (roof) * il soffitto (ceiling) * la stanza (room) * lo sciampo (shampoo) * la doccia (shower) * il
sapone (soap) * il divano (couch) * la scala (stairs) * il tavolo (table) * l'asciugamano (towel) * il
giocattolo (toy) * il muro (wall) * la finestra (window) * il cortile (courtyard) * la cucina (kitchen) *
l'entrata (entrance) * il forno (oven) * la seggiola (chair - older) * il dentifricio (toothpaste) * il
lenzuolo (bedsheet) * il rasoio (razor) * lo spazzolino (toothbrush) * il lavello (sink) * il rubinetto
(faucet) * la poltrona (armchair) * il salotto (living room) * la sala da pranzo (dining room) * il
soggiorno (family room) * Tip: shampoo used often.

21. Human Anatomy * il corpo (body) * la pelle (skin) * l'osso (bone) * la testa (head) * i capelli
(hair) * l'orecchio (ear) * l'occhio (eye) * il viso, la faccia (face) * il sopracciglio (eyebrow) * la
palpebra (eyelid) * il collo (neck) * la gola (throat) * il naso (nose) * la fronte (forehead) * la
guancia (cheek) * il mento (chin) * la bocca (mouth) * il petto, il torace (chest) * la costola (rib) *
l'anca (hip) * la schiena (back) * il polso (wrist) * il braccio (arm) * il gomito (elbow) * la mano
(hand) * il dito (finger) * lo stomaco (stomach) * la pancia (tummy) * il pollice (thumb) * la spalla
(shoulder) * l'ascella (armpit) * la gamba (leg) * il ginocchio (knee) * il polpaccio (calf) * la
caviglia (ankle) * la coscia (thigh) * il piede (foot) * il dito del piede (toe) * il tallone (heel) * il
labbro (lip) * l'unghia (fingernail) * il cranio (skull) * lo stinco (shin) * il mignolo (pinkie finger) *
l'anulare (ring finger) * il medio (middle finger) * l'indice (index finger) * il ciglio (eyelash) * la
lingua (tongue) * il dente (tooth) * l'inguine (groin) * la mascella (jaw) * l'addome (abdomen) *
Tip: No possessive for body parts if owner is clear.

22. Human Anatomy 2 * gli organi interni (internal organs) * l'ovaia (ovary) * l'utero (uterus) * il
pene (penis) * il testicolo (testicle) * il retto (rectum) * l'appendice (appendix) * l'intestino crasso
(large intestine) * l'intestino tenue (small intestine) * il rene (kidney) * la vescica (bladder) *
l'uretra (urethra) * l'esofago (esophagus) * lo stomaco (stomach) * la milza (spleen) * il pancreas
(pancreas) * il cuore (heart) * il fegato (liver) * il diaframma (diaphragm) * il polmone (lung) * la
trachea (trachea) * il cervello (brain) * la cistifellea (gallbladder) * la laringe (larynx) * l'aorta
(aorta) * il colon (colon) * l'ano (anus) * l'arteria (artery) * le vene (veins) * la clavicola
(collarbone) * la spina dorsale (spine) * il midollo spinale (spinal cord) * le tonsille (tonsils) * Tip:
colonna vertebrale also for spine.

23. Ingredients * il caffè (coffee) * il latte (milk) * la crema (cream) * il cioccolato (chocolate) * il
biscotto (cookie) * la tazza (cup) * il gelato (ice cream) * il cibo (food) * la frutta (fruit) * la banana
(banana) * la caramella (candy) * la carota (carrot) * il piatto (plate) * il fagiolo (bean) * il manzo
(beef) * la birra (beer) * la bottiglia (bottle) * la ciotola (bowl) * la colazione (breakfast) * il burro
(butter) * la torta (cake) * il formaggio (cheese) * il pollo (chicken) * il cuoco (cook) * la cena
(dinner) * la bevanda (beverage) * il pranzo (lunch) * l'uovo (egg) * la pancetta (bacon) * il pesce
(fish) * la forchetta (fork) * il fritto (fried) * l'aglio (garlic) * il bicchiere (glass) * l'uva (grapes) *
bollire (to boil) * cucinare (to cook) * tagliare (to cut) * Tip: avere cibo = owning food, not
eating.

24. Medical * incidente (accident) * ambulanza (ambulance) * caviglia (ankle) * braccio (arm) *
schiena (back) * nascita (birth) * sangue (blood) * dito (finger) * corpo (body) * dita (fingers) *
cervello (brain) * cure (care) * petto (chest) * clinica (clinic) * dentista (dentist) * orecchio (ear) *
occhi (eyes) * faccia (face) * piedi (feet) * capelli (hair) * mano (hand) * testa (head) * sano
(healthy) * salute (health) * cuore (heart) * ospedale (hospital) * malattia (disease) * ginocchio
(knee) * gambe (legs) * medicina (medicine) * bocca (mouth) * muscoli (muscles) * unghie
(nails) * collo (neck) * naso (nose) * infermiera (nurse) * organo (organ) * dolore (pain) *
paziente (patient) * farmacia (pharmacy) * spalla (shoulder) * malata (sick) * pelle (skin) *
stomaco (stomach) * gola (throat) * denti (teeth) * trattamento (treatment) * virus (virus) * voce
(voice) * benessere (welfare) * diagnosi (diagnosis) * intervento (intervention) * labbra (lips) *
medico (doctor) * osso (bone) * dieta (diet) * emergenza (emergency) * male (bad) * mal (ache)
* febbre (fever) * Tip: Pharmacies are stand-alone shops.

25. Measurements * grande (large) * enorme (enormous) * misura (measure) * piccolo (small) *
pochino (a little) * centimetro (centimeter) * grammo (gram) * chilogrammo (kilogram) *
chilometro (kilometer) * litro (liter) * metro (meter) * miglio (mile) * quarto (quarter) * coppia
(couple) * totale (total) * niente (nothing) * doppio (double) * paio (pair) * po' (bit) * Tip: Italian
uses comma for decimals.

26. Nature * aria (air) * atmosfera (atmosphere) * spiaggia (beach) * clima (climate) * nuvola
(cloud) * terra (earth) * ambiente (environment) * fuoco (fire) * fiore (flower) * nebbia (fog) *
foresta (forest) * giardino (garden) * erba (grass) * lago (lake) * paesaggio (landscape) * luna
(moon) * montagna (mountain) * natura (nature) * oceano (ocean) * pianeta (planet) * pianta
(plant) * pioggia (rain) * fiume (river) * roccia (rock) * mare (sea) * argento (silver) * cielo (sky) *
neve (snow) * spazio (space) * stella (star) * pietra (stone) * temporale (thunderstorm) * sole
(sun) * albero (tree) * cascata (waterfall) * vento (wind) * bosco (woods) * mondo (world) * alba
(dawn) * campagna (countryside) * fumo (smoke) * legno (wood) * sabbia (sand) * stagione
(season) * vulcano (volcano) * caldo (hot) * agricoltura (agriculture) * terreno (ground) *
nuvoloso (cloudy) * ventosa (windy) * soleggiato (sunny) * vivo (alive) * nevicare (to snow) *
piovere (to rain)

27. Numbers * numero (number) * uno (one) * prima (first) * due (two) * secondo (second) * tre
(three) * terzo (third) * quattro (four) * quarto (fourth) * cinque (five) * quinta (fifth) * sei (six) *
sesto (sixth) * sette (seven) * settimo (seventh) * otto (eight) * ottavo (eighth) * nove (nine) *
nono (ninth) * dieci (ten) * decima (tenth) * undici (eleven) * dodici (twelve) * tredici (thirteen) *
quattordici (fourteen) * quindici (fifteen) * sedici (sixteen) * diciassette (seventeen) * diciotto
(eighteen) * diciannove (nineteen) * venti (twenty) * trenta (thirty) * trent' (thirty - preceding
vowels) * quaranta (forty) * quarant' (forty - preceding vowels) * cinquanta (fifty) * sessanta
(sixty) * sessant' (sixty - preceding vowels) * settanta (seventy) * settant' (seventy - preceding
vowels) * ottanta (eighty) * novanta (ninety) * cento (one hundred) * mille (one thousand) * un
milione (one million) * un miliardo (one billion) * ultimo (last) * zero (zero) * alcuno (some) *
doppio (double) * molto (many) * pochi (few) * sufficiente (sufficient) * tanto (much) * abbastanza
(enough) * meno (less) * metà (half) * più (more) * più grande (bigger) * Tip: uno/otto drop
vowel in compounds. tre gets accent. cento invariable plural. mille to mila. milione to
milioni. Italian uses . for thousands.

28. Objects * la scatola (box) * la spazzola (brush) * il pettine (comb) * il computer (computer) *
il diario (diary) * il motore (engine) * la busta (envelope) * il ventilatore (fan) * la forma (shape) *
gli occhiali (glasses) * la tastiera (keyboard) * la patente (license) * il pezzo (piece) * il regalo
(present) * lo schermo (screen) * il foglio (sheet of paper) * la cosa (thing) * la ruota (wheel) * il
flauto (flute) * l'oggetto (object) * il violino (violin) * lo strumento (instrument) * l'automobile
(automobile) * la macchina (car) * la benzina (gasoline) * la nave (ship) * l'alcol (alcohol) * la
batteria (battery) * la barca (boat) * Tip: auto/macchina for car. camion/autocarro for truck.
ruota (wheel) vs pneumatico/gomma (tire).

29. Occupations * architetto (architect) * pagliaccio (clown) * conduttore (conductor) *

ingegnere (engineer) * lavoro (work) * avvocato (lawyer) * scrittrice (writer - fem.) * direttore
(director) * meccanico (mechanic) * dottoressa (doctor - fem.) * idraulico (plumber) * poliziotto
(policeman) * postino (mailman) * segretaria (secretary) * operaio (worker) * capitano (captain) *
ricercatore (researcher) * scrittore (writer - masc.) * insegnante (teacher) * dottore (doctor -
masc.)

30. People * adulto (adult) * età (age) * bambino (baby, child) * fidanzato (fiance) * folla (crowd)
* amico (friend) * gruppo (group) * ospite (guest) * umano (human) * vicino (neighbor) * gente
(people, race) * persona (person) * adolescente (teenager) * matrimonio (marriage) * carattere
(character) * cittadino (citizen) * generazione (generation) * individuo (individual) * personalità
(personality) * popolazione (population) * popolo (people, populace) * sposa (bride) * rapporto
(relationship) * compagno (companion) * signora (lady) * giovane (young) * simpatico (nice) *
Tip: fidanzato can be fiancé/boyfriend. bambino can be baby/child. rapporto =
relationship/report.

31. Places * l'albergo (hotel) * la pasticceria (bakery) * il bar (bar) * la libreria (bookshop) * il
ponte (bridge) * l'edificio (building) * il castello (castle) * il centro (center) * la città (city) * l'angolo
(corner) * la fattoria (farm) * il campo (field) * la sala (lounge) * la collina (hill) * il museo
(museum) * il parco (park) * il posto (place) * la prigione (prison) * la regione (region) * la piazza
(square) * lo stadio (stadium) * la stazione (station) * la strada (street) * il supermercato
(supermarket) * il teatro (theater) * il paese (country) * il villaggio (village) * la comunità
(community) * il palazzo (palace) * il porto (port) * la provincia (province) * il quartiere (district) *
il negozio (store) * il ferroviario (railway) * Tip: ferroviario is adjective. traversa = side
street.
32. Politics * l'accordo (agreement) * la dittatura (dictatorship) * la democrazia (democracy) * il
crimine (crime) * la crisi (crisis) * la dimostrazione (demonstration) * il congresso (congress) *
l'elezione (election) * il giudice (judge) * la libertà (liberty) * il governo (government) * la
diplomazia (diplomacy) * il governatore (governor) * il presidente (president) * l'amministrazione
(administration) * l'essenza (essence) * il sindaco (mayor) * il re (king) * la pace (peace) * la
polizia (police) * il partito (party) * il parlamento (parliament) * la legge (law) * la regina (queen) *
il potere (power) * il senatore (senator) * i diritti (rights) * la politica (politics) * la strategia
(strategy) * la guerra (war) * l'arma (weapon) * la bandiera (flag) * l'ambasciatore (ambassador)
* il sistema (system) * i sindicati (unions) * il candidato (candidate) * l'esercito (army) * la
frontiera (border) * la corona (crown) * la battaglia (battle) * il carcere (jail) * il tribunale (court) *
la rivoluzione (revolution) * la giustizia (justice) * la negoziazione (negotiation) * la repubblica
(republic) * la presidenza (presidency) * la resistenza (resistance) * la petizione (petition) * lo
sciopero (strike) * la patria (homeland) * la corruzione (corruption) * i democratici (democrats) * i
colonnelli (colonels) * gli attacchi (attacks) * democratico (democratic) * votare (to vote) * Tip:
confine more common for border. arma irregular plural.

33. Questions * risposta (answer) * come (how, like) * domanda (question) * cosa (what) *
quando (when) * dove (where) * quale (which) * chi (who) * perché (why, because) * quanto
(how much)

34. Science * biologia (biology) * definizione (definition) * scoperta (discovery) * energia

(energy) * esperto (expert) * formula (formula) * gas (gas) * idea (idea) * invenzione (invention) *
conoscenza (knowledge) * matematica (mathematics) * metodo (method) * filosofia (philosophy)
* fisica (physics) * plastica (plastic) * psicologia (psychology) * scienza (science) * scienziato
(scientist) * tecnologia (technology) * temperatura (temperature) * teoria (theory) * geografia
(geography) * chimica (chemistry) * elemento (element) * evoluzione (evolution) * gravità
(gravity) * laboratorio (workshop) * meccanismi (mechanisms) * tecnico (technical) * universo
(universe) * elettricità (electricity) * metallo (metal) * modo (way) * tecnici (technicians) *
collegamento (connection) * ricercare (to research) * significare (to mean)

35. Sports * attività (activity) * atleta (athlete) * atleti (athletes) * pubblico (audience) * palla
(ball) * pallacanestro (basketball) * bicicletta (bicycle) * bici (bike) * allenatore (coach) * allenatori
(coaches) * gara (race) * partita (match) * rete (net) * reti (nets) * palestra (gym) * giocatore
(player) * giocatori (players) * piscina (pool) * premio (prize) * premi (prizes) * calcio (soccer) *
sport (sport) * squadra (team) * tennis (tennis) * passeggiata (walk) * campionato
(championship) * gioco (game) * giochi (games) * gol (goal) * pista (track) * spettatore
(spectator) * torneo (tournament) * campione (champion) * campioni (champions) * mondiale
(worldwide) * nuotare (to swim) * vincere (to win) * saltare (to jump) * segnare (to score) * Tip:
Foreign words (like sport) keep singular form in plural. gol is invariable plural.

36. Spiritual * angelo (angel) * fede (faith) * fantasma (ghost) * cattedrale (cathedral) * sonno
(sleep) * chiesa (church) * speranza (hope) * religione (religion) * meditazione (meditation) *
anima (soul) * moschea (the mosque) * preghiera (prayer) * depressione (depression) * realtà
(reality) * sogno (dream) * coscienza (conscience) * simbolo (symbol) * celebrazione
(celebration) * memoria (memory) * virtù (virtue) * pazienza (patience) * destino (destiny) *
spirito (spirit) * santa (holy) * mente (mind) * trasformazione (transformation) * esistenza
(existence)

37. Time * oggi (today) * domani (tomorrow) * ieri (yesterday) * gennaio (January) * febbraio
(February) * marzo (March) * aprile (April) * maggio (May) * giugno (June) * luglio (July) * agosto
(August) * settembre (September) * ottobre (October) * novembre (November) * dicembre
(December) * lunedì (Monday) * martedì (Tuesday) * mercoledì (Wednesday) * giovedì
(Thursday) * venerdì (Friday) * sabato (Saturday) * domenica (Sunday) * primavera (spring) *
estate (summer) * autunno (fall) * inverno (winter) * mattina (morning) * pomeriggio (afternoon) *
sera (evening) * stasera (this evening) * notte (night) * stanotte (tonight) * mezzanotte (midnight)
* minuti (minutes) * secondi (seconds) * ora (hour) * giorno (day) * settimana (week) * mese
(month) * anno (year) * data (date) * decennio (decade) * secolo (century) * periodo (period) *
compleanno (birthday) * festa (party) * calendario (calendar) * presto (soon) * tardi (late) *
ritardo (delay) * settimanalmente (weekly) * fa (ago) * tempo (time) * stamattina (this morning) *
in punto (on the dot) * esatte (exactly) * Tip: Days/Months/Seasons never capitalized. Day
before month for dates. primo for 1st of month. fa for ago. scorso for last.

38. Travel * Africa (Africa) * America (America) * americano (American) * Asia (Asia) * brasiliano
(Brazilian) * Brasile (Brazil) * argentini (Argentines) * Cina (China) * cinese (Chinese) *
Inghilterra (England) * inglese (English) * Europa (Europe) * europeo (European) * Francia
(France) * francese (French) * Germania (Germany) * tedesco (German) * italiano (Italian) *
Italia (Italy) * portoghese (Portuguese) * Spagna (Spain) * spagnolo (Spanish) * l'avventura
(adventure) * l'aeroplano (airplane) * l'aeroporto (airport) * la barca (boat) * l'autobus (bus) *
campeggio (camping) * il continente (continent) * il volo (flight) * guida (driving) * l'isola (island) *
la motocicletta (motorcycle) * il passeggero (passenger) * il passaporto (passport) * il pilota
(pilot) * l'aereo (plane) * la vista (view) * la valigia (suitcase) * il biglietto (ticket) * turismo
(tourism) * il turista (tourist) * traffico (traffic) * il treno (train) * viaggio (trip) * la vacanza (holiday)
* visita (visit) * destinazione (destination) * il luogo (place) * i luoghi (places) * la mappa (map) *
straniero (foreign) * trasporti (transport) * estero (abroad) * il pullman (coach bus) * il conto (bill,
check) * la prenotazione (reservation) * la moneta (currency) * Tip: straniero can be noun
"foreigner."

39. Travel Phrases (Full List of Phrases) * Greetings: Ciao, Salve, Buongiorno, Buonasera,
Come stai?, Come sta?, Come va?, Bene, grazie, Arrivederci. * General: Vorrei ..., Mi piace ...,
Non mi piace ..., Mi dispiace., Mi scusi., Scusami., Permesso., Grazie., Prego., Andiamo! *
Introductions: Come ti chiami?, Come si chiama?, Piacere di conoscerti., Di dove sei?, Di
dov'è Lei?, Mi chiamo ..., Sono di ... * Communication: Non parlo italiano., Parla inglese?,
Qualcuno parla inglese?, Non capisco., Che cosa significa?, Parlo solo un po 'di italiano., Parli
più lentamente, per favore. * Currency: Dove posso trovare un bancomat?, Quant'è il cambio?,
Potete cambiare del denaro per me?, Dove posso cambiare del denaro?, Accettate dollari
Americani?, Accettate carte di credito? * Automobile: Desidero noleggiare una macchina.,
Posso avere l'assicurazione?, L'auto è senza benzina., Dove posso ottenere la benzina?,
Benzinaio., Stazione di servizio. * Transportation: Taxi!, Fermi qui, per favore!, Quanto ti
devo?, Quanto costa andare alla spiaggia?, Per favore, mi porti in Via Condotti., Quanto costa
un biglietto per Venezia?, Un biglietto per Roma, per favore., Dove va quest'autobus?, Quando
parte il treno?, Dov'è la metropolitana? * Directions: Come si arriva alla stazione ferroviaria?,
Dov'è la stazione degli autobus?, Come si arriva al consolato Americano?, Gira a sinistra., Gira
a destra., Sempre diritto., Il supermercato è vicino o lontano? * Hotel: Posso prima vedere la
stanza?, Resterò qui per tre notti., È inclusa colazione o pranzo?, A che ora è la cena?, Pulite la
mia camera, per favore., Potete svegliarmi alle sei del mattino?, Voglio andare via. *
Restaurant: Un tavolo per due, per favore., Mi scusi, cameriere?, Posso vedere il menu, per
favore?, Un bicchiere di acqua per favore., Vorrei un antipasto., Ho finito., Il cibo era delizioso.,
Il conto, per favore., Dov'è il bagno?, Salute! * Store: Quanto costa?, È troppo caro., Non lo
voglio., Sto solo guardando., Non sono interessato., Va bene, lo prendo. * Help: Ho bisogno del
tuo aiuto., È un'emergenza., Mi sono perso., Ho perso la mia borsa., Ho perso il mio portafoglio.
* Medical: Sono malato., Mi sono ferito., Ho bisogno di un medico., Posso usare il tuo
telefono?, Come si arriva all'ospedale? * Crime: Aiuto!, Fermi! Ladro!, Polizia!, Non mi toccare!,
Lasciami in pace!, Chiamo la polizia. * Legal: Non ho fatto nulla di male., È stato un malinteso.,
Sono in arresto?, Sono cittadino americano., Voglio parlare con un avvocato., Posso pagare la
multa adesso? * Travel (Phrases): Puoi portarmi all'aeroporto?, Quando è la partenza?, A che
ora atterriamo?, Quanto dura il volo?, Quanto dura la fermata? * Tip: No tipping in restaurants.
Public restrooms require small fee.