MATHEMATICS - I

MATRICES
Matrix : A system of mn numbers real (or) complex arranged in the form of an ordered set
of ‘m’ rows, each row consisting of an ordered set of ‘n’ numbers between [ ] (or) ( ) (or) || ||
is called a matrix of order m xn.
a11 a12 .........a1n 
a 
 21 a12 .........a 2 n 
Eg: .........................  = [aij ]mxn where 1≤i≤m, 1≤j≤n.
 
....................... 
a m1 a m 2 .......a mn 
  mxn
Order of the Matrix: The number of rows and columns represents the order of the matrix. It
is denoted by mxn, where m is number of rows and n is number of columns.
Types of Matrices:
Row Matrix: A Matrix having only one row is called a “Row Matrix”.
Eg: 1 2 31x3
Column Matrix: A Matrix having only one column is called a “Column Matrix” .
1 
Eg: 1 
 
2  3 x1

Null Matrix: A=  aij  mxn such that aij=0  i and j. Then A is called a “Zero Matrix”. It is
denoted by Omxn.
0 0 0 
Eg: O2x3=  
0 0 0 
Rectangular Matrix: If A=  aij  mxn , and m  n then the matrix A is called a “Rectangular
Matrix”
1  1 2 
Eg : 
3 4
is a 2x3 matrix
2
Square Matrix: If A=  aij  mxn and m = n then A is called a “Square Matrix”.
1 1 
Eg :   is a 2x2 matrix
 2 2
Lower Triangular Matrix: A square Matrix AnXn   aij  nxn is said to be lower Triangular

of aij = 0 if i <j i.e. if all the elements above the principle diagonal are zeros.
4 0 0 
Eg: 5 2 0 is a Lower triangular matrix
7 3 6 

Upper Triangular Matrix: A square Matrix A  aij  is said to be upper triangular of

nxn

aij = 0 if i.>j. i.e. all the elements below the principle diagonal are zeros.
 MATHEMATICS - I

1 3 8 
Eg: 0 4  5 is an Upper triangular matrix
0 0 2 
Triangle Matrix: A square matrix which is either lower triangular or upper triangular is
called a triangle matrix.
Principal Diagonal of a Matrix: In a square matrix, the set of all aij, for which i = j are
called principal diagonal elements. The line joining the principal diagonal elements is called
principal diagonal.
Note: Principal diagonal exists only in a square matrix.
Diagonal elements in a matrix: A= [aij]nxn, the elements aij of A for which i = j.
i.e. a11, a22….ann are called the diagonal elements of A
1 2 3
Eg: A= 4 5 6 diagonal elements are 1, 5, 9

7 8 9 

Diagonal Matrix: A Square Matrix is said to be diagonal matrix, if aij = 0 for i  j i.e. all

the elements except the principal diagonal elements are zeros.

Note: 1. Diagonal matrix is both lower and upper triangular.
2. If d1, d2…….dn are the diagonal elements in a diagonal matrix it can be
represented as diag  d1 , d2 ,., dn 

3 0 0 
Eg : A = diag (3,1,-2)= 0 1 0 
 
0 0  2

Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix whose leading diagonal elements are equal is called a
2 0 0
“Scalar Matrix”. Eg : A= 0 2 0 
 
0 0 2 

Unit/Identity Matrix: If A =  aij  such that aij=1 for i = j, and aij=0 for i  j then A is
nxn

called a “Identity Matrix” or Unit matrix. It is denoted by In

1 0 0
1 0
Eg: I2 =   ; I3= 0 1 0
0 1  0 0 1 

Trace of Matrix: The sum of all the diagonal elements of a square matrix A is called Trace
of a matrix A, and is denoted by Trace A or tr A.
 MATHEMATICS - I

a h g
Eg : A = h b f  then tr A = a+b+c
 g f c 

Singular & Non Singular Matrices: A square matrix A is said to be “Singular” if the
determinant of │A│= 0, Otherwise A is said to be “Non-singular”.
Note: 1. Only non-singular matrices possess inverse.
2. The product of non-singular matrices is also non-singular.
Inverse of a Matrix: Let A be a non-singular matrix of order n if there exist a matrix B
such that AB=BA=I then B is called the inverse of A and is denoted by A-1.
If inverse of a matrix exist, it is said to be invertible.
Note: 1. The necessary and sufficient condition for a square matrix to posses inverse is that
| |≠ .
2 .Every Invertible matrix has unique inverse.
3. If A, B are two invertible square matrices then AB is also invertible and

 AB 
1
 B 1 A1

AdjA
4. A1  where detA  0 ,
det A
Theorem: The inverse of a Matrix if exists is Unique.
Note: 1. (A-1)-1 = A 2. I-1 = I
Theorem: If A, B are invertible matrices of the same order, then
(i). (AB)-1 = B-1A-1
(ii). (A1)-1 = (A-1)1
Sub Matrix: - A matrix obtained by deleting some of the rows or columns or both from the
given matrix is called a sub matrix of the given matrix.
1 5 6 7
Eg: Let A = 8 9 10 5  . Then 8 9 10 is a sub matrix of A obtained by deleting first
  3 4 5 
  2 x3
3 4 5 1

row and 4th column of A.

Minor of a Matrix: Let A be an mxn matrix. The determinant of a square sub matrix of A is
called a minor of the matrix.
Note: If the order of the square sub matrix is ‘t’ then its determinant is called a minor of
order ‘t’.
 MATHEMATICS - I

2 1 1
3 1 2 
Eg: A =  be a 4x3 matrix
1 2 3
 
5 6 7

Here B = [ ] is a sub-matrix of order ‘2’

B = 2-3 = -1 is a minor of order ‘2

And C = [ ] is a sub-matrix of order ‘3’

det C = 2(7-12)-1(21-10)+(18-5) = -9
Properties of trace of a matrix: Let A and B be two square matrices and  be any scalar
1) tr (  A) =  (tr A) ; 2) tr(A+B) = trA + trB ; 3) tr (AB) = tr(BA)
Idempotent Matrix: A square matrix A Such that A2=A then A is called “Idempotent
Matrix”.

Eg: A = [ ]

Involutary Matrix: A square matrix A such that A2 = I then A is called an Involutary

Matrix.

Eg: A = [ ]

Nilpotent Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be Nilpotent if there exists a + ve integer n

such that An = 0 here the least n is called the Index of the Nilpotent Matrix.

Eg: A = [ ]

Transpose of a Matrix: The matrix obtained by interchanging rows and columns of the
given matrix A is called as transpose of the given matrix A. It is denoted by AT or A1

Eg: A = [ ] Then AT = [ ]

Properties of transpose of a matrix: If A and B are two matrices and AT , B T are their
transposes then

1)  AT   A ; 2)  A  B   AT  BT ; 3)  KA  KAT ; 4)  AB   BT AT
T T T T

Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be symmetric if AT  A

If A  aij  then AT  a ji  nxn where aij  a ji

nxn

a h g
Eg: h b f  is a symmetric matrix

 g f c 
 MATHEMATICS - I

Skew-Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be Skew symmetric If AT   A .

If A  aij  then AT  a ji  where aij  a ji

nxn nxn .
 0 a  b
Eg :  a 0 c  is a skew – symmetric matrix

 b  c 0 

Note: All the principle diagonal elements of a skew symmetric matrix are always zero.
Since aij = -aij  aij = 0
Theorem: Every square matrix can be expressed uniquely as the sum of symmetric and
skew symmetric matrices.

 A  A =  A  AT  A  AT  =
1 1
Proof: Let A be a square matrix, A =
2 2
1
2
 A  AT    A  AT  = P + Q, where P =  A  AT  ; Q =  A  AT 
1
2
1
2
1
2
Thus every square matrix can be expressed as a sum of two matrices.

 
T
Consider PT   1  A  AT    1  A  AT   1 AT   AT  = 1  A  AT  =P, since PT  P ,
T T

2  2 2 2

P is symmetric

 
T

Consider QT    A  AT     A  AT   AT   AT  = - 1  A  AT  = - Q
1 1 T 1 T

2  2 2 2

Since QT  Q , Q is Skew-symmetric.

To prove the representation is unique: Let A= R+S  1 be the representation, where R is

symmetric and S is skew symmetric. i.e. RT  R, S T   S

Consider AT   R  S   RT  S T  R  S   2 
T

1   2   A  AT  2S  S 
1
2
 A  AT   Q

Therefore every square matrix can be expressed as a sum of a symmetric and a skew
symmetric matrix

Ex. Express the given matrix A as a sum of a symmetric and skew symmetric matrices
 2 4 9 
where A= 14 7 13
 
 9 5 11
 MATHEMATICS - I

 2 14 3 
Solution: A   4 7 5 
T

 9 3 11

 4 10 12  2 5 6 
A  A  10 14 18   P   A  A   5 7 9  ; P is symmetric
 
T 1 T

2
12 18 22  6 9 11

 0 18 6  0 9 3
A  A  18 0 8   Q   A  A    9 0 4  ; Q is skew  symmetric
 
T 1 

2
 6 8 0  3 4 0 

Orthogonal Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be an Orthogonal Matrix if AAT=ATA=I,

Similarly we can prove that A=A-1; Hence A is an orthogonal matrix.
Note: 1. If A, B are orthogonal matrices, then AB and BA are orthogonal matrices.
2. Inverse and transpose of an orthogonal matrix is also an orthogonal matrix.
Result: If A, B are orthogonal matrices, each of order n then AB and BA are orthogonal
matrices.
Result: The inverse of an orthogonal matrix is orthogonal and its transpose is also orthogonal

Solved Problems :
cos  sin  
1. Show that A = 
cos  
is orthogonal.
 sin 
cos  sin   cos   sin  
Sol: Given A =  AT = 
cos   cos  
then
 sin  sin 
cos  sin   cos   sin  
Consider A.AT = 
 sin  cos   sin  cos  

 cos 2   sin 2   cos  sin   cos  sin   1 0

=  =  I
 sin  cos   cos  sin  cos 2   sin 2   0 1 
 A is orthogonal matrix.
 1 2 2
2. Prove that the matrix 1 2 1 2  is orthogonal.
3 
2 2  1
 MATHEMATICS - I

 1 2 2   1 2 2
Sol: Given A = 2 1 2 
1 Then AT = 1 2 1 2 
3  3 
2 2  1 2 2  1

 1 2 2   1 2 2 9 0 0 1 0 0
Consider A .AT = 1 2 1 2  2 1 2  = 1 0 9 0  = 0 1 0  = I
9    9   
2 2  1 2 2  1 0 0 9 0 0 1 

⇒ A.AT = I
Similarly AT .A = I
Hence A is orthogonal matrix
0 2b c 
3. Determine the values of a, b, c when a b  c  is orthogonal.
 
a  b c 

Sol: - For orthogonal matrix AAT = I

0 2b c  0 a a 
So, AAT = a b  c 2b b  b  I
   
a  b c  c  c c 

 4b 2  c 2 2b 2  c 2  2b 2  c 2 
 2  1 0 0
2b  c a2  b2  c2 a2  b2  c2  =I= 0 1 0 
2
 
 2b 2  c 2 a 2  b 2  c 2 a 2  b 2  c 2 
  0 0 1 

Solving 2b2-c2 =0, a2-b2-c2 =0

We get c =  2b a2 =b2+2b2 =3b2
 a =  3b
From the diagonal elements of I
1
4b2+c2= 1  4b2+2b2=1 (since c2=2b2)  b = 
6
1 1 1
a =  3b =  ; b= ; c =  2b = 
2 6 3
2 3 1 
4. Is matrix  4 3 1  Orthogonal?

 3 1 9 

 2 3 1   2 4 3
Sol:- Given A=  4 3 1    3 3 1 
   
 3 1 9   1 1 9 

 2 3 1   2 4 3 14 0 0 
    4 3 1  3 3 1  =  0 26 0   I3

    
 3 1 9  1 1 9   0 0 91
 MATHEMATICS - I

     I3
 Matrix is not orthogonal.
Complex matrix: A matrix whose elements are complex numbers is called a complex
matrix.
Conjugate of a complex matrix: A matrix obtained from A on replacing its elements by the
corresponding conjugate complex numbers is called conjugate of a complex matrix. It is
denoted by A

If A   aij  , A  aij  , where aij is the conjugate of aij .

mxn mxn

 2  3i 5   2  3i 5 
Eg: If A=   then A =  
6  7i 5  i  6  7i 5  i 
Note: If A and B be the conjugate matrices of A and B respectively, then

(i)  A  =A (ii) A  B = A + B (iii)  KA  = K A

Transpose conjugate of a complex matrix: Transpose of conjugate of complex matrix is

called transposed conjugate of complex matrix. It is denoted by A or A* .

Note: If A and B be the transposed conjugates of A and B respectively, then

(i)  A  = A

(ii)  A  B   A  B


(iii)  KA  K A (iv)  AB   A B

 

Hermitian Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be Hermitian Matrix iff A  A .

 4 1  3i   4 1  3i   4 1  3i 
Eg: A=   then A =   and Aθ= 
1  3i 7  1  3i 7  1  3i 7 
Note: 1. In Hermitian matrix the principal diagonal elements are real.
2. The Hermitian matrix over the field of Real numbers is nothing but real symmetric matrix.

3. In Hermitian matrix A=  aij  , aij  a ji i, j .

nxn

Skew-Hermitian Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be Skew-Hermitian Matrix iff

A   A .

 3i  2  i 
 3i 2  i 
Eg: Let A=   then A =
 3i
 2  i
2  i
i 
and A
T
 2  i i 

 2  i i   

 
 A =-A  A is skew-Hermitian matrix.
T

Note: 1. In Skew-Hermitian matrix the principal diagonal elements are either Zero or Purely
Imaginary.
 2. The Skew- Hermitian matrix over the field of Real numbers is nothing but real
Skew - Symmetric matrix.

3. In Skew-Hermitian matrix A=  aij  , aij  a ji i, j .

nxn

Unitary Matrix: A Square matrix A is said to be unitary matrix iff

AA  A A  I or A  A1

1   4  2  4i 

6 2  4i  4 
Eg: B

Theorem1: Every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as a sum of Hermitian and
skew – Hermitian Matrices.

1 1 1
A(2 A)  ( A  A)  ( A  A  A  A )
Proof: - Let A be a square matrix write 2 2 2
1 1
A  ( A  A )  ( A  A )i.eA  P  Q
2 2

Let P 
1
2
 A  A  ; Q   A  A 
1
2
1  1
Consider P   ( A  A )   ( A  A )  ( A  A )  P
2  2

I.e. P  P, P is Hermitian matrix.


1 
Q   ( A  A )    A  A    ( A  A )  Q
1 1
2  2 2

Ie Q  Q, Q is skew – Hermitian matrix.

Thus every square matrix can be expressed as a sum of Hermitian & Skew Hermitian
matrices.

To prove such representation is unique:

Let A = R+S------- (1) be another representation of A where R is Hermitian matrix &
S is skew – Hermitian matrix.
 R  R ; S   S

Consider A  ( R  S )  R  S   R  S  . Ie A  R  A      (2)
 MATHEMATICS - I

1   2   A  A
1
2
 A  A   P
 2 R ie R 

1   2   A  A  2S ie S   A  A   Q
1
2
Thus every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as a sum of Hermitian & skew
Hermitian matrices.

Solved Problems :
 3 7  4i 2  5i 
1) If A=  7  4i 2 3  i  then show that A is Hermitian and iA is skew-

 2  5i 3  i 4 

Hermitian.
 3 7  4i 2  5i 
Sol: 
Given A= 7  4i 2 3  i  then

 2  5i 3  i 4 

 3 7  4i 2  5i   3 7  4i 2  5i 

A   7  4i 2  
3  i  And  A   7  4i
T
2 3  i 
 2  5i 3  i 4   2  5i 3  i 4 

 
T
A  A Hence A is Hermitian matrix.

Let B= iA
 3i 4  7i 5  2i 
i.e B=  4  7i 2i 1  3i  then

 5  2i 1  3i 4i 

 3i 4  7i 5  2i 

B   4  7i 2i 1  3i 
 5  2i 1  3i 4i 

 3i 4  7i 5  2i   3i 4  7i  5  2i 
 B  1  3i   (1)  4  7i  2i  1  3i    B
T
  4  7i 2i
 
 5  2i 1  3i 4i   5  2i 1  3i 4i 

 
T
 B =-B

 B= iA is a skew Hermitian matrix.

2). If A and B are Hermitian matrices, prove that AB-BA is a skew-Hermitian matrix.
Sol: Given A and B are Hermitan matrices

  A  A And  B   B ------------- (1)

T T
 MATHEMATICS - I

Now  AB  BA  AB  BA  
T T

 
T
 AB  BA

    BA   B   A   A  B 
T T T T T T
 AB

 BA  AB (By (1))
   AB  BA

Hence AB-BA is a skew-Hemitian matrix.

 a  ic b  id 
3). Show that A=  is unitary if and only if a2+b2+c2+d2=1
b  id a  ic 

 a  ic b  id 
Sol: Given A= 
b  id a  ic 

 a  ic b  id 
Then A   
b  id a  ic 
 a  ic b  id 
T

Hence A  A  
a  ic 
 b  id
 a  ic  b  id   a  ic b  id 
 AA  
b  id a  ic   b  id a  ic 

 a 2  b2  c 2  d 2 0 
= 
 0 a 2  b2  c 2  d 2 

 AA  I if and only if a 2  b 2  c 2  d 2  1

 0 1  2i 
, show that I  AI  A is a unitary matrix.
1
4)Given that A=  
 1  2i 0 

1 0  0 1  2i 
Sol: we have I  A    
0 1  1  2i 0 

 1 1  2i 

1 
And
1  2i

1 0  0 1  2i 
I  A  
0 1  1  2i 0 
  1 1  2i 
=
 1  2i 1 

1  1  1  2i 
 ( I  A) 1 
 
1  4i  1 1  2i
2
1 

1 1 1  2i 
 
6 1  2i 1 

Let B  I  AI  A
1

1 1  1  2i   1  1  2i  1 1  (1  2i)( 1  2i)  1  2i  1  2i 
B      
6 1  2i 1  1  2i 1  6  1  2i  1  2i (1  2i)(1  2i)  1

1   4  2  4i 
B
6 2  4i  4 

1  4 2  4i  1  4 2  4i 
 
T
Now B     
4 
and B
6  2  4i 4  6  2  4i

1  4 2  4i   4 2  4i 
 
T
  2  4i  4 
36  2  4i 4 
B B
 

1 36 0  1 0
  I
36  0 36  0 1 

 B
T
 B 1

i.e. B is unitary matrix.

 I  AI  A is a unitary matrix.

1

5) Show that the inverse of a unitary matrix is unitary.


Sol: Let A be a unitary matrix. Then AA  I

i.e  AA   1
 I 1
 MATHEMATICS - I

  A  A1  I
1

  A1  A1  I


1
Thus A is unitary.
Rank of a Matrix:
Let A be mxn matrix. If A is a null matrix, we define its rank to be ‘0’. If A is a non-zero
matrix, we say that ‘r’ is the rank of A if
i. Every (r+1)th order minor of A is ‘0’ (zero) &
ii. At least one rth order minor of A which is not zero.
It is denoted by  (A) and read as rank of A.
Note: 1. Rank of a matrix is unique.
2. Every matrix will have a rank.
3. If A is a matrix of order mxn, then Rank of A ≤ min (m,n)
4. If ρ (A) = r then every minor of A of order r+1, or minor is zero.
5. Rank of the Identity matrix In is n.
6. If A is a matrix of order n and A is non-singular then ρ (A) = n
7. If A is a singular matrix of order n then  (A) < n
Important Note:
1. The rank of a matrix is ≤ r if all minors of (r+1)th order are zero.
2. The rank of a matrix is ≥ r, if there is at least one minor of order ‘r’ which is not equal to
zero.
1 2 3
1. Find the rank of the given matrix 3 4 4 
 
7 10 12

1 2 3
Sol: Given matrix A = 3 4 4 
 
7 10 12

det A = 1(48-40)-2(36-28)+3(30-28) = 8-16+6 = -2 ≠ 0

We have minor of order 3 ∴ρ (A) =3
1 2 3 4
2. Find the rank of the matrix 5 6 7 8 
 
8 7 0 5 

Sol: Given the matrix is of order 3x4

Its Rank ≤ min(3,4) = 3
 Determinant of a square matrix
Let A be a square matrix, then | A | = determinant of A.
 1 2 3
For example: A = 2 1 3 
 3 1 2 

1 2 3
|A| = 2 1 3
3 1 2

1 3 2 3 2 1
= 1   2   3  
1 2 3 2 3 1

= 1(2  3)  2(4  9) + 3(2  3) = 1 + 10  3

=6
 If | A |  0 then matrix A is called as nonsingular.
 If | A | = 0, A is called singular.

Properties of the Determinant:

a. The determinant of a matrix A and its transpose are equal.

b. Let A be a square matrix

(i) If A has a row (column) of zeros then

(ii) If A has two identical rows ( or columns) then

c. If A is triangular matrix then is product of the diagonal elements.

d. If A is a square matrix of order n and k is a scalar then

8
Adjoint and Inverse of a Square Matrix
Minor : Consider the determinant
a11 a12 a13
 = a 21 a 22 a 23 
a 31 a 32 a 33

To find minor leave the row and column passing through the element aij.
a a13
The minor of the element a21 = M21 =  12 
a 32 a 33

a a13
The minor of the element a32 = M32 =  11 
a 21 a 23

a a 23
The minor of the element a11 = M11 =  22 
a 32 a 33

Cofactor : The minor Mij multiplied by (1)i+j is called the cofactor of the element aij.

a a13
The cofactor of the element a21 = A21 = (1)2+1 M21 =   12 
a 32 a 33

a a13
The cofactor of the element a32 = A32 = (1)3+2 M32 =   11 
a 21 a 23

a a 23
The cofactor of the element a11 = A11 = (1)1+1 M11 =  22 
a 32 a 33

And so on.

Adjoint of a Matrix :
Adjoint of a square matrix A is the transpose of the matrix formed by the cofactors of the
elements of the given matrix A.
 a11 a12 a13 
If A = a 21 a 22 a 23 
a 31 a 32 a 33 

 A11 A 21 A 31 
Then adj (A) =  A12 A 22 A 32 
 A13 A 23 A 33 

9
Inverse of a Square Matrix :
For a nonsingular square matrix A
1
A1 = adj(A)
|A|

where A1 is called the inverse of square matrix.

Note : A A1 = A1 A = I

Solved Example 3 : A31 = the cofactor of a31

Calculate the adjoint of A, 1 1
in | A | =   = 5
1 1 1  2 3
where A =  1 2 3 
A32 = the cofactor of a32 in
 2 1 3 
1 1
Solution : |A|=    =4
1 3
A11 = the cofactor of a11 in
A33 = the cofactor of a33 in
2 3
|A|=   =3 1 1
1 3 | A |=   =1
1 2
A12 = the cofactor of a12 in
Adj (A) = transpose of the matrix formed
1 3 by cofactor
|A|=   = 9
2 3  A11 A 21 A 31   3 4 5 
=  A12 A 22 A 32    9 1 4 
A13 = the cofactor of a13 in
 A13 A 23 A 33   5 3 1 
1 2
|A|=   = 5
2 1 Solved Example 4 :
A21 = the cofactor of a21 in Find the inverse of the matrix by finding its
1 1 1 3 3
| A |=    = 4
1 3 adjoint where A = 1 4 3 
1 3 4 
A22 = the cofactor of a22 in
Solution :
1 1
| A |=   =1 |A| = 1  0
2 3
A1 exists
A23 = the cofactor of a23 in
 1 1 1
1 1
| A |=    =3 Now A = 3 4 3 
2 1
 3 3 4 

10
The cofactors of the elements of A are  150 98 18 
(1) = 7 ; (1) = 3 ; (1) = 3 (adj B) (adj A) =  80 70 10  ,
 15 14 1 
(3) = 1 ; (4) = 1 ; (3) = 0
(3) = 1 ; (3) = 0 ; (4) = 1  150 98 18 
adj (AB) =  80 70 10 
 7 3 3 
 Adj (A) =  1 1 0   15 14 1 

 1 0 1  Hence we verify (adj B) (adj A) = adj (AB)

 7 3 3 
1
 A = 1
adj(A)   1 1 0  Solved Example 6 :
A
 1 0 1  Find the inverse of the matrix finding its
2 1 3 
Solved Example 5 : adjoint where A = 3 1 2 
 1 2 3 
Find the adjoints of the matrices A and B
Solution :
1 2 3 
where A = 1 3 4  , 2 1 3 
1 4 3  | A | = 3 1 2  = 6  0  A1 exists
 1 2 3 
 0 4 5
B =  1 2 3  .  2 3 1
 1 1 7  transpose of A = A =  1 1 2 
 3 2 3 
Verify the formula adj(AB) = (adj B ) (adj A)
Solution : The cofactors of the elements of A are
We can find that (2) = 1 ; (3) = 3 ; (1) = 1

 7 6 1 (1) = 7 ; (1) = 3 ; (2) = 5

adj A =  1 0 1 , (3) = 5 ; (2) = 3 ; (3) = 1
 1 2 1 
 1 3 1
17 33 2  adj (A) =  7 3 5 
adj B = 10 5 5   5 3 1
 1 4 4 
1
 A1 = adj(A)
 1 5 32  |A |
AB =  1 6 42   1 3 1
 1 9 38  1 
=  7 3 5 
6
 5 3 1
Elementary transformations on Matrices

i). Interchange of ith row and jth row is denoted by Ri ↔ Rj

(ii). If ith row is multiplied with k then it is denoted by Ri kRi
(iii). If all the elements of ith row are multiplied with k and added to the corresponding
elements of jth row then it is denoted by Rj  Rj +kRi

Note: 1. The corresponding column transformations will be denoted by writing ‘c’. i.e
ci ↔cj, ci  k cj cj  cj + kci
2. The elementary operations on a matrix do not change its rank.
Equivalance of Matrices: If B is obtained from A after a finite number of elementary
transformations on A, then B is said to be equivalent to A.It is denoted as B~A.
Note : 1. If A and B are two equivalent matrices, then rank A = rank B.
2. If A and B have the same size and the same rank, then the two matrices are equivalent.
Elementary Matrix or E-Matrix: A matrix is obtained from a unit matrix by a single
elementary transformation is called elementary matrix or E-matrix.
Notations: We use the following notations to denote the E-Matrices.
1) Eij  Matrix obtained by interchange of ith and jth rows (columns).

2) Ei k   Matrix obtained by multiplying ith row (column) by a non- zero number k.

3) Eij k   Matrix obtained by adding k times of jth row (column) to ith row (column).

Echelon form of a matrix:

A matrix is said to be in Echelon form, if
(i) Zero rows, if any exists, they should be below the non-zero row.
(ii) The first non-zero entry in each non-zero row is equal to ‘1’.
(iii) The number of zeros before the first non-zero element in a row is less than the number of
such zeros in the next row.
Note : 1. The number of non-zero rows in echelon form of A is the rank of ‘A’.
1. The rank of the transpose of a matrix is the same as that of original matrix.
2. The condition (ii) is optional.
 MATHEMATICS - I

1 0 0 0
Eg: 1. 0 1 0 0
is a row echelon form.

0 0 1 1
 
0 0 0 0 

1  3  1
2. 0 1 1  is a row echelon form.
 
0 0 0 

Solved Problems :
2 3 7
1. Find the rank of the matrix A = 3  2 4  by reducing it to Echelon form.
 
1  3  1 

2 3 7 
Sol: Given A = 3  2 4  Applying row transformations on A.
 
1  3  1 

1  3  1
R1 ↔ R3 A ~ 3  2 4
2 3 7

1  3  1 
R2 → R2 –3R1; R3→ R3 -2R1 ~ 0 7 7
0 9 9 

1  3  1
R2 → R2/7,R3→ R3/9 ~ 0 1 1 
0 1 1 

1  3  1
R3 → R3 –R2 ~ 0 1 1 
0 0 0 

This is the Echelon form of matrix A.

The rank of a matrix A= Number of non – zero rows =2
4 4  3 1 
1 1 1 0 
2. For what values of k the matrix  has rank ‘3’.
k 2 2  2
 
9 9 k 3 
Sol: The given matrix is of the order 4x4
If its rank is 3  det A =0
 4 4  3 1 
1 1 1 0 
A= 
k 2 2  2
 
9 9 k 3 
Applying R2 → 4R2-R1, R3 →4R3 – kR1, R4 → 4R4 – 9R1
4 4 3 1 
0 0 1  1 
We get A ~ 
0 8  4k 8  3k 8  k 
 
0 0 4k  27 3
Since Rank A = 3  det A =0
0 1 1
 4 8  4k 8  3k 8  k  0
0 4k  27 3

 1[(8-4k) 3]-1(8-4k) (4k+27)] = 0

 (8-4k) (3-4k-27) = 0
 (8-4k)(-24-4k) =0
 (2-k)(6+k)=0
 k =2 or k = -6
2 1 3 5
4 2 1 3 
3). Find the rank of the matrix using echelon form A
8 4 7 13 
 
8 4 3 1

2 1 3 5
4 2 1 3 
Sol: Given A
8 4 7 13 
 
8 4 3 1

2 1 3 5 
0 0 5 7 
By applying R2  R2  2R1 ; R3  R3  4R1 ; R4  R4  4 R1 ~
0 0 5 7 
 
0 0 15 21

2 1 3 5
R R R 0 7 
R1  1 , R2  2 , R3  3 ~
0 5
1 1 3 0 0 5 7
 
0 0 5 7

2 1 3 5
0 7 
R3  R3  R2 , R4  R4  R2 ~
0 5
0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0
 MATHEMATICS - I

⇒ A is in echelon form ∴ Rank of A = 2

1 2 0 1
4). Find the rank of the matrix A = 2 1 1 0  by reducing into echelon form.

3 3 1 1
 
 1 1 1 1

1 2 0 1 
Sol: By applying R2  R2  2R1; R3  R3  3R1; R4  R4  R1 A ~ 0 3 1 2
0 3 1 2 
 
0 3 1 2 

1 2 0 1 
R3  R3  R2 A ~ 0 3 1 2 
0 0 0 0 
 
0 3 1 2 

1 2 0 1 
R3  R4 A ~ 0 3 1 2 
0 3 1 2 
 
0 0 0 0 

1 2 0 1
R3  R3  R2 A ~ 0 3 1 2 
0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0

Clear it is in echelon form, rank of A = 2

Normal form/Canonical form of a Matrix:
Every non-zero Matrix can be reduced to any one of the following forms.
 Ir 0 I 
0 ; Ir 0 ;  r  ;  I r  Known as normal forms or canonical forms by using Elementary
 0 0
row or column or both transformations where I r is the unit matrix of order ‘r’ and ‘O’ is the
null matrix.
Note: 1.In this form “the rank of a matrix is equal to the order of an identity matrix.
2. Normal form another name is “canonical form”

Solved Problems :
1 2 3 4 
1. By reducing the matrix 2 1 4 3  into normal form, find its rank.
3 0 5 10

1 2 3 4 
Sol: Given A = 2 1 4 3 
3 0 5 10
 1 2 3 4 
R2 → R2 – 2R1; R3 → R3 – 3R1 
A ~ 0  3  2 5 
0  6  4  22

1 2 3 4 
R3 → R3/-2 A ~ 0  3  2  5
0 3 2 11 

1 2 3 4 
R3 → R3+R2 
A ~ 0  3  2  5
0 0 0 6 

0 0 0 0 
c2→ c2 - 2c1, c3→c3-3c1, c4→c4-4c1 
A ~ 0  3  2  5
0 0 0 6 

1 0 0 0
c3 → 3 c3 -2c2, c4→3c4-5c2 A ~ 0  3 0 0 
0 0 0 18

1 0 0 0
c2→ c2 /-3, c4→c4/18 A ~ 0 1 0 0 
0 0 0 1 

1 0 0 0
c4 ↔ c3 A~ 0 1 0 0 
0 0 1 0 

This is in normal form [I3 0], ∴ Hence Rank of A is ‘3’.

1 1 1 1
2). Find the rank of the matrix A = 1 2 3 4  by reducing into canonical form or
 2 3 5 5 
 
 3 4 5 8 

normal form.
1 1 1 1
Sol: Given A = 1 2 3 4 

 2 3 5 5 
 
 3 4 5 8 
 1 1 1 1 
By applying R2  R2  R1 , R3  R3  2R1 , R4  R4  3R1 0 1 2 5 
~ 
0 1 3 7 
 
0 7 8 5 

1 1 1 1 
R3  R3  R2 , R4  R4  7 R2 0 1 2 5 
~
0 0 1 2 
 
0 0 6 30 

1 1 1 1 
R4  R4  6R3 0 1 2 5 
~
0 0 1 2 
 
0 0 0 18

1 1 1 1
R 0
R4  4 1 2 5
18 ~
0 0 1 2 
 
0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0
0 2 5
Apply C2  C2  C1 , C3  C3  C1 , C4  C4  C1 1
~
0 0 1 2 
 
0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0
0 0 0 
C3  C3  2C2 ; C4  C4  5C2 1
~
0 0 1 2 
 
0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0
0 0 
C4  C4  2C3 ~
1 0
0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 1

Clearly it is in the normal form  I 4   Rank of A = 4

3). Define the rank of the matrix and find the rank of the following matrix
2 1 3 5
4 2 1 3 

8 4 7 13 
 
8 4 3 1

2 1 3 5
 2 1 3 
Sol: Let A=  4
8 4 7 13 
 
8 4 3 1

R2  R2  2 R1 2 1 3 5 
0 0 5 7 
R3  R3  4 R1 A~ 
0 0 5 7 
R4  R4  4 R1  
0 0 15 21
 2 1 3 5
R3  R3  R2 0 0 5 7 
R4  R4  3R2 A~ 
0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0

It is in echelon form. So, rank of matrix = no. of non zero rows in echelon form.
 Rank  ( A)  2
2 1 3 4
0 3 4 1 
4). Reduce the matrix A to normal form and hence find its rank A
2 3 7 5
 
2 5 11 6

2 1 3 4
 1 
Sol: Given A  0 3 4
2 3 7 5
 
2 5 11 6

1 1 3 4
1 0 3 4 1 
C1  C1 A~ 
2 1 3 7 5
 
1 5 11 6

1 1 3 4
R3  R3  R2 0 3 4 1 
R4  R4  R1 A~ 
0 2 4 1
 
0 4 8 2

1 1 3 4
0 0 
R2  R2  R3 A~ 
1 0
0 2 4 1
 
0 4 8 2

1 0 0 0
R3  R3  2 R2 0 1 0 0 
R4  R4  4 R2 A~ 
0 0 4 1
 
0 0 8 2

1 0 0 0
0 0 
R4  R4  2R3 A~ 
1 0
0 0 4 1
 
0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0
0 0 
C4  4C4  C3 A~ 
1 0
0 0 4 1
 
0 0 0 0
 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0  I 0
C3  C3 A~  ⇒ A~  3
3 0 0 1 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0

This is in normal form. Thus Rank of matrix = Order of identify matrix.  Rank  ( A)  3

0 1 2 2
5). Reduce the matrix A =  4 0 2 6  into canonical form and then find its rank.

 2 1 3 1 

1 0 2 2
Sol: Apply C1  C2 A ~ 0 4 2 6 
1 2 3 1 

1 0 2 2
R3  R3  R1 A ~ 0 4 2 6 
0 2 1 3 

1 0 0 0 
C3  C3  2C1; C4  C4  2C1 A ~ 0 4 2 6 
0 2 1 3

R2 1 0 0 0 
R2  A ~ 0 2 1 3
2
0 0 0 0 

1 0 0 0 
C2  C3 A ~ 0 1 2 3
0 0 0 0 

1 0 0 0 
C3  C3  2C2 ; C4  C4  3C2 A ~ 0 1 0 0 
0 0 0 0 

I 0
Which is in the normal form  2   (A) = 2
0 
,
0
Note: .If A is an mxn matrix of rank r, there exists non-singular matrices P and Q such that
 I r 0
PAQ =  
0 0 
Suppose we want to find P and Q we have procedure.
Let order of matrix ‘A’ is ‘3 i.e. A = I3 A I3
1 0 0 1 0 0
A = 0 1 
0  A 0 1 0 
0 0 1  0 0 1 
Now we go on applying elementary row operations and column operations on the matrix A
 I 0
(L.H.S) until it is reduced to the normal form  r 
0 0 
Every row operations will also be applied to the pre-factor of on R.H.S
Every column operation will also be applied to the post –factor of on R.H.S.

Solved Problems :
1 0  2
1. Find the non-singular matrices P and Q is of the normal form where A = 2 3  4 
3 3  6 

Sol: Write A = I3 A I3
1 0  2 1 0 0 1 0 0
~ 2 3  4  = 0 1


0  A 0 1 0 
3 3  6  0 0 1  0 0 1 

1 0  2 1 0 0  1 0 0
R2 → R2-2R1, R3→R3-3R1 ~ 0 3 0  =  2 1 0 A 0 1
   0 
0 3 0   3 0 1 0 0 1 

1 0  2 1 0 0 1 0 0
R3 → R3-R2, R2 →1/3 R2 ~ 0 1 0     2 / 3 1 / 3 0  A 0 1
   0 
0 0 0   1 1 1  0 0 1 

1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 2
c3 → c3-2c1 ~ 0 1 0  =   2 / 3 1 / 3 0 A 0 1
   0
0 0 0  1 1 1  0 0 1 

1 0 0 1 0 2
~[ 
]= PAQ where P =  2 / 3 1 / 3 0 Q = 0 1 0
 1 1 1  0 0 1 

2. Find the non-singular matrices P and Q such that the normal form of A is P A Q.
1 3 6  1
Where A = 1 4 5 1  . Hence find its rank.

1 5 4 3 

Sol: we write A = I3A I4

1 3 6  1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 
~ 1 4 5 1 =
 0  A  1 0
 0 0 1 0
1 5 4 3  0 0 1   
0 0 0 1 
 1 3 6 1  1 0 0 0
1 0 0  0
R2 →R2- R1, R3→R3-R1 ~ 0 1 1 2  =   1 1 0 A  1 0 0 
   0 0 1 0
0 2  2 4  1 0 1  
0 0 0 1 

1 3 6 1  1 0 0 0
1 0 0  0 0 
R3 →R3-2R2 ~ 0 1  1 2 =  1 1 0 A  1 0
   0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0   1  2 1  
0 0 0 1 

Applying c2→c2-3c1,c3 →c3-6c1, and c4→c4+c1, we get.

1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1  3  6 1
~ 0 1  1 2 =  1 1 0 
A 0 1 0 0 
  
0 1 0 
0 0 0  1  2 1 
0 0
 
 0 0 0 1 

Applying c3→c3+c2 and c4→c4-2c2, we get.

1  3  9 7 
1 0 0  0
1 0
1 1  2
0 0
~ 0 1 =  1 1 0  A
 0 0  

0 0 1 0 
0 0 0 0  1  2 1  
0 0 0 1 

 I 0 1  3  9 7 
1 0 0  0
  2  = P A Q Where P =  1 1 0  Q=  1 1  2
0 0    0 0 1 0 
1  2 1  
0 0 0 1 

 I 0
Here A ~  2  , ∴ Hence ρ(A) =2
0 0 
System of linear equations: In this chapter we shall apply the theory of matrices to study the
existence and nature of solutions for a system of m linear equations in ‘n’ unknowns.
The system of m linear equations in ‘n’ unknowns x1, x2, x3     xn given by

a11 x1  a12 x2  ......  a1n xn  b1

a21 x1  a22 x2  ......  a2 n xn  b2
} --------------------------- (1)
..............................................
am1 x1  am 2 x2  ......  amn xn  bm

The above set of equations can be written in the Matrix form as A X = B

 a11 a12    a1n   x1   b1 
a a22    a2 n  x  b 
 21  2  2
       .    .   (2)
     
       .  . 
 an1 an 2    ann   xn  bm 

A-Coefficient Matrix; X-Set of unknowns; B-Constant Matrix

Homogeneous Linear Equations: If b 1  b2  ...........  bm  0 then B = 0
Hence eqn (2) Reduces to AX = 0 which are known as homogeneous linear equations
Non-Homogeneous Linear equations:
It at least one of b1, b2----bm is non zero. Then B  0, the system Reduces to AX = B is known
as Non-Homogeneous Linear equations.
Solutions: A set of numbers x1 , x2   xn which satisfy all the equations in the system is known
as solution of the system.
Consistent: If the system possesses a solution then the system of equations is said to be
consistent.
Inconsistent: If the system has no solution then the system of equations is said to be
Inconsistent.
Augmented Matrix: A matrix which is obtained by attaching the elements of B as the last
column in the coefficient matrix A is called Augmented Matrix. It is denoted by [A|B]
 a11 a12 a13   a1n : b1 
 A B   C   a21 a22 a23   a2 n : b2 
 am1 am 2 am3   amn : b3 

1. If  ( A / B)   (A) , then the system of equations AX = B is consistent (solution exits).

a). If  ( A / B)   (A) = r = n (no. of unknowns) system is consistent and have a unique
solution

b). If  ( A / B)   (A) = r < n (no. of unknowns) then the system of equations AX = B will
have an infinite no. of solutions. In this case (n-r) variables can be assigned arbitrary values.

2. If  ( A / B)   (A) then the system of equations AX=B is inconsistent (no solution).

In case of homogeneous system AX = 0, the system is always consistent.
(or) x1 = 0, x2 = 0, --------, xn = 0 is always the solution of the system known as the” zero
solution “.
Non-trivial solution:
If  ( A / B)   (A) = r < n (no. of unknowns) then the system of equations AX = 0 will have
an infinite no. of non zero (non trivial) solutions. In this case (n-r) variables can be assigned
arbitrary values.
Also we use some direct methods for solving the system of equations.
Note: The direct methods are Cramer’s rule, Matrix Inversion, Gaussian Elimination, Gauss
Jordan, Factorization Tridiagonal system. These methods will give a unique solution.
Procedure to solve AX = B (Non Homogeneous equations)
Let us first consider n equations in n unknowns ie. m=n then the system will be of the form
a11x1+a12x2+a13x3+…..+a1nxn =b1
a21x1+a22x2+a23x3+…..+a2nxn =b2
…………………………………..
an1x1+an2x2+an3x3+…..+annxn =bn
The above system can be written as AX = B --------- (1)
Where A is an n  n matrix.
Solving AX = B using Echelon form:
Consider the system of m equations in n unknowns given by
a11x1+a12x2+a13x3+…..+a1nxn =b1
a21x1+a22x2+a23x3+…..+a2nxn =b2
…………………………………..
am1x1+am2x2+am3x3+…..+amnxn =bm
We know this system can be we write as AX = B
 a11 a12 a1n b1 
 
a a22 a2 n b2 
The augmented matrix of the above system is [A / B] =  21
 
 
 am1 am 2 amn bm 

The system AX = B is consistent if ρ (A) = ρ[A/B]

i). ρ (A) = ρ [A/B] = r < n (no. of unknowns).Then there is infinite no. of solutions.
ii). ρ (A) = ρ [A/B] = number of unknowns then the system will have unique solution.
iii). ρ (A) ≠ ρ [A/B] the system has no solution.
Solved Problems :
1). Show that the equations x+y+z = 4, 2x+5y-2z =3, x+7y-7z =5 are not consistent.
1 1 1   x   4
Sol: Write given equations is of the form AX = B i.e; 2 5  2  y   3 
   
1 7  7   z  5 

1 1 1 4
Consider the Augment matrix is [A /B]  [A/B] = 2 5 2 3
1 7 7 5 

1 1 1 4 
Applying R2 →R2-2R1 and R3 → R3-R1, we get [A/B] ~ 0 3 4  5
0 6 8 1 
 1 1 1 4 
Applying R3→ R3-2R2, we get [A/B] ~ 0 3 4  5
0 0 0 11 

∴ρ (A) =2 and ρ (A/B) =3

The given system is inconsistent as ρ (A) ≠ ρ[A/B].
2). Show that the equations given below are consistent and hence solve them
x-3y-8z = -10, 3x+y-4z =0, 2x+5y+6z =3
1  3  8  x   10
Sol: Matrix notation is 3 1  4   y   0 
   
2 5 6   z  3 

1  3 8  10
Augmented matrix [A/B] is [A/B] = 3 1 4 0 

2 5 6 3 

1 3 8  10 
R2 → R2-3R1 R3 → R3 -2R1 ~ 0 10 20 3 0 

0 11 22 23

1 3 8  10 
R2 →1/10 R2 ~ 0 1 2 3 
 
0 11 22 23 

1 3 8  10 
R3 →R3-11R2 ~ 0 1 2 3 
 
0 0 0  10

This is the Echelon form of [A/B] ∴ρ (A) =2, ρ (A/B) =3

ρ (A) ≠ ρ[A/B].
The given system is inconsistent.
3). Find whether the following equations are consistent, if so solve them. x+y+2z=4,
2x-y+3z=9, 3x-y-z=2
1 1 2   x   4
Sol: We write the given equations in the form AX=B i.e; 2  1 3   y   9 
3  1  1  z  2

1 1 2 4 
The Augmented matrix [A/B] = 2 1 3 9 

3 1 1 2 
 1 1 2 4 
Applying R2→ R2-2R1 and R3→R3-3R1, we get [A/B] ~ 0  3 1 1 

0  4  7  10 

1 1 2 4 
Applying R3 →3R3-4R2, we get [A/B] ~ 0  3 1 1 

0 0  17  34 

this matrix is in Echelon form. ρ(A) = 3 and ρ(A/B) = 3

Since ρ (A) =ρ [A/B]. ∴ The system of equations is consistent.
Here the number of unknowns is 3
Since ρ (A) =ρ [A/B] = number of unknowns
 The system of equations has a unique solution
1 1 2   x  4 
We have 0  3  1   y   1 
0 0  17   z   34

 -17z = -34  z = 2
-3y-z =1  -3y =z+1  -3y =3  y= -1
and x+y+2z =4  x=4-y-2z =4+1-4=1
 x=1, y=-1, z=2 is the solution.
4). Show that the equations x+y+z=6, x+2y+3z=14, x+4y+7z=30 are consistent and solve
them.
1 1 1  x  6 
Sol: We write the given equations in the form AX=B i.e. 1 2 3   y   14 
   
1 4 7   z  30

1 1 1 6 
The Augmented matrix [A/B] = 1 2 3 14 
 
1 4 7 30 
1 1 1 6 
Applying R2→ R2-R1 and R3→R3-R1, we get [A/B] ~ 0 1 2 8 
 
0 3 6 24 

1 1 1 6 
Applying R3 →R3-3R2, we get [A/B] ~ 0 1 2 8 
 
0 0 0 0 

This matrix is in Echelon form. ρ(A) = 2 and ρ(A/B) = 2

Since ρ (A) =ρ [A/B].
The system of equations is consistent. Here the no. of unknowns are 3
Since rank of A is less than the no. of unknowns, the system of equations will have infinite
number of solutions in terms of n-r=3-2=1 arbitrary constant.
1 1 1  x  6 
The given system of equations reduced form is 0 1 2   y   8 
   
0 0 0   z  0

x+y+z=6……… (1), y+2z=8…….(2)

Let z=k, put z=k in (2) we get y=8-2k
Put z=k y=8-2k in (1), we get
x=6-y-z=6-8+2k=-2+k
∴ x=-2+k, y=8-2k, z=k is the solution, where k is an arbitrary constant.
5). Show that x  2 y  z  3 ; 3 x  y  2 z  1 ; 2 x  2 y  3z  2; x  y  z  1 are consistent
and solve them
1 2 1 3
 3 1 2   x   
   y   1 
Sol: The above system in matrix notation is  2 2 3    2
   z  31  
1 1 1  43  1 41
A X B

1 2 1 3 
 3 1 2 1 
The Augmented matrix is  AB    
 2 2 3 2 
 
1 1 1 1
R2  R2  3R1 1 2 1 3 
0 7 5 8 
R3  R3  2 R1 ~ 
0 6 5 0 
R4  R4  R1  
0 3 2 4 

1 2 1 3 
0 1 0 4 
R2  R2  R3 ~ 
0 6 5 4 
 
0 3 2 4 
1 2 1 3 
R3  R3  3R1 0 1 0 4 
R4  R4  3R2 ~ 
0 0 5 20 
 
0 0 2 8 

1 2 1 3 
R 0 1 0 4 
R3  3 ~ 
5 0 0 1 4 
 
0 0 2 8 
 1 2 1 3 
 
R4  R4  2R3 0 1 0 4 
~
0 0 1 4 
 
0 0 0 0 

∴ρ (A) = 3 = ρ (A/B
∴ρ (A) =ρ (A/B) = No. of unknowns = 3
 The given system has unique solution.
The systems of equations equivalent to given system are
x  2y  z  3  y  4; z  4
x84  3 y  4; z  4
x  3  4  1
 x  1, y  4, z  4.
6). Solve x  y  z  3; 3x  5 y  2 z  8; 5 x  3 y  4 z  14

1 1 1   x   3 
Sol: - 3 5 2  y    8 
    
5 3 4  z  14

1 1 1 3 
Augmented Matrix is  AB  3 5 2 8 
5 3 4 14 

1 1 1 3 
R2  R2  3R1
~ 0 8 1 1
R3  R3  5R1
0 8 1 1

1 1 1 3 
R3  R3  R2  
~ 0 8 1 1
0 0 0 0 

  A    AB  2  Number of unknowns (3)

 The system has infinite number of solutions.
x  y  z  3,  8 y  z  1  8 y  z  1

Let z  k  y 
1 k
and x  3
1  k   k  24  1  k  8k  23  7k
8 8 8 8
 x   238  87 k   238 
 X   y    18  8k   X   81  where k is any real number.
 z   0  k   1 

7). Find whether the following system of equations is consistent. If so solve them.
x  2 y  2 z  2, 3x  2 y  z  5, 2 x  5 y  3z  4, x  4 y  6 z  0.
 MATHEMATICS - I

1 2 2  2
 3 2 1   x   
   y   5 
Sol: In Matrix form it is  2 5 3     4 
   z   
1 4 6  0
AX  B

1 2 2 2 
R2  R2  3R1 0 8 5 1
~ 
R3  R3  2 R1 0 9 1 8 
 
R4  R4  R1 0 2 4 2 
1 2 2 2 
0 1 4 7 
~ 
0 9 1 8
 
R2  R2  R3 0 2 4 2 
1 2 2 2 
0 1 4 7 
~
R3  R3  9 R2 0 0 37 55 
 
R4  R4  2 R2 0 0 12 16 

1 2 2 2
 1 4 7 
R4 
1
R4 ~ 0
4 0 0 37 55 
 
0 0 3 4 

1 2 2 2
 1 4 7 
R4  37 R4  3R3 ~ 0 is in echelon form
0 0 37 55
 
0 0 0 17 

  A  3 and   AB  4    A    AB .∴The given system is in consistent.

8). Discuss for what values of , the simultaneous equations x+y+z = 6, x+2y+3z =10,
x+2y+ z = have
(i). No solution
(ii). A unique solution
(iii). An infinite number of solutions.
1 1 1  x  6 
Sol: The matrix form of given system of Equations is A X = 1 2 3   y   10 = B
   
1 2    z    
 1 1 1 6
The augmented matrix is [A/B] = 1 2 3 10
1 2   

1 1 1 6 
R2 → R2 – R1, R3 → R3-R1 [A/B] ~ 0 1 2 4 
0 1  1   6

1 1 1 6 
R3 →R3 – R2 ~ 0 1 2 4 

0 0   3   10
Case (i): let ≠ 3 the rank of A = 3 and rank [A/B] = 3
Here the no. of unknowns is ‘3’ ∴ρ (A) =ρ (A/B)= No. of unknowns
The system has unique solution if ≠3 and for any value of ‘ ’.

Case (ii): Suppose =3 and ≠10.

We have ρ (A) = 2, ρ (A/B) = 3
The system has no solution.
Case (iii): Let =3 and =10.
We have ρ (A) = 2 ρ (A/B) = 2
Here ρ (A) = ρ (A/B) ≠ No. of unknowns =3
The system has infinitely many solutions.
9). Find the values of a and b for which the equations x+y+z=3; x+2y+2z=6;x+ay+3z=b
have (i) No solution
(ii) A unique solution
(iii) Infinite no of solutions.
1 1 1   x   3
Sol: The above system in matrix notation is 1 2 2   y   6 
    
1 a 3   z  b 

1 1 1 3
Augmented matrix  AB  1 2 2 6
1 a 3 b 

1 1 1 3 
R2  R2  R1 
~ 0 1 1 3 
R3  R3  R1
0 a  1 2 b  2 
 MATHEMATICS - I

1 1 1 3 
R3  R3  R2 
~ 0 1 1 3 
0 a  3 0 b  9 

1 1 1 3 
 
 For a  3 & b  9 ~ 0 1 1 3 
0 0 0 0 

   A    AB  2  3 ⇒ It has infinite no of solutions.

1 1 1 3 
 
 For a  3 & b  any value ~ 0 1 1 3 
0 a  3 0 b  9 

   A    AB  3 ⇒ It has a unique solution.

1 1 1 3 
 
 For a  3&b  9 ~ 0 1 1 3 
0 0 0 b  9 

   A  2    AB  3 ⇒ Inconsistent  no solution

10). Solve the following system completely. x  y  z  1; x  2 y  4 x   ; x  4 y  10 z   2

1 1 1   x   1 
1 2 4   y     
Sol: The above system in matrix notation is     
1 4 10   z   2 
A X  B

1 1 1 1 
Augmented Matrix is  AB   1 2 4  
1 4 10  2 

R2  R2  R1 1 1 1 1 
~ 0 1 3   1 

R3  R3  R1
0 3 9  2  1

1 1 1 1 
 
~ 0 1 3  1 
R3  R3  3R2 0 0 0  2  3  2 

Here   A  2 and   AB  3 ⇒ The given system of equations is consistent if

 2  3  2  0   2  2    2  0    2 1  0    2,  1

Case (i): When   1
 MATHEMATICS - I

  A    AB  2  Number of unknowns.

 The system has infinite number of solutions.

1 1 1 1 
The equivalent matrix is 0 1 3 0 
 
0 0 0 0

The equivalent systems of equations are x  y  z  1; y  3z  0

 Let z  k  y  3k and x  (3k )  K  1  x  2k  1  x  1  2k

 x  1  2k  1  2
X   y   0  3k   X  0  k  3 where k is any arbitrary constant.
     
 z   0  k  0  1 

Case (ii): When   2

  A    AB  2  no. of unknowns.

 The system has infinite number of solutions.

1 1 1 1 
The equivalent matrix is ~ 0 1 3 1 
 
0 0 0 0
The system of equations equivalent to the given system is x + y + z = 1; y + 3z = 1
Let z  k  y  1  3k and x  (1  3K )  k  1  x  2k

 x   0  2k  0 2
 X   y    1  3k   X  1   k  3
     
 z   0  k  0  1 
where k is any arbitrary constant.
11). Show that the equations 3x  4 y  5 z  a; 4 x  5 y  6 z  b;5 x  6 y  7 z  c don’t have

a solution unless a  c  2b. solve equations when a=b=c= -1.

3 4 5  x  a 
4 5 6  y   b 
Sol: The Matrix notation is     
5 6 7   z   c 
A X  B

3 4 5 a 
Augment Matrix is  AB  4 5 6 b 
 5 6 7 c 

3 4 5 a 
R2  3R2  4 R1
~ 0 1 2 3b  4a 

R3  3R3  5R1
0 2 4 3c  5a 
 Cramer’s Rule

Cramer‟s rule is a method of solving a system of linear equations through the use of
determinants.

Matrices and Determinants

To use Cramer‟s Rule, some elementary knowledge of matrix algebra is required. An

array of numbers, such as

6 5 a11 a12
A= 
3 4 a21 a22

is called a matrix. This is a “2 by 2” matrix. However, a matrix can be of any size, defined by
m rows and n columns (thus an “m by n” matrix). A “square matrix,” has the same number of
rows as columns. To use Cramer‟s rule, the matrix must be square.

A determinant is number, calculated in the following way for a “2 by 2” matrix:

a11 a12
A = = a11 a22 - a21 a12
a21 a22

For example, letting a11 = 6, a12 = 5, a21 = 3, a22 = 4:

6 5
A= = 6 (4) - 3 (5) = 9
3 4

For “m by n” matrices of orders larger than 2 by 2, there is a general procedure that can be
used to find the determinant. This procedure is best explained as an example. Consider the
determinant for a 3 by 3 matrix

a11 a12 a13

A = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
 The determinant A is calculated as follows:

a22 a23 a31 a23 a21 a22

A = a11 - a12 + a13
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32

note the sign change

A = a11 (a22 a33 - a23 a32) - a12 (a21 a33 - a23 a31) + a13 (a21 a32 - a22 a31)

Sign change (like a “2 by 2” matrix)

Note: Sign changes alternate, following the order: positive, negative, positive, negative, etc.

The determinant of the 3 by 3 matrix is the sum of three products. The first step is to
understand the placement of the elements from the matrix into the determinant equation. This
is done by:

1. The three products to be summed correspond to the three elements along the top
row of the matrix (this would be a11, a12, a13).

2. Now, imagine a line that goes though the top row of elements (see the model
below).

3. Beginning at a11, imagine, too, a line through the first column (Figure 1).

4. The 4 remaining elements are used to construct a new “2 by 2” matrix, and the
element a11 is used to form the first of the three parts of the calculation:
a22 a23
a11
a32 a33

5. The same process (follow steps 1-4 above) is then repeated for a12 and a13 as seen
in figures 2 and 3 respectively, i.e., the top row contains the element used to
multiply the new “2 by 2” matrix, and the column which contains the element
from the top row is omitted.

a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13 a11 a21 a31

a21 a22 a23 a21 a22 a23 a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33

Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3

2
For an example, consider:

5 6 7
A= 2 1 4
9 6 3

Find the determinant A.

Determinant A is calculated as follows:

1 4 2 4 2 1
A = 5 - 6 + 7
6 3 9 3 9 6

 A = 5 [1 (3) - 6 (4)] - 6 [2 (3) - 9 (4) ] + 7 [2 (6) - 9 (1)]

A = 96

A Description of Cramer’s Rule

Cramer‟s rule is a method of solving a system of linear equations through the use of
determinants. Cramer‟s rule is given by the equation

xi = Ai
A

where xi is the i th endogenous variable in a system of equations, A is the determinant of the
original A matrix as discussed in the previous section, and Ai is the determinant a special
matrix formed as part of Cramer‟s rule.

To use Cramer‟s rule, two (or more) linear equations are arranged in the matrix form
A x = d. For a two equation model:

A x = d
a11 a12 x1 d1
a21 a22 x2 = d2

A is the matrix corresponding to the number of equations in a system (here, two equations),
and the number of endogenous variables in the system (here 2 variables). Remember that the
matrix must be square, so the number of equations must equal the same number of endogenous

3
variables. Position x has one column and corresponds to the number of endogenous variables
in the system. Finally, position d contains the exogenous terms of each linear equation.

Note: The determinant for a matrix must not equal 0 (A  0). If A = 0 then there is no
solution, or there are infinite solutions (from dividing by zero). Therefore, A  0. When A
 0, then a unique solution exists.

Applying Cramer’s Rule in a 2x2 example

Using Cramer‟s rule to solve for the unknowns in the following linear equations:

2x1 + 6x2 = 22

-x1 + 5x2 = 53

Then,
A x = d

2 6 x1 22
=
-1 5 x2 53

2 6
The primary determinant A = = 2 (5) - (-1) 6 = 16
-1 5

We need to construct xi = Ai, for i=1 and for i=2.

A

The first special determinant A1 is found by replacing the first column of the primary
matrix with the constant „d‟ column. The new special matrix A1 now appears as:

22 6
A1 =
53 5

and solved as a regular matrix determinant,

A1 = 22 (5) - 53 (6) = -208

Likewise, the same procedure is done to find the second special determinant A2,

4
 2 22
A2 =
-1 53

A2 = 2 (53) - (-1) (22) = 128

We have now determined:

A = 16
A1 = -208
A2 = 128

Using:

xi = Ai
A

we get,
A1 -208
x1 =  A = 16 = -13 (Solution)

A2 128
x2 = A = 16 = 8 (Solution)

Applying Cramer’s Rule in a 3x3 example

Using Cramer‟s Rule to solve for the unknowns in three linear equations:

5x1 - 2x2 + 3x3 = 16

2x1 + 3x2 - 5x3 = 2
4x1 - 5x2 + 6x3 = 7
Then,

5 -2 3 x1 16
2 3 -5 x2 = 2
4 -5 6 x3 7

5
 5 -2 3
The primary determinant A= 2 3 -5 = 5(18 - 25) + 2(12 + 20) + 3(-10 - 12) = - 37
4 -5 6

The three special determinants are:

16 -2 3
A1= 2 3 -5 = 16(18 - 25) + 2(12 + 35) + 3(-10 - 21) = -111
7 -5 6

5 16 3
A2= 2 2 -5 = 5(12 + 35) - 16(12 + 20) + 3(14 - 8) = -259
4 7 6

5 -2 16
A3= 2 3 2 = 5(21 + 10) + 2(14 - 8) + 16(-10 - 12) = -185
4 -5 7

Applying Cramer‟s Rule:

 A1 -111
x1 = A = -37 = 3

A2 -259
x2 = A = -37 = 7

A3 -185
x3 = A = -37 = 5