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Life Processes - CBSE 10th Biology Notes

Chapter 5 discusses life processes essential for the maintenance of living organisms, including nutrition, respiration, circulation, and excretion. It details modes of nutrition such as autotrophic and heterotrophic, explaining processes like photosynthesis in plants and digestion in humans. The chapter also covers respiration types and mechanisms for gas exchange in various organisms.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
7 views35 pages

Life Processes - CBSE 10th Biology Notes

Chapter 5 discusses life processes essential for the maintenance of living organisms, including nutrition, respiration, circulation, and excretion. It details modes of nutrition such as autotrophic and heterotrophic, explaining processes like photosynthesis in plants and digestion in humans. The chapter also covers respiration types and mechanisms for gas exchange in various organisms.

Uploaded by

Ninu
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Chapter – 5

Life Processes

The maintenance of living organisms is essential even if they are


moving, resting or even sleeping.
• The processes which together perform the function of maintenance
of 'life' are called as life processes.
• Nutrition, respiration, circulation, and excretion are examples of
essential life processes.
• In unicellular organisms, all these processes are carried out by a
single cell.
• In multicellular organisms, well-developed systems are present to
carry out the processes.

Nutrition in Plants and Animals


 Nutrition: The process by which an organism takes food and
utilizes it, is called nutrition.
 Need for Nutrition: Organisms need the energy to perform
various activities. The energy is supplied by the nutrients.
Organisms need various raw materials for growth and repair.
These raw materials are provided by nutrients.
 Nutrients: Materials which provide nutrition to organisms are
called nutrients. Carbohydrates, proteins and fats are the main
nutrients and are called macronutrients. Minerals and vitamins
are required in small amounts and hence are called
micronutrients.
 Modes of Nutrition
1. Autotrophic Nutrition.
2. Heterotrophic Nutrition.
Autotrophic Nutrition – Life Processes
The mode of nutrition in which an organism prepares its own food is
called autotrophic nutrition. Green plants and blue-green algae
follow the autotrophic mode of nutrition.
 The organisms which carry out autotrophic nutrition are called
autotrophs (green plants).

 Autotrophic nutrition is fulfilled by the process, by which


autotrophs intake CO2 and H2O, and convert these into
carbohydrates in the presence of chlorophyll, sunlight is called
photosynthesis.

Nutrition in Plants: Green plants prepare their own food. They make
food in the presence of sunlight. Sunlight provides energy’, carbon
dioxide and water are the raw materials and chloroplast is the site
where food is made.
What is Photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis: The process by which green plants prepare food is
called photosynthesis.
 During this process, the solar energy is converted into chemical
energy and carbohydrates are formed.
 Green leaves are the main site of photosynthesis.
 The green portion of the plant contains a pigment chloroplast,
chlorophyll (green pigment).
 The whole process of photosynthesis can be shown by the
following equation:

Raw Materials for Photosynthesis:


 Sunlight
 Chlorophyll: Sunlight absorbed by chloroplast
 CO2: Enters through stomata, and oxygen (O2) is released as a
byproduct through stomata on the leaf.
 Water: Water + dissolved minerals like nitrogen, phosphorous
etc., are taken up by the roots from the soil.
How do raw materials for photosynthesis become available to the
plant?
 Water comes from the soil, through the xylem tissue in roots
and stems.
 Carbon dioxide comes in the leaves through stomata.

Site of Photosynthesis: Chloroplast in the leaf. Chloroplast contains


chlorophyll (green pigment)

Main Events of Photosynthesis:


 Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
 Conversion of light energy into chemical energy + splitting
(breaking) of water into hydrogen and oxygen.
 Reduction of CO2 to carbohydrates.
 Sunlight activates chlorophyll, which leads to splitting of the
water molecule.
 The hydrogen, released by the splitting of a water molecule is
utilized for the reduction of carbon dioxide to produce
carbohydrates.
 Oxygen is the by-product of photosynthesis.
 Carbohydrate is subsequently converted into starch and is
stored in leaves and other storage parts.
 The splitting of water molecules is a part of the light reaction.
Other steps are part of the dark reaction during photosynthesis.

Stomata – Life Processes


 Stomata: These are tiny pores present in the epidermis of leaf
or stem through which gaseous exchange and transpiration
occur.
Functions of stomata
 Exchange of gases, O2 and CO2.
 Loses a large amount of water (water vapour) during
transpiration.

Opening and closing of stomatal pores:


 The opening and closing of stomatal pores are controlled by the
turgidity of guard cells.
 When guard cells uptake water from surrounding cells, they
swell to become a turgid body, which enlarges the pore in
between (Stomatal Opening).
 While, when water is released, they shrink to close the pore
(Stomatal Closing).

Significance of Photosynthesis:
 Photosynthesis is the main way through which solar energy is
made available for different living beings.
 Green plants are the main producers of food in the ecosystem.
All other organisms directly or indirectly depend on green
plants for food.
 The process of photosynthesis also helps in maintaining the
balance of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the air.
Heterotrophic Nutrition – Life Processes
The mode of nutrition in which an organism takes food from another
organism is called heterotrophic nutrition. Organisms, other than
green plants and blue-green algae follow the heterotrophic mode of
nutrition. Heterotrophic nutrition can be further divided into three
types, viz. saprophytic nutrition, holozoic nutrition, and parasitic.
 Saprophytic Nutrition: In saprophytic nutrition, the organism
breakdown the food material outside the body and then absorb
it. For e.g.: Mushrooms, bread moulds, yeast.
 Holozoic Nutrition: In holozoic nutrition, the digestion happens
inside the body of the organism. i.e., after the food is taken in
and breakdown happens inside their bodies. Most of the
animals follow this mode of nutrition.
 Parasitic Nutrition: The organism which lives inside or outside
another organism (host) and derives nutrition from it is known
as parasites and this type of mode of nutrition is called parasitic
nutrition. For example lice, leeches, tapeworms etc.
Nutrition in Amoeba
 Amoeba is a unicellular animal which follows the holozoic mode
of nutrition.
 In holozoic nutrition, the digestion of food follows after the
ingestion of food. Thus, digestion takes place inside the body of
the organism.
 Holozoic nutrition happens in five steps, viz. ingestion,
digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.


 Amoeba is a unicellular animal which follows the holozoic mode
of nutrition.
 The cell membrane of amoeba keeps on protruding into
pseudopodia.
 Amoeba surrounds a food particle with pseudopodia and makes
a food vacuole.
 The food vacuole contains food particle and water. Digestive
enzymes are secreted in the food vacuole and digestion takes
place.
 After that, digested food is absorbed from the food vacuole.
 Finally, the food vacuole moves near the cell membrane and
undigested food is expelled out.
Nutrition in Paramoecium
 The cell has a definite shape and food is taken in at a specific
spot.
 Food is moved to this spot by the movement of cilia, which
cover the entire surface of the cell.

Nutrition in Human Beings – Life Processes


Human beings are complex animals, which have a complex digestive
system. The human digestive system is composed of an alimentary
canal and some accessory glands. The alimentary canal is divided into
several parts, like oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
intestine, rectum and anus. Salivary gland, liver and pancreas are the
accessory glands which lie outside the alimentary canal.
Structure of the Human Digestive System:
The human digestive system comprises of the alimentary canal and
associated digestive glands.
 Alimentary Canal: It comprises of mouth, oesophagus, stomach,
small intestine and large intestine.
 Associated Glands: Main associated glands are
 Salivary gland
 Gastric Glands
 Liver
 Pancreas

Mouth or Buccal Cavity:


 The mouth has teeth and tongue. Salivary glands are also
present in the mouth.
 The tongue has gustatory receptors which perceive the sense of
taste.
 The tongue helps in turning over the food so that saliva can be
properly mixed in it.
 Teeth help in breaking down the food into smaller particles so
that, swallowing of food becomes easier.
 If the food has to be absorbed from the alimentary canal, it has
to be broken into smaller molecules. This is done with the help
of biological catalysts called enzymes.

Salivary glands secrete saliva: Saliva makes the food slippery which
makes it easy to swallow the food. Saliva also contains the enzyme
salivary amylase. Salivary amylase breaks down starch which is a
complex molecule to give simple sugar.

Oesophagus: Taking food from mouth to stomach by Peristaltic


movement.
Peristaltic movement: Rhythmic contraction of muscles of the lining
of the alimentary canal to push the food forward.
Stomach:
 Stomach is a bag-like organ. Highly muscular walls of the
stomach help in mixing the food thoroughly with more digestive
juices.
 The gastric glands are present in the walls of the stomach. They
secrete hydrochloric acid, a protein digesting enzyme called
Pepsin and mucus. Hydrochloric acid kills the germs which may
be present in food.
 Moreover, it makes the medium inside the stomach as acidic.
The acidic medium is facilitates the action of enzyme pepsin.
 The enzyme pepsin, secreted in the stomach, does partial
digestion of protein.
 The mucus, secreted by the walls of the stomach saves the
inner lining of the stomach from getting damaged from
hydrochloric acid.
 The exit of food from the stomach is regulated by a sphincter
muscle which releases it in small amounts into the small
intestine.

Small Intestine: It is a highly coiled tube-like structure.


 This is the longest part of the alimentary canal which is fitted
into a compact space because of extensive coiling.
 The length of the small intestine differs in various animals
depending on the food they eat. Herbivores eating grass need a
longer small intestine to allow the cellulose to be digested.
Meat is easier to digest, hence carnivores like tigers have a
shorter small intestine.
 The small intestine is the site of the complete digestion of
carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
The small intestine is divided into three parts, like duodenum,
jejunum and ileum.
Liver: Liver is the largest organ in the human body. The liver
manufactures bile, which gets stored in the gall bladder. From the gall
bladder, bile is released as and when required.
Pancreas: Pancreas is situated below the stomach. It secretes
pancreatic juice which contains many digestive enzymes.
 The food coming from the stomach is acidic and has to be made
alkaline for the pancreatic enzymes to act.
 Bile juice from the liver accomplishes this in addition to acting
on fats.
 Fats are present in the intestine in the form of large globules
which makes it difficult for enzymes to act on them. Bile salts
break them down into smaller globules increasing the efficiency
of enzyme action.
 The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains enzymes
like trypsin for digesting proteins and lipase for breaking down
emulsified fats.
 The walls of the small intestine contain glands which secrete
intestinal juice. The enzymes present in it finally convert the
proteins to amino acids, complex carbohydrates into glucose
and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
The major part of digestion takes place in the duodenum.
No digestion takes place in the jejunum: The inner wall in the ileum
is projected into numerous finger-like structures, called villi. Villi
increase the surface area inside the ileum so that optimum
absorption can take place. Moreover, villi also reduce the lumen of
the ileum so that food can stay for a longer duration in it, for
optimum absorption. Digested food is absorbed by villi.
Large Intestine:
 Large intestine is smaller than the small intestine.
 Undigested food goes into the large intestine.
 Some water and salt are absorbed by the walls of the large
intestine. After that, the undigested food goes to the rectum,
from where it is expelled out through the anus.
 Large Intestine absorb excess of water. The rest of the material
is removed from the body via the anus. (Egestion).
 The exit of this waste material is regulated by the anal
sphincter.
Respiration – Life Processes
Types of respiration, aerobic and anaerobic respiration, human
respiratory system, respiration in plants.
Respiration:
 The process by which a living being utilises the food to get
energy, is called respiration.
 Oxidation reaction in which carbohydrate is oxidized to produce
energy.
 Mitochondria is the site of respiration and the energy released
is stored in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
[Mitochondria are membrane-bound organelles present in the
cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells- Power House of a cell]
 ATP is stored in mitochondria and is released as per need.

Steps of respiration:
 Breaking down of glucose into pyruvate:
o Happens in the cytoplasm.
o Glucose molecule is broken down into pyruvic acid.
o Glucose molecule is composed of 6 carbon atoms, while
pyruvic acid is composed of 3 carbon atoms.
 Fate of Pyruvic Acid:
Further breaking down of pyruvic acid takes place in
mitochondria and the molecules formed depend on the type of
respiration in a particular organism.
Respiration is of two types, viz. aerobic respiration and
anaerobic respiration.
 Respiration involves
 Gaseous exchange: Intake of oxygen from the atmosphere
and release of CO2 → Breathing.
 Breakdown of simple food in order to release energy
inside the cell → Cellular respiration
Types of Respiration
Aerobic respiration: This type of respiration happens in the presence
of oxygen. Pyruvic acid is converted into carbon dioxide. Energy is
released and water molecule is also formed at the end of this
process.
Anaerobic respiration: This type of respiration happens in the
absence of oxygen. Pyruvic acid is either converted into ethyl alcohol
or lactic acid. Ethyl alcohol is usually formed in case of anaerobic
respiration in microbes, like yeast or bacteria. Lactic acid is formed in
some microbes as well as in the muscle cells.
 Glucose (6 carbon molecule) → Pyruvate (3 carbon
molecules) + Energy
 Pyruvate (In yeast, lack of O2) → Ethyl alcohol + Carbon
dioxide + Energy
 Pyruvate (In muscles, lack of O2) → Lactic Acid + Energy
 Pyruvate (In mitochondria; the presence of O2) → Carbon
dioxide + Water + Energy
The equations for the above reactions can be written as follows:
Pain in leg muscles while running:
 When someone runs too fast, he may experience throbbing
pain in the leg muscles. This happens because of anaerobic
respiration taking place in the muscles.
 During running, the energy demand from the muscle cells
increases. This is compensated by anaerobic respiration and
lactic acid is formed in the process.
 The deposition of lactic acid causes pain in the leg muscles. The
pain subsides after taking rest for some time.
Exchange of gases:
 For aerobic respiration, organisms need a continuous supply of
oxygen, and carbon dioxide produced during the process needs
to be removed from the body.
 Different organisms use different methods for the intake of
oxygen and expulsion of carbon dioxide.
 Diffusion is the method which is utilized by unicellular and
some simple organisms for this purpose.
 In plants also, diffusion is utilized for exchange of gases.
 In complex animals, respiratory system does the job of
exchange of gases.
 Gills are the respiratory organs for fishes. Fishes take in oxygen
which is dissolved in water through gills.
 Since, availability of oxygen is less in the aquatic environment,
so the breathing rate of aquatic organisms is faster.
 Insects have a system of spiracles and trachease which is used
for taking in oxygen.
 Terrestrial organisms have developed lungs for exchange of
gases.
 Availability of oxygen is not a problem in the terrestrial
environment so breathing rate is slower as compared to what it
is in fishes.
Terrestrial organisms: Use atmospheric oxygen for respiration.
Aquatic organisms: Use dissolve oxygen for respiration.
HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 The respiratory route of air in the respiratory tract of humans is


the Nostrils → pharynx → larynx → trachea → alveoli.

1. Nostrils: There are two nostrils which converge to form a


nasal passage. The inner lining of the nostrils is lined by
hair and remains wet due to mucus secretion. The mucus
and the hair help in filtering the dust particles out from
inhaled air. Further, air is warmed up when it enters the
nasal passage.
2. Pharynx: It is a tube-like structure which continues after
the nasal passage.
3. Larynx: This part comes after the pharynx. This is also
called voice box.
4. Trachea: This is composed of rings of cartilage.
Cartilaginous rings prevent the collapse of trachea in the
absence of air.
5. Bronchi: A pair of bronchi comes out from the trachea,
with one bronchus going to each lung.
6. Bronchioles: A bronchus divides into branches and sub-
branches inside the lung.
7. Alveoli: These are air sacs at the end of bronchioles. The
alveolus is composed of a very thin membrane and is the
place where blood capillaries open. This is alveolus, where
the oxygen mixes with the blood and carbon dioxide exits
from the blood. The exchange of gases, in alveoli, takes
place due to the pressure differential.

Role of alveoli:
 The alveoli provide a surface where the exchange of gases
can take place.
 The walls of the alveoli contain an extensive network of
blood vessels.
 The blood brings carbon dioxide from the rest of the body
for release into the alveoli, and the oxygen in the alveolar
air is taken up by the blood in the alveolar blood vessels
to be transported to all the cells in the body.

During the breathing cycle, when air is taken in and let out, the lungs
always contain a residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time
for oxygen to be absorbed and for the carbon dioxide to be released.
o When the body size of animals is large, the diffusion pressure
alone cannot take care of oxygen delivery to all parts of the
body.
o This is done by respiratory pigments which take up oxygen from
the air in the lungs and carry it to tissues which are deficient in
oxygen before releasing it.
o In human beings, the respiratory pigment is haemoglobin which
has a very high affinity for oxygen. This pigment is present in
the red blood corpuscles.
o Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than oxygen is and
hence is mostly transported in the dissolved form in our blood.
TRANSPORTATION
 Human beings like other multicellular organism need a regular
supply of foods, oxygen etc. This function is performed by a
circulatory system or transport system.
 Transportation in Human Beings: The circulatory system is
responsible for transport of various substances in human
beings. It is composed of the heart, arteries, veins and blood
capillaries. Blood plays the role of the carrier of substances.
Our Pump- the heart
 Heart is a muscular organ, which is composed of cardiac
muscles.
 It is so small that, it can fit inside an adult’s wrist. The heart is a
pumping organ which pumps the blood.
 The heart has different chambers to prevent the oxygen-rich
blood from mixing with the blood containing carbon dioxide.
 The carbon dioxide-rich blood has to reach the lungs for the
carbon dioxide to be removed, and the oxygenated blood from
the lungs has to be brought back to the heart.
 This oxygen-rich blood is then pumped to the rest of the body.
 The human heart is composed of four chambers, viz. right
atrium, right ventricle, left ventricle and left atrium.
 Since ventricles have to pump blood into various organs, they
have thicker muscular walls than the atria do.
 Valves ensure that blood does not flow backwards when the
atria or ventricles contract.
 Systole: Contraction of cardiac muscles is called systole.
 Diastole: Relaxation of cardiac muscles is called diastole.
 Vena Cava : Large veins carrying deoxygenated blood to heart.
 Pulmonary artery: A blood vessel that carries deoxygenated
blood from the right ventricle to the lungs.
 Pulmonary veins: Veins that carry oxygenated blood from the
lungs to the heart.

 The separation of the right side and the left side of the heart is
useful to keep oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from
mixing. Such separation allows a highly efficient supply of
oxygen to the body. (Most animals, birds & mammals which use
high energy to maintain body temperature)
 Animals, like amphibians and many reptiles, have three-
chambered hearts and tolerate some mixing of the oxygenated
and de-oxygenated blood streams.
 Fishes, on the other hand, have only two chambers to their
hearts, and the blood is pumped to the gills, is oxygenated
there, and passes directly to the rest of the body.
Double Circulatory System
 The oxygenated blood from the lungs returns to the heart,
which is pumped again into different parts of the body by the
heart. Thus, the blood passed twice through the heart making
one complete round through the body, i.e., once through the
right half in the form of deoxygenated blood and once through
the left half in the form of oxygenated blood.
Blood Pressure
 Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called a
sphygmomanometer.
 The force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel is called
blood pressure.
 This pressure is much greater in arteries than in veins.
 The normal systolic pressure is about 120 mm of Hg and
diastolic pressure is 80 mm of Hg.
Arteries & Veins

Artery Vein

1. Have thick, elastic, muscular


1. Have thin, non-elastic walls.
walls.

2. Carry blood from the heart to 2. Carry blood from all body parts
all body parts. to the heart.

3. Carry oxygenated blood 3. Carry deoxygenated blood


(except pulmonary artery). (except pulmonary vein).
4. Does not have valves 4. Have Valves

5. Blood pressure is high. 5. Blood pressure is low.

Capillaries
 Smallest blood vessels which have one cell thick walls
 Exchange of material between blood and surrounding cells
Maintenance by platelets
In case of any leakage, the blood has platelet cells that circulate
around the body and plug these leaks by helping to clot the blood at
these points of injury.
Lymph/ Tissue Fluid:
 Lymph is a fluid that is similar to blood but colourless and
contains less proteins.
 Lymph is formed from the fluid (blood,plasma, proteins) which
leaks from blood capillaries and goes to the intercellular space
in the tissues.
 Intracellular spaceslymphatic capillariesjoins to form large
lymph vesselslarge veins
 Lymph carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine and
drains excess fluid from extra cellular space back into the blood.
TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
1. Need for Transportation
 Plants absorb water and minerals from the soil (mainly through
roots).
 Photosynthesis occurs in leaves, producing food.
 Raw materials and food need to be transported throughout the
plant body.
 If the plant is tall or has distant parts, diffusion alone isn't
enough—a transport system is essential.

2. Transport Systems in Plants


 Two main conducting tissues:
o Xylem: Transports water and minerals from roots to other
parts.
o Phloem: Transports food (sugars) from leaves to storage
organs or growing parts.
3. Transport of Water (Xylem)
 Water is absorbed by roots and moves through vessels and
tracheids in xylem.
 Root pressure pushes water upwards due to osmotic difference
(Difference in concentration between the ions and soil).
 Transpiration pull (major force): Water evaporates from leaves
(stomata), creating a suction that pulls water up. . The loss of
water in the form of vapour from the aerial parts of the plant is
known as transpiration.
 Benefits of transpiration:
o Helps in water and mineral transport
o Maintains plant temperature
o Most effective during the day when stomata are open
4. Transport of Food (Phloem / Translocation)
 Products of photosynthesis (e.g., sugars) move from leaves to
other parts like roots, fruits, and growing tips.
 The transport of soluble products of photosynthesis is called
translocation Occurs in vascular tissue Phloem
 Transport is both upward and downward.
 Uses energy (ATP): Active process.
 The sugar (food) made in leaves is loaded into the sieve tubes
of phloem tissue by using energy from ATP.
 Water now enters the sieve tubes containing sugar by the
process of osmosis due to which the pressure in the phloem
tissue rises.
 Increases osmotic pressure in phloem, causing movement of
food to areas with lower pressure.

🚽 Excretion in Animals (Human Beings)


1. What is Excretion?
 The removal of waste products of metabolism (e.g., urea,
excess salts, CO₂).
 Unicellular organisms: Waste diffuses out.
 Humans and other complex organisms use specialized organs.

2. Excretory System in Humans


 Removal of harmful waste from the body is called excretion.
 Many wastes are produced during various metabolic activities.
 These need to be removed in time because their accumulation
in the body can be harmful and even lethal for an organism.

 Main organs:
o A pair of Kidneys (filter blood)
o A pair of Ureters (carry urine to bladder)
o A Urinary bladder (stores urine)
o A Urethra (passes urine out)
 Urine Formation:
o Nitrogenous waste such as urea or uric acid are removed
from blood in the kidneys.
o Kidneys filter blood and form urine.
o Cluster of very thin-walled blood capillariesBasic
filtration unit.
o Each capillary clustercup-shaped end of coiled
tubeBowman’s capsuleCollects filtrate
o Filtrate enters nephrons (basic functional unit of kidney)
packed close together.
o Re-absorption occurs in tubules depending on the body's
water and salt needs (glucose, amino acids, salts and a
major amount of water).
o The amount of water re-absorbed depends on how much
excess water there is in the body, and on how much of
dissolved waste there is to be excreted.
o Urine flows into ureter → bladder → urethra.

3. Nephron Structure
 Each nephron has:
o Bowman's capsule (collects filtrate)
o Glomerulus (cluster of capillaries)
o Tubules and collecting ducts (site of reabsorption)

4. Artificial Kidney (Dialysis)


 Used when kidneys fail.
 Blood passes through dialysis tubing in a fluid.
 Wastes diffuse out; clean blood returns to the body.
 Dialysis mimics kidney filtration but has no reabsorption.

EXCRETION IN PLANTS
 Plants get rid of excess water by transpiration.
 Many plant waste products are stored in cellular vacuoles.
 Waste products may be stored in leaves that fall off and into the
soil around them.
 Other waste products are stored as resins and gums, especially
in old xylem.
Structure of nephron : Each nephron is composed of two parts.
First one is a cup-shaped bag at its upper end which is called
Bowman’s capsule.
The Bowman’s capsule contains a bundle of blood capillaries
which is called glomerulus. One end of the glomerulus is attached
to the renal artery which brings the impure blood containing the
urea waste into it. These impurities are filtered. The other part of
the nephron is coiled. In this part, the substances like sugar
(glucose), amino acid, ions and excess water which are required by
the body, are reabsorbed. The substance remained in the nephron
is mainly urine containing dissolved urea in water which is
expelled from the body through urethra from time to time.

Functions of nephron :
Filtration of blood takes place in Bowman’s capsule from the
capillaries of glomerulus. The filtrate passes into the tubular part
of the nephron. This filtrate contains glucose, amino acids, urea,
uric acid, salts and water.
Reabsorption : As the filtrate flows along the tubule, useful
substances such as glucose, amino acids, salts and water are
selectively reabsorbed into the blood by capillaries surrounding
the nephron tubule.
Urine : The filtrate which remained after reabsorption is called
urine. Urine contains dissolved nitrogenous waste like urea and
uric acid, excess salts and water. Urine is collected from nephrons
to carry it to the ureter from where it passes into urinary bladder.

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