Lecture notes1 for

Applied Partial Differential Equations 2

(MATH20402)

Lecturer: Dr Valeriy Slastikov

c University of Bristol 2017

This material is copyright of the University unless explicitly stated otherwise. It is

provided exclusively for educational purposes at the University and is to be downloaded
or copied for your private study only.

1 This is a revised version of 2014 notes. Modified by Dr Valeriy Slastikov.

1
Chapter 1

Introduction and Review

Many physical systems are modelled in terms of continuous functions (e.g. temperature,
velocity) and depend upon more than one variable (e.g. space and time).

The mathematical equations that describe the variations of these functions are nearly
always described by rates/gradients (i.e. involve derivatives) and therefore lead to partial
differential equations (PDEs).

Essentially the whole subject of applied mathematics is underpinned by PDEs !

PDEs are used to describe: fluid dynamics, elasticity, radio communications, chemical
reactions, climate modelling, stock markets, and so on...

Many of these physical systems are complicated and lead to problems which are difficult to
model mathematically. Many reduce under certain simplifying assumptions to more basic
PDEs. Our main focus to consider a simple important important set of examples of PDEs
which we shall derive from simple physical models; however, these PDEs are often closely
related to those describing more complex physical systems.

The course concentrates on describing analytical methods for solving these PDEs. Note:
often, but not always, life is not as simple as we make out here and numerical methods are
needed to help solve PDEs.

Before looking at PDEs, it is helpful to review some important concepts of ordinary

differential equations (ODEs).

2
1.1 Review of ODEs

An ODE for a function of one variable, u( x ) say, is an equation involving

x, u( x ), u0 ( x ), u00 ( x ), . . ., which holds in some interval of x, which may be finite or infinite.

Defn: Here u depends on x and so u is called the dependent variable and x is called the
independent variable.

1.1.1 Types of ODE

Defn:

(i) The order of an ODE is the value of the highest derivative.

(ii) An nth order ODE for u( x ) is linear if it can be written in the form

an ( x )u(n) ( x ) + . . . + a2 ( x )u00 ( x ) + a1 ( x )u0 ( x ) + a0 u( x ) = f ( x )

for some an ( x ). Otherwise non-linear.

(iii) A linear ODE is said to be homogeneous if u( x ) = 0 is a solution. I.e. f ( x ) = 0 in
above.

1.1.2 Examples and Terminology

1. Newton’s Law of cooling. Temperature T (t) satisfies the ODE:
dT
= −k( T − T ) or T 0 + kT = kT
dt
for time t > 0 where k (rate of cooling) and T (ambient temperature) are constants.
Here, T is the dependent variable, t is independent variable.
The ODE is: 1st order, linear and non-homogeneous.
Solution (separating variables/integrating factor):

T (t) − T = Ce−kt , C constant

If given initial condition (IC) T (0) = T0 , then C = T0 − T.

Defn: The ODE plus IC define an initial-value problem.
2. Consider
u00 ( x ) − 3u0 ( x ) + 2u( x ) = 2x
ODE is: 2nd order, linear, inhomogeneous.
Dependent variable is u, independent variable x.
Solution (Complementary Function and Particular Solution):
3
u( x ) = x + + Aex + Be2x
2

3
 where A and B are arbitrary constants.
Note: In general, ODEs have general solutions and number of arbitrary constants
equals to the order of the ODE.
If ODE holds over a < x < b, say, then we often specify information about the
solution at the two end points, x = a, x = b, say, u( a) = 0, u(b) = 1. These are called
boundary conditions (BCs).
Defn: The ODE plus BCs define a (two-point) boundary-value problem

1.1.3 Linear Homogeneous Problems

Want to focus on ODEs which will be important later. First

Defn: A BC at x = a is called homogeneous if it is of the form

• u( a) = 0 (homogeneous Dirichlet BC)

• u0 ( a) = 0 (homogeneous Neumann BC)
• αu( a) + βu0 ( a) = 0, given constants α, β (homogeneous Robin BC)

If non-zero on RHS then BC is called inhomogeneous.

Defn: A Homogeneous Problem comprises a homogeneous linear ODE with

homogeneous BCs.

Obviously, u( x ) ≡ 0 is always a solution of such a problem, (the trivial solution) but is this
always the only solution ...

1.1.4 Key illustrative example

Consider the homogeneous problem

u00 ( x ) − λu( x ) = 0, 0 < x < 1, with Dirichlet BCs u (0) = u (1) = 0
How do the solutions depend on λ ?

Usual method of solution: Try u = Aerx gives characteristic equation

√
r2 − λ = 0, so r=± λ
Three different types of solution depending on λ > 0 (real roots) λ = 0 (repeated roots)
and λ < 0 (complex conjugate roots)

Case 1: λ > 0. Helps to write λ = µ2 . Then r = ±µ and the general solution can be written
u( x ) = Ceµx + De−µx ,
or (better for finite domains), combine exponentials
u( x ) = A cosh(µx ) + B sinh(µx ).

4
Apply BC u(0) = 0 gives A = 0, and then BC u(1) = 0 gives B sinh µ = 0. Since µ > 0,
must have B = 0. So only solution is u( x ) ≡ 0.

Case 2: λ = 0. Now ODE is u00 ( x ) = 0 so general solution is u( x ) = Ax + B. Fitting BCs

implies A = B = 0 and u( x ) ≡ 0 again.

Case 3: λ < 0. Helps to write λ = −k2 . Then r = ±ik and general solution is
u( x ) = Ceikx + De−ikx
or (again, better for finite intervals)
u( x ) = A cos(kx ) + B sin(kx )
Apply BC u(0) = 0 to give A = 0 and BC u(1) = 0 to give B sin k = 0. Now:

• If k 6= nπ, n ∈ Z then sin k 6= 0, so B = 0 and only solution is u( x ) ≡ 0.

• If k = nπ, n ∈ Z then u( x ) = Bn sin(nπx ) is a solution ∀ Bn and ∀n ∈ Z

1.1.5 Eigenvalues and eigenfunctions

Summary: we have seen that the linear homogeneous problem

u00 ( x ) = λu( x ) 0<x<1 with u(0) = u(1) = 0 (1.1)
has

• zero solutions for most values of λ,

• non-zero solutions when λ = −n2 π 2 , n = 1, 2, . . ..
Note: n = −1, −2, . . . duplicates same values of λ so not needed.

For any of these values of λ, there are infinitely many solutions (Bn is an arbitrary constant
multiplier of sin(nπx ).

This is reminiscent of linear algebra where a matrix A has eigenvalues given by Ax = λx

and each eigenvalue has an eigenvector which can be multiplied by an arbitrary constant.

Here, we can think of u00 as L u where L is the operator (here it is d2 /dx2 ) which
transforms u into u00 .

By analogy we write (1.1) as

L u = λu, where L = d2 /dx2 is a differential operator
and we call λ = λn = −n2 π 2 , n = 1, 2, . . . eigenvalues.

For each eigenvalue, the non-trivial solutions are called eigenfunctions. Here, the
eigenfunctions corresponding to λ = −n2 π 2 are u( x ) = un ( x ) = sin nπx.

Note: any multiple of an eigenfunction is also an eigenfunction.

Note: The ODE alone does not determine the eigenvalues; the BCs are essential.

5
1.1.6 Principle of linear superposition

For a linear homogeneous problem any linear combination of solutions is also a solution.

Proof: u( x ) = u1 ( x ) and u( x ) = u2 ( x ) both satisfy the same homogeneous ODE:

a2 ( x )u00 ( x ) + a1 ( x )u0 ( x ) + a0 ( x )u( x ) = 0 (1.2)

and the same homogeneous BCs then so does u( x ) = α1 u1 ( x ) + α2 u2 ( x ) for any arbitrary
constants α1 and α2 (easy to confirm).

Obvious to extend: if u = un ( x ) satisfies (1.2) for n = 1, 2, . . . , N, then so does

N
u( x ) = ∑ αn un ( x )
n =1

for arbitrary constants αn .

1.1.7 Inhomogeneous problems

Either an inhomogeneous ODE or a homogeneous ODE with inhomogeneous BCs. Possibly

both.

Now the principle of superposition does not hold

Examples:

(i) Let u1 and u2 be two solutions satisfying

u00 ( x ) − u( x ) = 0 0<x<1 with inhomogeneous BCs u(0) = 0, u(1) = 1.

Now u = α1 u1 + α2 u2 satisfies ODE and u(0) = 0 but u(1) = α1 + α2 6= 1 for arbitrary

α1 and α2 .

(ii) Similarly consider inhomogeneous ODE: u00 ( x ) − λu( x ) = f ( x ), 0 < x < 1 with
u(0) = u(1) = 0.

1.1.8 Reducing inhomogeneous problems to homogeneous problems

Trick is to find a particular solution satisfying the inhomogeneous problem (similar to C.F.
+ P.S.)

In e.g. (i) above, observe that u p ( x ) = sinh( x )/ sinh(1) is a particular solution of the ODE
with the inhomogeneous BCs.

Define v( x ) = u( x ) − u p ( x ) and now v( x ) satisfies the homogeneous problem:

v00 ( x ) − v( x ) = 0, v(0) = 0, v(1) = 0.

This will be useful later ...

6
1.2 Introduction to PDEs

1.2.1 What is a PDE ?

It’s an equation for a function of n ≥ 2 variables, involving partial derivatives.

As in ODEs it must hold in a region, Rn of space, which can be finite or infinite.

Notation:
∂f ∂2 f ∂2 f
≡ f x ≡ ∂x f , ≡ f xx ≡ ∂ xx f , ≡ f xy ≡ ∂ xy f , etc.
∂x ∂x2 ∂x∂y

Note: For any ‘well-behaved’ f ( x, y),

f xy ≡ f yx
We always assume well-behaved: I.e. continuous and differentiable as often necessary.

As in ODEs, for a function u( x, y), u is called the dependent variable and x, y are the
independent variables.

1.2.2 Types of PDE

The terminology parallels exactly that for ODEs. I.e.

• The order is the value of the highest derivative (u xy is a 2nd derivative)

• A linear PDE is one in which the dependent variable and its derivatives occur
linearly. Otherwise non-linear.

• A homogeneous PDE is one for which u = 0 is a solution.

1.2.3 Examples
1. u x = 2x sin y + exy for u( x, y).
PDE is: 1st order, linear & inhomogeneous.
Solution is simple: integrating gives

exy
u( x, y) = x2 sin y + + f (y)
y

where f is any real function.

Note: Whereas ODEs have general solutions involving arbitrary constants, PDEs have
general solutions with arbitrary functions (generally as many as the order of the
PDE).

7
 2.
φξη = 0

PDE for φ(ξ, η ) is: 2nd order, linear & homogeneous.

General solution found by successively integrating. First integration w.r.t. η gives
φξ = h(ξ ) for arbitrary function h. Then integrate w.r.t. ξ to give
Z ξ
φ(ξ, η ) = h(t)dt + g(η ) = f (ξ ) + g(η )

where f is arbitrary as h was arbitrary.

3.
φt = φxx
PDE for φ( x, t) is: 2nd order, linear & homogeneous.
Called diffusion equation.
A particular solution is φ( x, t) = 2at + bx + ax2 for constants a, b. But not a general
solution.

4.
ρt + ρρ x = 0.
PDE for ρ( x, t) is: 1st order, non-linear & homogeneous.
No obvious solution ... later...

5. Electric field due to static charges governed by

φxx + φyy + φzz = 4πρ

where ρ( x, y, z) is given charge density. Called Poisson’s equation.

PDE for φ( x, y, z) is linear, 2nd order, inhomogeneous.
(Online Extra: Given electric field E, satisfying time-independent Maxwell’s
equations, ∇ × E = 0 and ∇.E = 4πρ, it follows from the first equation that E = ∇φ
where φ is scalar function and using this in the second equation gives Poisson’s
equation)

1.3 Classification of linear second order PDEs

The general form of the second order linear PDE is

Au xx + Bu xy + Cuyy + Du x + Euy + Fu = G (1.3)

The calssification of PDEs is similar to classification of the quadratic equation of conic

sections, where equation

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

represents hyperbola, parabola or ellipse depending on sign of B2 − 4AC.

8
Let us derive canonical forms of second order linear PDEs with constant coefficients. We
have to look only at the second order terms

Au xx + Bu xy + Cuyy = H ( x, y, u, u x , uy ) (1.4)

We define the following operator

    
A B/2 ∂x ∂x
L = A∂ xx + B∂ xy + C∂yy = ·
B/2 C ∂y ∂y

Then we can rewrite (1.4) as Lu = H. If we want to put this equation in a canonical form
we have to diagonalize the matrix
 
A B/2
A = .
B/2 C

There are three distinct cases for eigenvalues λ1 and λ2 depending on determinant of A
(det A = AC − B2 /4):

1. if detA < 0 then λ1 and λ2 have different signs (say λ1 > 0 and λ2 < 0) and
Lu = |λ1 |uξξ − |λ2 |uηη – hyperbolic equation;

2. if detA = 0 then one of the eigenvalues is zero (say λ1 = 0) and Lu = λ2 uηη –

parabolic equation;

3. if detA > 0 then λ1 and λ2 have the same signs (say λ1 > 0 and λ2 > 0) and
Lu = |λ1 |uξξ + |λ2 |uηη – elliptic equation.

Here (ξ, η ) are new coordinates found by a linear transformation of ( x, y) dictated by A .

When coefficients A, B, C depend on ( x, y) the classification is done in the same way
however it depends on the specific point ( x, y) under consideration.

9
Chapter 2

Derivation of PDEs

We introduce three main equations which we study in detail in this course. They are 2nd
order, linear PDEs.

2.1 The 1D wave equation

Describes waves on a string, sound in a pipe etc, compressive elastic waves in rod, surface
water waves in a channel etc...

Derivation below is based on waves on a string.

Take a taut string of constant density (mass per unit length) ρ. It’s small displacement is
y = u( x, t) (we assume that displacement is small and neglect the horizontal component of
displacement).

T (x+δ x,t)

θ (x+δ x,t)
T(x, t)
θ (x, t)
y

x x x+δ x

The forces acting on a small piece of the string δx are tension T and gravity −ρgδx.

We want to balance the forces. There is no motionIn the horizontal direction and therefore
we have
T ( x, t) cos θ ( x, t) = T ( x + δx, t) cos θ ( x + δx, t).
Taking δx → 0 we obtain
∂
( T ( x, t) cos θ ( x, t)) = 0
∂x

10
and therefore
T ( x, t) cos θ ( x, t) = T0 (t).

In the vertical direction we apply Newton’s Law to the section of length δx, mass ρδx to
obtain
∂2 u
ρδx 2 = T ( x + δx, t) sin θ ( x + δx, t) − T ( x, t) sin θ ( x, t) − δxρg.
∂t
Dividing both parts by ρδx and taking δx → 0 we obtain

∂2 u 1 ∂
2
= ( T ( x, t) sin θ ( x, t)) − g.
∂t ρ ∂x

Using equation for T ( x, t) from the horizontal force balance we have

∂2 u T (t) ∂
2
= 0 (tan θ ( x, t)) − g.
∂t ρ ∂x
∂u( x,t)
By geometrical reasons it is clear that θ ( x, t) = ∂x and therefore assuming T0 (t) ≡ T0
we have
∂2 u T0 ∂2 u
= − g.
∂t2 ρ ∂x2
We can also add other external forces to yield

utt = c2 u xx + f ( x, t),
p
where c = T/ρ.

Defn: c is an important parameter – wave speed (see later).

The 2D/3D wave equation

Given by
utt = c2 ∇2 u + f ( x, t)
where, in 2D, the Laplacian is
∇2 u = u xx + uyy
and describes the vibrations of a membrane or the ripples on a pond (for example); in 3D,

∇2 u = u xx + uyy + uzz

and describes sound waves in air, radio waves etc...

2.2 Online extra: The 2D wave equation (membrane

equation)

Appears in many physical applications, derived here from considering a taut membrane.

Consider a small arbitrary section of an elastic membrane, displaced from rest position
z = 0 to z = u( x, y, t). Assume constant tension T and ρ is mass per unit area.

11
 k
S = surface
n

C = boundary
t
F

Force is F = Tt × n is the force acting on C.

Vertical component of force around C is F.k

Application of Newton’s Law on S in vertical direction is

∂2 u
Z I
ρ 2 dt = F.kds
S ∂t C

(Balance the total integrated mass times acceleration with the net force, coming from the
boundary)

Now, F.k = T (t × n).k = T (n × k).t

Next, apply Stokes’ theorem:

I Z
T (n × k).tds = T [∇ × (n × k)].ndS
C S

We note that (geometrically)

(−u x i − uy j + k)
n= q
u2x + u2y + 1
and it is assumed that u x , uy  1 so

n ≈ (−u x i − uy j + k)

Then
i j k
(n × k) = −u x −uy 1 = −uy i + u x j
0 0 1
and so
i j k
∇ × (n × k) = ∂x ∂y ∂z = (u xx + uyy )k ≡ (∇2 u)k
−uy u x 0
Finally, using definition of n,

n.[∇ × (n × k)] ≡ (∇2 u)

and insert into integrals over S to get

∂2 u
Z Z
ρ 2 dS = T ∇2 udS.
S ∂t S

12
Must be true for all arbitrary sections S of the membrane, so has to be that

utt = c2 ∇2 u, where c2 = T/ρ

This is the 2D wave equation... The 3D wave equation (e.g. sound waves) is given by the
same equation, but with
∇2 u = u xx + uyy + uzz

2.3 The 1D diffusion/heat equation

Describes, for e.g. conduction of heat in a rod, spreading of chemicals in a tube.

x q (a, t) q ( b ,t)
V
A(x)
a b

We’ll set the derivation in a general context.

So let ρ( x, t) be the ‘density’ of a species in a tube, of generally varying cross-sectional area

A( x ). Then total ‘mass’ of the species in V is
Z b
E= A( a)ρ( x, t) dx
a

Let q( x, t) represent the ‘mass’ flux (flow rate) of species across position x in the positive
x-direction. Then the total flux out of the section a < x < b is

A(b)q(b, t) − A( a)q( a, t)

(E.g. imagine people moving along a corridor point a to b of width A: ρ measures people
density (0.1 people per square metre), E is total number of people in the corridor. Then q
measures the flow rate of people at a point, (0.05 people per second) but it’s clearly
proportional to the width of the exit hence multiply by A.)

2.3.1 Conservation Law

‘Mass’ cannot be created or destroyed. So:

Rate of change of ‘mass’ in V = - (flux of ‘mass’ out of V). (2.1)

Mathematically,
Z b
dE ∂
= −[ A(b)q(b, t) − A( a)q( a, t)] = − ( A( x )q( x, t)) dx
dt a ∂x

13
by fundamental theorem of Calculus. Or
Z b Z b
∂ ∂
( A( x )ρ( x, t)) dx = − ( A( x )q( x, t)) dx
a ∂t a ∂x
since a and b are fixed. Since they are also arbitrary, must have
∂ ∂
ρ( x, t) + [ A( x )q( x, t)] = 0
A( x ) (2.2)
∂t ∂x
The A’s cancel when it is assumed A is constant.

Heat source

We can also assume that at each point x there is a generation of heat energy (or ”mass”
creation) per unit time and we call it Q( x, t). Then the energy is created inside the domain
and the equation becomes
dE b ∂Z Z b
=− ( A( x )q( x, t)) dx + Q( x, t) A( x ) dx,
dt a ∂x a
leading to the following relation
∂ ∂
A( x ) ρ( x, t) + [ A( x )q( x, t)] = Q( x, t) A( x ) (2.3)
∂t ∂x

2.3.2 The diffusion/heat equation

In order to obtain a closed equation we need to relate ρ( x, t) and q( x, t).

We assume A( x ) = const and consider E to be the thermal energy. In this case

ρ( x, t) = ρ0 cv T ( x, t) where T is temperature, ρ0 , cv are density and specific heat capacity.

Relate flux to temperature by“Fourier’s Heat law”:

q( x, t) = −kTx ( x, t)
I.e. flux is proportional to gradient of temperature and “heat” from high values to low
values, k is called thermal diffusivity.

Then we from the conservation law we obtain:

 
∂ ∂ k ∂ 1
T ( x, t) = T ( x, t) + Q( x, t)
∂t ∂x ρ0 cv ∂x ρ0 c v

Defn: Let D = k/(ρ0 cv ) > 0 be called the diffusivity or diffusion constant.

Then we have
Tt = ∂ x ( D∂xT ) + f ( x, t)
and if D is constant (nearly always)
Tt = DTxx + f ( x, t)

For chemical concentration, same principles apply: we need to use Fick’s law, relating
concentration and flux as q( x, t) ∼ ρ x ( x, t), D still appears but defined in terms of other
phyiscal parameters.

14
2.4 The 2D/3D heat equation

q (x, t) n

dS
V

Generalise. Let ρ( x, y, z, t) = ρ(x, t) be ‘density’ of ‘stuff’. Total amount of stuff in volume

V, is Z
ρ(x, t)dV
V
Need a flux vector, q(x, t) to represent the rate of transport of ‘stuff’ at x.

Flux through an elemental area dS on surface S enclosing V is

q(x, t) · n dS
Need to take component normal to dS, (i.e. dot prod with normal n). If q · n > 0, stuff is
leaving V, and vice versa.

2.4.1 Conservation Law

Apply principle (2.1):

d
Z Z
ρ(x, t)dV = − q · n dS
dt V S
Now using the Divergence Theorem, and since V is fixed,
Z Z
∂ρ
dV = − ∇ · qdV
V ∂t V
Thus must hold for all volumes V, so
∂ρ
+∇·q = 0
∂t

Finally, implement the generalised version of Fourier’s law:

q = − D ∇ρ
(stuff will flow in direction of steepest gradient downhill), then
ρt = ∇ · ( D ∇ρ)
If D constant, then using ∇ · ∇ = ∂ xx + ∂yy + ∂zz ≡ ∇2 , we have
ρ t = D ∇2 ρ

Note: We can add internal sources as before.

15
2.5 Laplace’s Equation

Is the steady state heat/diffusion equation. I.e. no variation with time, t and so given by

∇2 u = 0

where:

• In 2D: ∇2 u ≡ u xx + uyy = 0.

• In 3D: ∇2 u ≡ u xx + uyy + uzz = 0.

Functions u satisfying Laplace’s equation are said to be Harmonic.

(Also used for potential flow in fluids & electrostatic potentials, soap films etc...)

16
Chapter 3

PDE’s on finite intervals in 1D. Separation

of variables method.

In this chapter we will be solving diffusion/heat equation and wave equation on a finite
interval. The main point of the chapter is to illustrate a powerful technique for solving
linear (and some nonlinear) PDEs – method of separation of variables.

3.1 Diffusion/heat equation

The simplest form of diffusion/heat equation on a finite interval ( a, b) is

ut = Du xx , t > 0, x ∈ ( a, b). (3.1)

Here D is diffusion constant. The dimensions of D can be found from looking at the
equation (3.1) and taking dimensions, [.], of both sides
[u] [u]
= [D] 2
[t] [x ]
The dimensions of t are time T, and the dimensions of x is length L. So dimensions of D are

[ D ] = L2 /T
(e.g. m2 /s, mm2 /hour).

E.g. (i)

When u represents temperature (in Kelvin), D is different for different media. Larger in
metals – conduct heat well. Smaller in insulating materials. In standard SI units (metres,
seconds):

medium D(m2 /s)

copper 11.2 × 10−5
air 2.2 × 10−5
glass 0.034 × 10−5
water 0.015 × 10−5

17
E.g. (ii)

If u measures alcohol concentration in water, D ≈ 10−9 m2 /s.

3.1.1 How diffusion constant D affects the equation

Looking at the diffusion/heat equation

ut = Du xx , where D > 0

we observe that u xx is the rate of change of slope of u(t, x ) at some fixed time t and ut is a
rate of change of u(t, x ) at some fixed point x.

So 
 > 0 for graph of u convex
ut is = 0 for graph of u straight
< 0 for graph of u concave


Therefore at all points x where

u xx > 0 we have u( x, t) is increasing as time t is 2 0
increasing and at all points x where u xx < 0 we
have u( x, t) is decreasing as time t is increasing. 1

Hence u changes to smooth out bumps. u

3
2
E.g. u( x, t) = 1 + e− Dt cos x
clearly satisfies ut = Du xx .
0
Consider D = 1 first: −π π
x
Graph on −π < x < π u = 1 + e−Dt cos x
shows initial central concentration spreading
Labels on the curves are values of Dt
out and becoming uniform as t increases.

Note how u increases where u xx > 0, and decreases where u xx < 0.

Note: Changing D affects the rate: larger D means faster smoothing and vice versa.

3.1.2 Initial and Boundary Conditions

We observe that diffusion/heat equation (3.1) contains ut and time interval is t > 0. From
the theory of ODEs we recall a general principle that when we are solving first order ODE
(initial value problem) we need one condition on the unknown function (initial condition)
to determine it. Since we want to predict the distrubution of concentration/temperature
u( x, t) for all t > 0 and u has only one derivative in t then at every x we need to prescribe
one initial condition for u( x, t) at time t = 0, i.e.

u( x, 0) = φ( x ).

18
On the other hand, since equation (3.1) contains u xx and x ∈ ( a, b) we need to prescribe
one boundary condition at the end points a and b at each time t > 0. (It is consistent with
the general principle of ODEs – to solve second order boundary value problem one needs
two boundary conditions (one at each end point)). These boundary conditions are
determined by a physical modelling and might contain u(·, t) and u x (·, t). The most
common types of boundary conditions are

• Dirichlet: u( a, t) = h(t), u(b, t) = g(t). These boundary conditions correspond to

prescribed temperature/concentration u at the end points of the interval ( a, b).
• Neumann: u x ( a, t) = h(t), u x (b, t) = g(t). In this case we prescribe a flux of u
rather than u itself at the end points of the interval ( a, b). In particular case of
h(t) = 0 (or g(t) = 0) the end point a (or b) is insulated.
• Mixed: u x ( a, t) = h(t), u(b, t) = g(t) or u( a, t) = h(t), u x (b, t) = g(t).
• Periodic: It is more convenient to consider the problem with periodic boundary
conditions on the symmetric interval (− a, a). Therefore boundary conditions in this
case are
u(− a, t) = u( a, t), u x (− a, t) = u x ( a, t).

There is a generalization of mixed boundary condition sometimes called Robin boundary

condition
αu(0, t) + u x (0, t) = h(t), βu( a, t) + u x ( a, t) = g(t).
We will not be considering it here but the methods used below work for it as well.

Key E.g.:

Consider a rod of conducting metal in a < x < b with prescribed temperatures at the two
ends, and non-uniform initial temperature

Defn: Mathematically we have an Initial and Boundary-value Problem

• Solution evolves according to PDE ut = Du xx , for t > 0, a < x < b.

• u( a, t), u(b, t) given for all t > 0 (B.C.’s),
• At t = 0, u( x, 0) for a < x < b is given (Initial Condition),
• Want to find u( x, t) for t > 0, a < x < b.

u?

u(a,t) u(b,t)
given given
ut =Duxx

x=a x
x=b
u(x,0) given

19
3.2 Solution by Separation of Variables

Key technique of this chapter.

Our goal is to solve the following problem

ut = Du xx + f ( x, t), x ∈ (0, a), t > 0 (3.2)
u( x, 0) = φ( x ), (3.3)
and u satisfies one of the above boundary conditions. (Note that by considering interval
(0, a) instead of ( a, b) we don’t loose generality as we can always shift our solution.) To
illustrate the method we solve the heat equation with Dirichlet boundary conditions
u(0, t) = h(t), u( a, t) = g(t) (3.4)

3.2.1 The Basic Idea

We first consider a problem (3.2)-(3.4) when f ( x, t) = 0, h(t) = 0, g(t) = 0 and use the
method of separation of variables to obtain solution. We are solving the following problem
ut = Du xx , x ∈ (0, a), t > 0 (3.5)
u( x, 0) = φ( x ), (3.6)
u(0, t) = 0, u( a, t) = 0, for t > 0. (3.7)
The idea behind the method of separation of variables is to look for a solution in the
following form
u( x, t) = X ( x ) T (t),
where X ( x ) and T (t) will be determined. Let’s assume that we have a solution u( x, t) in
the above form. Plugging it into the equation we obtain
X ( x ) T 0 (t) = DX 00 ( x ) T (t),
Dividing both parts by DT (t) X ( x ) we arrive to the following equality
T 0 (t) X 00 ( x )
= .
DT (t) X (x)
Since the left side is a function of t only and the right side is the function of x only the
above equality is possible if and only if
T 0 (t) X 00 ( x )
= =k
DT (t) X (x)
for some constant k. Therefore if u( x, t) = X ( x ) T (t) is a solution of the heat equation then
X 00 ( x ) = kX ( x ), and T 0 (t) = kDT (t).
Moreover, from the boundary conditions u(0, t) = u( a, t) = 0 we know that X (0) T (t) = 0
and X ( a) T (t) = 0 for all t > 0. This implies X (0) = 0 and X ( a) = 0.

We can easily solve the problem for T (t) to obtain

T (t) = Ce−kDt ,
where we don’t know constants C and k.

20
3.2.2 Problem for X ( x ) – the role of boundary conditions

The problem for X ( x ) is called an eigenvalue problem

X 00 ( x ) = kX ( x ) on (0, a), X (0) = 0, X ( a) = 0. (3.8)

In order to solve it we have to find all constants k and all nontrivial solutions X ( x ),
corresponding to these k. It is not difficult to see that k < 0. Indeed, if we multiply both
parts of the equation (3.8) by X ( x ) and integrate by parts we obtain
Z a
| X 0 ( x )|2 + k| X ( x )|2 dx = 0.
0

Obviously, if k ≥ 0 then X ( x ) = 0 on (0, a). Since we are interested in non-trivial solutions

we have to consider only k = −λ2 < 0. In that case the general solution of (3.8) is

X ( x ) = A cos(λx ) + B sin(λx )

and constants A, B, λ will be found from the boundary conditions X (0) = X ( a) = 0. Let’s
consider X (0) = 0: obviously X (0) = A and therefore A = 0. Taking this into account and
using X ( a) = 0 we obtain
B sin(λa) = 0.
It’s clear that B 6= 0 since if B = 0 the solution X ( x ) is zero everywhere and we are
interested only in non-zero solutions. Therefore λ = πn a for all n ∈ Z \ {0}. The solution of
the eigenvalue problem is

π 2 n2  πn 
k = 2 , n ∈ N+ = {1, 2, 3, ...}, X ( x ) = B sin x .
a a
Combining our information about k, X ( x ) and T (t) we arrive to the conclusion that we
have infinitely many solutions of the heat equation (3.5), satisfying the boundary
conditions (3.7). Indeed, for all n ∈ N+ a function
2 n2  πn 
−π Dt
un ( x, t) = e a2 sin x
a
solves (3.5) and (3.7).

Principle of superposition

Each solution above satisfies the linear homogeneous PDE and the linear homogeneous
boundary conditions. Therefore we can use superposition and sum arbitrary numbers of
each solution
∞ n2 π 2 Dt  nπx 
−
u( x, t) = ∑ an e a2 sin (3.9)
n =1
a
Here an are arbitrary constants and we call it the general solution. This general solution
satisfies PDE and boundary conditions but it does not necessarily satisfy the initial
condition. We still have to find the solution that satisfies (3.6) and that means finding an -s
using initial data.

21
3.2.3 The Initial Condition

The particular solution is determined by initial temperature distribution

u( x, 0) = φ( x ) for 0 < x < a

where φ is a given function of x.

From (3.9) we have

∞  nπx 
∑ an sin a
= φ( x ) for 0 < x < a (3.10)
n =1
This essentially determines a
n . Informally, we proceed as follows: multiply both parts of
(3.10) by a function sin mπx
a , m ∈ N+ and integrate between 0 and a
∞ Z a  nπx   mπx  Z a  mπx 
∑ an 0
sin
a
sin
a
dx =
0
φ( x ) sin
a
dx
n =1

It is straightforward to compute
Z a  nπx   mπx  
a/2 for n = m
sin sin dx =
0 a a 0 for n 6= m

Therefore we have Z a
a  mπx 
am = φ( x ) sin dx
2 0 a
and for all n ∈ N+
2 a
Z  πn 
an = φ( x ) sin x dx.
a 0 a
Finally, the solution to the problem (3.5), (3.6), (3.7) is
∞ 2  πn 
−( πn
a ) Dt
u( x, t) = ∑ an e sin
a
x ,
n =1

where
2 a
Z  πn 
an = φ( x ) sin x dx.
a 0 a
In order for this procedure to make sense we have to justify the representation (3.10) for
our initial data φ( x ). This is done through the Fourier series.

3.2.4 Fourier Series

Let us consider a function f ( x ) on an interval (− a, a) and define a Fourier series as

∞ ∞
πnx πnx
Fourier series = a0 + ∑ an cos(
a
) + ∑ bn sin(
a
). (3.11)
n =1 n =1

We want to understand how to represent f ( x ) in terms of a Fourier series.

22
Informally equating f ( x ) and FS, we can find the coefficients using orthogonality relation
as in the previous section to obtain
Z a Z a Z a
1 1 πnx 1 πnx
a0 = f ( x ) dx, an = f ( x ) cos( ) dx, bn = f ( x ) sin( ) dx.
2a −a a −a a a −a a
(3.12)
Defn: We define (3.11) with coefficients (3.12) to be the Fourier series of f ( x ).

We have the following result that is supplied without a proof.

Theorem. If f ( x ) is a piecewise smooth function on the interval [− a, a] then the Fourier

series of f ( x ) converges pointwise

1. to f ( x ), where f ( x ) is continuous at x ∈ (− a, a);

1
2. to 2 ( f ( x +) + f ( x −)), where f ( x ) has a jump at x ∈ (− a, a);

1
Moreover, at points − a and a the Fourier series converges to 2 ( f (− a) + f ( a)).

We want to note several points

• the interval of definition of f ( x ) is symmetric – [− a, a];

• if f ( x ) is an odd function on [− a, a] then all coefficients an = 0, n ∈ N;
• if f ( x ) is an even function on [− a, a] then all coefficients bn = 0, n ∈ N;
• if f ( x ) is defined on the interval [0, a] we can always extend it to the interval [− a, a]
using either odd or even extensions. In particular, if f (0) = 0 then odd extension of
f ( x ) is continuous and if f 0 (0) = 0 then even extansion of f ( x ) is smooth.

Examples:

e.g. 1: Let a = 1, φ( x ) = x (1 − x ). Using odd extension and sin series we can calculate
Z 1
an = 2 x (1 − x ) sin(nπx )dx
0
x (1 − x ) cos(nπx ) 1
  Z 1
2
= 2 + (1 − 2x ) cos(nπx )dx
−nπ 0 nπ 0
2 (1 − 2x ) sin(nπx ) 1
  Z 1
2
= − 2 2 (−2) sin(nπx )dx
nπ nπ 0 n π 0
cos(nπx ) 1
 
4
=
n2 π 2 −nπ 0
4(1 − cos(nπ ))
=
n3 π 3
and note that cos(nπ ) = (−1)n .

Now
N
4(1 − (−1)n ) sin(nπx )
s N (x) = ∑
n =1
n3 π 3

23
or, since 1 − (−1)n = 0 when n even and is 2 when n odd, let n = 2r − 1, r = 1, 2, 3, . . . so
that
N
8 sin((2r − 1)πx )
s2N −1 ( x ) = ∑
r =1
(2r − 1)3 π 3

Plot s3 ( x ), s5 ( x ) and s9 ( x ) alongside φ( x ). Better fit for larger N.

e.g. 2: Let a = 1, φ( x ) = 1. Again, using odd extension and sin series we have
1
2(1 − (−1)n )
Z 1
cos(nπx ) 2(1 − cos(nπ ))

an = 2 sin(nπx )dx = 2 = =
0 −nπ 0 nπ nπ

As above, make substitution r = 2n − 1 to pick out odd terms only

N
4 sin((2r − 1)πx )
s2N −1 ( x ) = ∑ (2r − 1)π
r =1

Plot s25 ( x ), s49 ( x ) and s99 ( x ) alongside φ( x ).

Note that convergence is much worse in e.g.2 than in e.g.1: Of course, s N (0) = s N (1) = 0
for all N and this contradicts the definition of φ( x ).

This is because the Fourier sine series representation, and hence s N ( x ) exists for x ∈ R, not
just in 0 < x < 1, where φ( x ) is defined. Thus s N ( x ), and is an odd, periodic function with
periodicity in x of 2. The odd periodic extension of the original functions are

24
Fourier Series representation will always converge to the mean value of a discontinuity.
The partial sums will exhibit wild oscillations and slowly convergence near these points.
This is known as the Gibbs phenomenon.

3.2.5 Examples of heat equation with particular initial conditions

In our example of the diffn. equation with u(0, t) = u( a, t) = 0 we had a general solution
∞ n2 π 2 Dt  nπx 
−
u( x, t) = ∑ an e a2 sin
a
n =1

with Z a
2
an = φ( x ) sin(nπx/a)dx
a 0
Example 1. if the I.C. is u( x, 0) = φ( x ) = 1 for 0 < x < a then

0 for n even
Z a   (
2 2
an = sin(nπx/a) dx = − [cos(nπ ) − 1] = 4
a 0 nπ for n odd
nπ
So   ∞ 2 2
4 1 − n π2 Dt  nπx 
u( x, t) = ∑ n
π odd
e a sin
a
for 0 < x < a
n
Let r = 2n + 1 to make sum explicit.

t=0
1
small t

large t

0 a

Notes:

25
 • Instantly drops to 0 at ends.
2 2 2 2 Dt/a2
• If t > a2 /π 2 D then e−n π Dt/a  e−π for n ≥ 3. I.e. first term dominates;
profile in x is approx. sin(πx/a).

• This is the SMOOTHING effect of diffusion.

1 for 0 < x < 21


Example 2. Let a = 1 and φ( x ) =
0 for 12 < x < 1

get
− cos(nπx ) 1/2
Z 1/2  
an = 2 sin(nπx )dx = 2 = ...
0 nπ 0
so
2 ∞ 1 − cos( 21 nπ )
!
∑
2 2
u( x, t) = e−n π Dt sin nπx
π n =1 n

1 − cos( 12 nπ ) = 2 sin2 ( 14 nπ ), takes values 1, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 1, 0, . . . as n = 1, 2, . . ..

t=0
1
small t

intermediate t

large t
0 1/2 1

Notes:

• initially a step, immediately becomes smooth; gets more symmetric and sinusoidal as
it decays.

• When Dt > 1/π 2 , first term dominates.

3.2.6 Overview of Separation of Variables Method

To solve PDE for u( x, t) for 0 ≤ x ≤ a with homogeneous boundary conditions, zero right
hand side and given initial values:

1. Separate variables u( x, t) = X ( x ) T (t), giving ODEs for X ( x ) and T (t) involving an

unknown separation constant k

2. Solve for X ( x ) using BCs to determine values for separation constant k, and
eigenfunctions X ( x ).

26
 3. Solve equation for T (t) and get an infinite set of solutions un (t, x )

4. Take u( x, t) to be infinite series of un ( x, t) with arbitrary coefficients an .

5. Find an by matching u( x, 0) to the given initial condition using Fourier series.

3.2.7 Heat equation with f ( x, t) 6= 0 and homogeneous boundary

conditions

Now as we understand the basic idea of separation of variables method we continue

towards our goal of solving the problem (3.1), (3.3), (3.4). We take another step and
consider the following problem

ut = Du xx + f ( x, t), for x ∈ (0, a), t > 0 (3.13)

u( x, 0) = φ( x ), (3.14)
u(0, t) = 0, u( a, t) = 0, for t > 0. (3.15)


From the above analysis we know that a Fourier series with basis functions sin πn
a x ,
n ∈ N is consistent with the boundary conditions. We also know that for a fixed t any
+

function u( x, t) and f ( x, t) can be expanded in a Fourier series as follows

∞  πn 
f ( x, t) = ∑ f n (t) sin
a
x ,
n =1

where Z a
2  πn 
f n (t) = f ( x, t) sin x dx for n ∈ N+ ,
a 0 a
and
∞  πn 
u( x, t) = ∑ un (t) sin x ,
n =1
a
where un (t) will be determined later using equation.

Plugging these representations for u( x, t) and f ( x, t) in the (3.13) we obtain

∞ 
π 2 n2
  πn 
∑ n u 0
( t ) + D
a 2
u n ( t ) − f n ( t ) sin
a
x = 0.
n =1


Multiplying both parts of equality by sin πm
a x and integrating over (0, a) we have

π 2 m2
u0m (t) + D u m ( t ) = f m ( t ).
a2
Using initial data we clearly have
∞  πn 
u( x, 0) = ∑ un (0) sin
a
x = φ ( x ),
n =1

and therefore Z a
2  πm 
u m (0) = φ( x ) sin x dx for m ∈ N+ .
a 0 a

27
Now for each m ∈ N+ we have the following ODE
π 2 m2
Z a
2  πm 
u0m (t) + D 2 u m ( t ) = f m ( t ), u m (0) = φ( x ) sin x dx.
a a 0 a
It is clear that we can solve it to obtain
2 m2 2 m2 Z t 2 2
−D π t −D π t D π 2m s
u m ( t ) = u m (0) e a2 +e a2 e a f m (s) ds. (3.16)
0

Since we know um (0) and f m (t) we obtain um (t) and therefore we have a solution of the
problem (3.13)-(3.15) as
∞  πn 
u( x, t) = ∑ un (t) sin x ,
n =1
a
where un are given in (3.16).

Here we used the idea of representing the solution u( x, t) in terms of a Fourier series with
basis functions consistent with the boundary conditions. This basis was found before while
solving fully homogeneous problem.

3.2.8 Inhomogeneous boundary conditions

In this subsection we want to understand how to solve the following problem

ut = Du xx , for x ∈ (0, a), t > 0 (3.17)
u( x, 0) = 0, (3.18)
u(0, t) = h(t), u( a, t) = g(t), for t > 0. (3.19)
The idea is to find an explicit function v( x, t) that will satisfy the boundary condition (3.19)
and then look at what equation will be satisfied by a difference u( x, t) − v( x, t). The
construction of an auxiliary function is simple:
g(t) − h(t)
v( x, t) = x + h(t)
a
satisfies v(0, t) = h(t) and v( a, t) = g(t). Here we took a linear interpolation between two
boundary conditions but any other construction that makes v( x, t) satisfy (3.19) is also
good.

Nowe we look at the difference w( x, t) = u( x, t) − v( x, t). It is clear that w satisfies the

following problem
wt = Dwxx − vt ( x, t), for x ∈ (0, a), t > 0 (3.20)
w( x, 0) = −v( x, 0), (3.21)
w(0, t) = 0, w( a, t) = 0, for t > 0. (3.22)
Using results from the previous subsection we can find w( x, t) and therefore we can find
u( x, t) = w( x, t) + v( x, t),
since we know both w and v.

Note that the same idea works for Neumann and Mixed boundary conditions. We just
need to construct an appropriate auxiliary function v( x, t) satisfying boundary conditions.

28
3.2.9 General problem

Now we are ready to solve the following general problem

ut = Du xx + f ( x, t), for x ∈ (0, a), t > 0 (3.23)

u( x, 0) = φ( x ), (3.24)
u(0, t) = h(t), u( a, t) = g(t), for t > 0. (3.25)
It is straightforward to check that if v( x, t) satisfies

vt = Dv xx + f ( x, t), for x ∈ (0, a), t > 0 (3.26)

v( x, 0) = φ( x ), (3.27)
v(0, t) = 0, v( a, t) = 0, for t > 0, (3.28)
and w( x, t) satisfies
wt = Dwxx , for x ∈ (0, a), t > 0 (3.29)
w( x, 0) = 0, (3.30)
w(0, t) = h(t), w( a, t) = g(t), for t > 0, (3.31)
then u( x, t) = v( x, t) + w( x, t) solves (3.23), (3.24), (3.25). Since we already know from the
previous subsections how to solve the problems for v( x, t) and w( x, t) we are done.

We solved the diffusion/heat equation with Dirichlet boundary conditions. However, the
same method of separation of variables works for all types of boundary conditions. As
another example we consider homogeneous Neumann boundary conditions.

3.2.10 Homogeneous heat equation with Neumann boundary conditions

As an example we are solving the following problem

ut = Du xx , for x ∈ (0, a), t > 0 (3.32)

u( x, 0) = φ( x ), (3.33)
u x (0, t) = 0, u x ( a, t) = 0, for t > 0. (3.34)
We use the same method of separation of variables and obtain the following eigenvalue
problem for X ( x )

X 00 ( x ) = kX ( x ), on (0, a), X 0 (0) = 0, X 0 ( a) = 0. (3.35)

In this case we can show by the same methods as before that k = −λ2 ≤ 0 and therefore
the general solution is
X ( x ) = A cos(λx ) + B sin(λx ).
Using X 0 (0) = 0 we obtain B = 0 and using X 0 ( a) = 0 we obtain A sin(λa) = 0. Therefore
a for all n ∈ Z and the solution of eigenvalue problem (3.35) is
λ = πn

π 2 n2  πn 
k= , n ∈ N = {0, 1, 2, 3, ...}, X ( x ) = A cos x .
a2 a

29
Note that here we allow for n = 0 in which case X ( x ) = A is a solution. As before we
obtain the solution
∞ 2 2
− π n Dt
 πn 
u( x, t) = ∑ an e a2 cos x ,
n =0 a
where we need to find an -s from initial data.

By the same arguments as before we have to find an from the following equality
∞  πn 
φ( x ) = ∑ an cos
a
x .
n =0

Note that
here we need to match φ with a cosine Fourier series. Multiplying both parts by
a x , m ∈ N and integrating over (0, a ) we obtain
cos πm
Z a Z a
2  πm  1
am = φ( x ) cos x dx for n > 0, a0 = φ( x ) dx.
a 0 a a 0

Therefore the solution is

∞ 2 n2  πn 
−π
∑ an e
Dt
u( x, t) = a2 cos x ,
n =0 a

where Z a Z a
2  πn  1
an = φ( x ) cos x dx for n > 0, a0 = φ( x ) dx.
a 0 a a 0

Example 1. φ( x ) = 1 for 0 < x < a.

Then Z a
1
a0 = 1 cos(0πx/a)dx = 1
a 0
whilst Z a a
sin(nπx/a)

2
an = 1 · cos(nπx/a)dx = 2 =0
a 0 nπ 0
So u( x, t) = a0 = 1...

Why so simple ? Easy to see u = 1 satisfies B.C.’s and PDE.

1 for 0 < x < 21


Example 2. Take a = 1 and φ( x ) =
0 for 12 < x < 1

Z 1 Z 1
1 2
a0 = φ( x ) dx = 2, an = 2 cos nπx dx = (2/nπ ) sin( 21 nπ ).
0 0

  ∞ !
2 sin( 12 nπ )
π n∑
2 π 2 Dt
u( x, t) = 1
2 + e−n cos nπx
=1 n
In fact 
0 for n even
sin( 12 nπ ) =
(−1)r for n = 2r + 1

30
1 1 t=0
t=0 and all later times small t
intermediate t

long times

0 a 0 1/2 1

Note: Sharp corner gets immediately smoothed out; solution evens out to its average
value.

3.2.11 The Role of the Diffusivity

2 π 2 Dt
D appears in the solution only in the terms e−n , for e.g.

Changing D equivalent to rescaling t: doubling D is the same as things happens twice as

fast.

D = 0 means infinitely slow time-scale: all exponentials in the solution are 1, so solution is
constant (obvious from PDE: ut ≡ 0 when D = 0).

The Time-Reversed Diffusion Equation: Blowup

If D < 0 then same as changing sign of t which gives − sign. Either way,
ut = − Du xx , now D > 0
2 2
Effect is to give e+n π Dt in the solution where D > 0 This exponentially increasing term
gets more dominant as t increases, and usually leads to divergence for some t.

If IC is not exceptionally smooth including at end-points, series diverges for all t > 0. In
fact, if Fourier coefficients are not exponentially decaying in n, blowup is immediate since
for any t > 0, the exponential terms increase exponentially with n so n-th term 6→ 0

3.3 Wave equation

In this section we concentrate on the wave equation

utt = c2 u xx
Dimensions of c ? Take dimensions of the PDE:
[u] [u]
2
= [ c2 ] 2
[t ] [x ]

31
so that [c2 ] = [c]2 = length2 /time2 or [c] = LT −1 . I.e. c has dimensions of speed (e.g.
metres per second). It is the wave speed.

We observe that wave equation is 2nd order in t so u( x, t) vibrates, not decays. Also we
need to supply two initial conditions, u( x, 0), ut ( x, 0) instead of one in diffusion/heat
equation.

Our goal is to solve the following problem

utt = c2 u xx + f ( x, t), x ∈ (0, a), (3.36)

u( x, 0) = φ( x ), ut ( x, 0) = ψ( x ) (3.37)
and u satisfies one of the boundary conditions.

In order to achieve this goal we proceed as with heat equation, first consider a problem
when f ( x, t) = 0, h(t) = 0, g(t) = 0 and use the method of separation of variables to obtain
solution.

To illustrate the method we solve the wave equation with mixed and periodic boundary
conditions. Dirichlet and Neumann are treated in the similar way and have been
considered before for heat equation.

3.3.1 Homogeneous wave equation with mixed boundary conditions

Here we are solving the following problem

utt = c2 u xx , for x ∈ (0, a), t > 0 (3.38)

u( x, 0) = φ( x ), ut ( x, 0) = ψ( x ) (3.39)
u x (0, t) = 0, u( a, t) = 0, for t > 0. (3.40)
We look for a solution in the following form

u( x, t) = X ( x ) T (t),

where X ( x ) and T (t) will be determined. Let’s assume that we have a solution u( x, t) in
the above form. Plugging it into the equation we obtain

X ( x ) T 00 (t) = c2 X 00 ( x ) T (t),

Dividing both parts by c2 T (t) X ( x ) we arrive to the following equality

T 00 (t) X 00 ( x )
= .
c2 T ( t ) X (x)
Since the left side is a function of t only and the right side is the function of x only the
above equality is possible if and only if
T 00 (t) X 00 ( x )
= =k
c2 T ( t ) X (x)
for some constant k. Therefore if u( x, t) = X ( x ) T (t) is a solution of the wave equation then

X 00 ( x ) = kX ( x ), and T 00 (t) = kc2 T (t).

32
Moreover, from the boundary conditions (3.40) we know that X 0 (0) T (t) = 0 and
X ( a) T (t) = 0 for all t > 0. This implies X 0 (0) = 0 and X ( a) = 0.

The problem for X ( x ) is called an eigenvalue problem

X 00 ( x ) = kX ( x ) on (0, a), X 0 (0) = 0, X ( a) = 0. (3.41)

In order to solve it we have to find all k-s and all nontrivial solutions X ( x ), corresponding
to these k-s. It is not difficult to see that k < 0. Indeed, if we multiply both parts of the
equation (3.41) by X ( x ) and integrate by parts we obtain
Z a
| X 0 ( x )|2 + k| X ( x )|2 dx = 0.
0

Obviously, if k ≥ 0 then X ( x ) = 0 on (0, a). Since we are interested in non-trivial solutions

we have to consider only k = −λ2 < 0. In that case the general solution of (3.41) is

X ( x ) = A cos(λx ) + B sin(λx )

and constants A, B, λ will be found from the boundary conditions X 0 (0) = X ( a) = 0. Let’s
consider X 0 (0) = 0: obviously X 0 (0) = Bλ and therefore B = 0. Taking this into account
and using X ( a) = 0 we obtain
A cos(λa) = 0.
It’s clear that A 6= 0 as then the solution is zero

everywhere and we are interested only in
non-zero solutions. Therefore λ = a 2 + πn for all n ∈ Z. The solution of the eigenvalue
1 π

problem is
2    
1 π 1 π
k= 2 + πn , n ∈ N = {0, 1, 2, 3, ...}, X ( x ) = A cos + πn x .
a 2 a 2

Solving equation for T (t) we obtain

c π   c π  
T (t) = C cos + πn t + D sin + πn t .
a 2 a 2
Combining our information about X ( x ) and T (t) we arrive to the conclusion that we have
infinitely many solutions of the wave equation (3.38), satisfying the boundary conditions
(3.40). Indeed, for all n ∈ N a function
c π c π    
     1 π
un ( x, t) = an cos + πn t + bn sin + πn t cos + πn x
a 2 a 2 a 2

solves (3.38) and (3.40). Therefore, any linear combination of un -s also solves (3.38) and
(3.40) and we represent
∞  c π c π    
    1 π
u( x, t) = ∑ an cos + πn t + bn sin + πn t cos + πn x ,
n =0 a 2 a 2 a 2

where an , bn are arbitrary constants. We will find an , bn as before using initial data.

33
3.3.2 Homogeneous wave equation with periodic boundary conditions

Here we are solving the following problem

utt = c2 u xx , for x ∈ (− a, a), t > 0 (3.42)
u( x, 0) = φ( x ), ut ( x, 0) = ψ( x ) (3.43)
u(− a, t) = u( a, t), u x (− a, t) = u x ( a, t), for t > 0. (3.44)

We look for a solution in the following form

u( x, t) = X ( x ) T (t),
where X ( x ) and T (t) will be determined. Let’s assume that we have a solution u( x, t) in
the above form. Plugging it into the equation we obtain
X ( x ) T 00 (t) = c2 X 00 ( x ) T (t),
Dividing both parts by c2 T (t) X ( x ) we arrive to the following equality
T 00 (t) X 00 ( x )
= .
c2 T ( t ) X (x)
Since the left side is a function of t only and the right side is the function of x only the
above equality is possible if and only if
T 00 (t) X 00 ( x )
= =k
c2 T ( t ) X (x)
for some constant k. Therefore if u( x, t) = X ( x ) T (t) is a solution of the wave equation then
X 00 ( x ) = kX ( x ), and T 00 (t) = kc2 T (t).
Moreover, from the boundary conditions (3.44) we know that X (− a) T (t) = X ( a) T (t) and
X 0 (− a) T (t) = X 0 ( a) T (r ) for all t > 0. This implies X (− a) = X ( a) and X 0 (− a) = X 0 ( a).
Solving equation for X ( x ) we obtain
√ √
X ( x ) = A cos( kx ) + B sin( kx ).
Using boundary conditions we have
√ q √ √
A cos( ka) − B sin( (k ) a) = A cos( ka) + B sin( ka);
√ √ √ √ √ √
k ( A sin( ka) + B cos( ka)) = k(− A sin( ka) + B cos( ka)).
Solving these equations we obtain
√
sin( ka) = 0.
√
Therefore k= for all n ∈ N = {0, 1, 2, ...} and
πn
a
 πn   πn 
Xn ( x ) = An cos x + Bn sin x .
a a
Solving equation for T (t) we obtain
 πnc   πnc 
Tn (t) = Cn cos t + Dn sin t .
a a
Now we can find the general solution u( x, t) to be
∞   πnc   πnc    πn   πn 
u( x, t) = a0 + ∑ Cn cos t + Dn sin t An cos x + Bn sin x .
n =1
a a a a
Using initial data we can recover a0 , An , Bn , Cn , Dn as before.

34
General problem

In order to solve the general problem (3.36), (3.37) with inhomogeneous boundary
conditions we can follow exactly the same ideas as in sections 3.2.8 and 3.2.9.

35
Chapter 4

1D PDE’s on infinite Domains:

Fundamental Solution

PDE’s on infinite domains needs a new technique. In the next two chapters we consider
two general methods of solving heat and wave equations on R, namely, method of
fundamental solutions (it is also sometimes called method of Green’s functions) and
Fourier transforms method. We will also construct a solution on the semi-infinite domain
R+ based on the knowledge of a solution on R.

Boundary conditions

When we are on the whole R we cannot prescribe boundary conditions. Usually we

assume some information about behaviour of the solution at infinity, for instance, that
u x ( x, t) or/and u( x, t) vanish as x → ±∞. We will spell out these assumptions for
particular problems.

For semi-infinite domain R+ we prescribe Dirichlet or Neumann boundary conditions

only at one end x = 0 and treat infinity as described above.

4.1 Heat equation on R. Method of fundamental solution.

Our goal is to solve the following problem

ut = Du xx + f ( x, t), x ∈ R, t > 0, (4.1)
u( x, 0) = φ( x ), x ∈ R. (4.2)
We would like to look for a solution that is integrable and decays at infinity together with
its x-derivatives, i.e.
Z
|u( x, t)| dx < ∞, u x ( x, t) → 0 for x → ±∞. (4.3)
R
We also want to make reasonable assumptions about behaviour of f ( x, t) and φ( x ) at
infinity: Z Z
|φ( x )| dx < ∞, | f ( x, t)| dx < ∞ for all t > 0.
R R

36
4.1.1 Similarity solutions

Firstly, we will try to solve homogeneous equation without any initial data

ut = Du xx , x ∈ R, t > 0

using similarity solutions. It is clear that rescaling of R by a constant will always give the
same domain R. Therefore if we change space variable z = ax and change time variable
s = a2 t (it’s called dilation), we will obtain exactly the same domains for x and t. Moreover
we see that if u( x, t) is a solution of the heat equation then

v(z, s) = Au( ax, a2 t)

is also a solution of the above heat equation for general parameters a, A. We choose
A = aα , where we will determine α later. Now we have two different solutions v(z, s) and
u( x, t) and we notice that
z2 x2 v(z, s) u( x, t)
= , = α/2 .
s t s α/2 t
This suggests to us that there are solutions such that these quantities are invariant with
respect to dilation and therefore we can define

x u( x, t)
ξ= √ , f (ξ ) = .
t tα/2

Therefore we look for similarity solution in the form

 
x
u( x, t) = f √ tα/2 . (4.4)
t
Plugging it into the heat equation we obtain the following equation for f

α 1
f (ξ ) − ξ f 0 (ξ ) − D f 00 (ξ ) = 0. (4.5)
2 2
Now we have a choice of α that will give use solution to the (4.5) and hence a solution to
heat equation. We look for a solution that is integrable and decays at infinity together with
its x-derivatives Z
|u( x, t)| dx < ∞, u x ( x, t) → 0 for x → ±∞.
R
If we impose these assumptions then integrating heat equation over R we obtain

d
Z Z
u( x, t) dx = D u xx ( x, t) dx = D (u x (∞, t) − u x (−∞, t)) = 0.
dt R R

Therefore Z
u( x, t) dx = const for all t > 0.
R
Without loss of generality (by rescaling u) we can choose the above constant to be 1.
Plugging in our anzatz (4.4) for u( x, t) we obtain
 
x
Z
t α/2
f √ dx = 1,
R t

37
or Z
(α+1)/2
t f (ξ ) dξ = 1 for all t > 0.
R
Therefore we have to take α = −1.

The equation (4.5) becomes

1 1
− f (ξ ) − ξ f 0 (ξ ) − D f 00 (ξ ) = 0
2 2
and we can solve it as follows
 0
1 1
(ξ f (ξ ))0 + D f 00 (ξ ) = 0
D f (ξ ) + ξ f (ξ ) = 0.
2 2
Using behavior at infinity we obtain
1
D f 0 (ξ ) + ξ f (ξ ) = 0
2
and
ξ2
− 4D
f (ξ ) = Ae .
√1
R
Now recalling that R f (ξ ) dξ = 1 we have A = and
4πD

1 x2
− 4Dt
u( x, t) = √ e . (4.6)
4πDt
The solution in (4.6) is called the fundamental solution of heat equation.

4.1.2 Properties of the fundamental solution

In what follows below we will use fundamental solution to construct solutions to heat
equation. We will denote the fundamental solution as

1 x2
Φ( x, t) = √ e− 4Dt
4πDt
and note that it has the following properties

1. Φt = DΦ xx for all x ∈ R, t > 0;

2. Φ( x, t) = Φ(− x, t) > 0, for all x ∈ R, t > 0;
3. Φ( x, t) is a smooth (C ∞ ) function of ( x, t) for x ∈ R, t > 0;
4. R Φ( x, t) dx = 1 for all t > 0.
R

5. As t → 0+ , Φ( x, t) → 0 for all x 6= 0 and Φ(0, t) → ∞.

Looking at the properties 4 and 5 we note that as t → 0+ , Φ( x, t) → δ( x ), where δ( x ) is a

delta-function. Note that we don’t specify the convergence here as δ-function is not a
function in a usual sense. In fact the convergence will be in a sense of ”measures” but we
don’t discuss it here.

38
4.1.3 The Delta Function

Let us consider the following sequence of functions

2 2
e− x /a
f a (x) = √
a π

and see what are the properties of the limit as a → 0. It is clear that

• if x 6= 0 then f a ( x ) → 0 as a → 0;

• if x = 0 then f a ( x ) → ∞ as a → 0;
R R
• R f a ( x ) dx = 1 for all a and hence lima→0 R f a ( x ) dx = 1

Is it possible to define a limit of f a ( x ) as a → 0? This is impossible for “ordinary functions”

but can define such a limit as a “generalised function”. Then we say
2 2
e− x /a
δ( x )” = ” lim f ( x ) = lim √ .
a →0 a →0 a π

Based on this example we define a ”generalized function” that we call δ-function as

follows

Defn: The delta function, δ( x ), is defined by

• δ( x ) = 0 for x 6= 0;

• δ(0) = ∞;
Rb
• a δ( x ) dx = 1 for any a < 0 < b.

The limiting form of the Gaussian is not the only definition – there are many – of δ( x ).
 Z ∞
0, | x | > a
E.g. Take “top-hat” f th ( x ) = . Then f th ( x ) dx = 1 and clearly then
1/2a, |x| < a −∞
the definition above is satisfied by writing

δ( x ) = lim f th ( x )
a →0

Properties of the Delta Function

1. δ( x ) is an even function.
Proof: δ(− x ) = 0 for x 6= 0 and
Z b Z −a
δ(− x ) dx = δ( x ) dx = 1, a<0<b
a −b

39
 Z b
2. Shifted δ-Function. (obvious) δ( x − c) = 0 for x 6= c and δ( x − c) dx = 1 provided
a
a < c < b. Otherwise integral is zero.

3. Sampling Property (V. Important). For any sufficiently smooth function f ( x ) (i.e. f
and all derivatives are continous) then
Z ∞
δ( x − c) f ( x ) dx = f (c)
−∞
I.e. it “picks out” value of f ( x ) at x = c.
Justification: Use δ( x ) = lim f th ( x ).
a →0
Then, using mean value property we have
Z ∞ Z c+ a  
1
δ( x − c) f ( x ) dx = lim f ( x ) dx = f (c)
−∞ a →0 c − a 2a

NOTE: need f ( x ) to be continuous

Relationship to discontinuous functions

Defn: The Heaviside function H ( x ) is defined by


 0 for x < 0
H (x) = 1
for x = 0
 2
1 for x > 0

H 0 ( x ) = 0 for x 6= 0, but H 0 ( x ) not defined for x = 0, whilst

Z b
H 0 ( x ) dx = H (b) − H ( a) = 1, if a < 0 < b
a

Suggests H 0 ( x ) = δ( x )...

Justification: Let H ( x ) = lim h( x ) where

a →0


 0 for x < − a

x+a

h( x ) = for | x | < a


 2a
 1 for x > a

And so h0 ( x ) = f th ( x ) (top-hat function). So limit as a → 0 gives

H 0 ( x ) = δ( x )

Notes:

40
 

 −1 for x < 0

1. sgn( x ) = 0 for x = 0 (the signum function). Then


1 for x > 0


1 d
H (x) = (1 + sgn( x )), and [sgn( x )] = 2H 0 ( x ) = 2δ( x )
2 dx
2. Can we differentiate δ( x ) ? Yes - but not needed here.

4.1.4 Homogeneous heat equation

In this section we solve the following problem

ut = Du xx , x ∈ R, t > 0, (4.7)

u( x, 0) = φ( x ), x ∈ R. (4.8)
For simplicity, we assume that φ( x ) is uniformly continuous and bounded function. The
result is true for any integrable function φ( x ).

We note that if Φ( x, t) is the fundamental solution of heat equation then for any fixed
y ∈ R the function Φ( x − y, t) also solves heat equation (4.7). Moreover we can take a
convolution of Φ and φ and obtain that
Z
v( x, t) = Φ( x − y, t)φ(y) dy
R

satisfies (4.7). Recalling that as t → 0, Φ( x − y, t) → δ( x − y) we expect that

Z
v( x, t) → δ( x − y)φ(y) dy as t → 0.
R
R
Recalling properties of δ-function we have R δ( x − y)φ(y) dy = φ( x ) and therefore
v( x, 0) = φ( x ). It seems that if we take
Z
u( x, t) = Φ( x − y, t)φ(y) dy,
R

then it will be a solution of the problem (4.7), (4.8). Let’s verify it.

It is clear that u( x, t) = R Φ( x − y, t)φ(y) dy satisfies (4.7) as

R

Z
ut − Du x x = [Φt ( x − y, t) − DΦ xx ( x − y, t)] φ(y) dy = 0.
R

We just need to check that

u( x, t) → φ( x ) as t → 0+ .
Using property 4 of Φ it is clear that
Z
u( x, t) − φ( x ) = Φ( x − y, t)(φ(y) − φ( x )) dy.
R

41
As φ( x ) is a uniformly continuous function we know that for any e > 0 there exists δ > 0
such that |φ( x ) − φ(y)| < e for all | x − y| < δ. We now split our integral as follows
Z
Φ( x − y, t)(φ(y) − φ( x )) dy =
R Z Z
Φ( x − y, t)(φ(y) − φ( x )) dy + Φ( x − y, t)(φ(y) − φ( x )) dy. (4.9)
|y− x |<δ |y− x |≥δ

It is clear that
Z Z
| Φ( x − y, t)(φ(y) − φ( x )) dy| ≤ Φ( x − y, t)|φ(y) − φ( x )| dy ≤
|y− x |<δ |y− x |<δ
Z Z
e Φ( x − y, t) dy ≤ e Φ( x − y, t) dy = e (4.10)
|y− x |<δ R

For the second integral we notice that as φ( x ) is bounded, i.e. |φ( x )| ≤ C for all x ∈ R then
Z Z Z ∞
| Φ( x − y, t)(φ(y) − φ( x )) dy| ≤ 2C Φ( x − y, t) dy = 4C Φ(z, t) dz.
|y− x |≥δ |y− x |≥δ δ

Using explicit expression for Φ we can easily compute

Z ∞ Z ∞ z2
Z ∞
1 − 4Dt 1 2 1 −√δ
Φ(z, t) dz = √ e dz = √ e−s ds ≤ √ e 4Dt .
δ 4πDt δ π √δ
4Dt
2 π

Combining everything we obtain that for any e > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that
δ
2C − √4Dt
Z
Φ( x − y, t)(φ(y) − φ( x )) dy ≤ e + √ e .
R π
Taking limit as t → 0 we have
Z
lim Φ( x − y, t)(φ(y) − φ( x )) dy ≤ e.
t →0+ R

Since e > 0 was arbitrary, we take e → 0+ to obtain

Z
lim Φ( x − y, t)φ(y) dy = φ( x ).
t →0+ R

R Φ( x
R
We just showed that u( x, t) = − y, t)φ(y) dy solves (4.7), (4.8).

4.1.5 Heat equation with f ( x, t) 6= 0 and zero initial data

In this section we solve the following problem

ut = Du xx + f ( x, t), x ∈ R, t > 0, (4.11)

u( x, 0) = 0, x ∈ R. (4.12)
We will use Duhamel’s principle to find the solution of the above problem. Let us start with
the following auxiliary problem. Fix any s > 0 and consider

vt = Dv xx , x ∈ R, t > s, (4.13)

42
 v( x, s) = f ( x, s), x ∈ R. (4.14)
Due to translation invariance of the heat equation we can easily check that for each fixed s
Z
v( x, t; s) = Φ( x − y, t − s) f (y, s) dy
R

solves the problem (4.13), (4.14) (note that v( x, s; s) = f ( x, s)). Now we define the
following function
Z t
w( x, t) = v( x, t; s) ds
0
and claim that it solves (4.11), (4.12). Let’s verify it.

It is clear that w( x, 0) = 0 and therefore (4.12) is satisfied. Now

Z t Z t
wt ( x, t) = v( x, t; t) + vt ( x, t; s) ds = f ( x, t) + vt ( x, t; s) ds
0 0

and Z t
wxx ( x, t) = v xx ( x, t; s) ds.
0
Therefore for all t > 0
Z t
wt − Dwxx = f ( x, t) + (vt ( x, t; s) − Dv xx ( x, t; s)) ds = f ( x, t).
0

We just showed that

Z tZ
u( x, t) = Φ( x − y, t − s) f (y, s) dy ds
0 R

solves (4.11), (4.12).

4.1.6 General problem

Now we are ready to solve the following general problem

ut = Du xx + f ( x, t), for x ∈ R, t > 0 (4.15)

u( x, 0) = φ( x ), for x ∈ R. (4.16)
It is straightforward to check that if v( x, t) satisfies

vt = Dv xx , for x ∈ R, t > 0 (4.17)

v( x, 0) = φ( x ), (4.18)
and w( x, t) satisfies
wt = Dwxx + f ( x, t), for x ∈ R, t > 0 (4.19)
w( x, 0) = 0, (4.20)
then u( x, t) = v( x, t) + w( x, t) solves (4.15), (4.16). Since we already know from the
previous subsections how to solve the problems for v( x, t) and w( x, t) we obtain
Z Z tZ
u( x, t) = Φ( x − y)φ(y) dy + Φ( x − y, t − s) f (y, s) dy ds.
R 0 R

43
4.2 Diffusion Equation on Semi-Infinite Domain

Problem:

ut = Du xx and u( x, 0) = φ( x ) both for x > 0

Need BC at x = 0...

4.2.1 Homogeneous Dirichlet BC at x = 0

I.e. Let u(0, t) = 0 for t > 0.


φ ( x ), x > 0
Let Φ( x ) =
−φ(− x ), x < 0

I.e. Φ( x ) is the odd extension of φ( x ) into x < 0.

Now consider the extension of the PDE to all x: Ut = DUxx with U ( x, 0) = Φ( x ) both for
−∞ < x < ∞.

Solution is from before

Z ∞
1 ( x − ξ )2
U ( x, t) = √ Φ(ξ )e− 4Dt dξ
4πDt −∞
Z 0 Z ∞
1
= √ +
4πDt −∞ 0
Z ∞  
1 ( x − ξ )2 ( x + ξ )2
− −
= √ φ(ξ ) e 4Dt − e 4Dt dξ
4πDt 0
where in the negative integral, a change of vars, ξ → −ξ, has been applied, and oddness,
Φ(−ξ ) = −φ(ξ ) used.

From eqn, clearly U (0, t) = 0. So U satisfies all of the conditions required by the problem
for u (the PDE, the IC in x > 0 and the BC at x = 0) and so u( x, t) = U ( x, t) for x > 0.
Note: U ( x, t) extends the solution into the unphysical domain x < 0.

Example: φ( x ) = δ( x − a).
( x − a )2 ( x + a )2
e− 4Dt − e− 4Dt
u( x, t) = √ .
4πDt
This is fundamental solution for diffusion eqn. on half-line with zero B.C.

44
 u
Unphysical or image
domain

−a

a x

Physical domain

4.2.2 Homogeneous Neumann Condition at x = 0

Similar argument using even extension of φ gives soln of diffusn eqn for x > 0 with
u x (0, t) = 0:
Z ∞  
1 ( x − ξ )2 ( x + ξ )2
− −
U ( x, t) = √ φ(ξ ) e 4Dt +e 4Dt dξ
4πDt 0
Easy to check the B.C. holds. Hence u( x, t) = U ( x, t) in the physical domain, x > 0.

Example: φ( x ) = δ( x − a).
( x − a )2 ( x + a )2
e− 4Dt + e− 4Dt
u( x, t) = √ .
4πDt
u

−a

a x

Unphysical or image
domain Physical domain

4.3 Wave equation on R. Method of fundamental solution.

Our goal is to solve the following problem

utt = c2 u xx + f ( x, t), x ∈ R, t > 0 (4.21)

u( x, 0) = φ( x ), ut ( x, 0) = ψ( x ), x ∈ R. (4.22)
We start by solving homogeneous problem with f ( x, t) ≡ 0.

45
4.3.1 Homogeneous wave equation. D’Alembert’s solution.

In this section we solve the following problem

utt = c2 u xx , x ∈ R, t > 0, (4.23)

u( x, 0) = φ( x ), ut ( x, 0) = ψ( x ), x ∈ R. (4.24)
Using the following change of variables ξ = x − ct, η = x + ct we obtain

ut = −cuξ + cuη , u x = uξ + uη ,

utt = c2 uξξ − 2c2 uξη + c2 uηη , u xx = uξξ + 2uξη + uηη .

Therefore
utt − c2 u xx = −2c2 uξη = 0.
It follows that u = f (ξ ) + g(η ) and therefore returning to original variables

u( x, t) = f ( x − ct) + g( x + ct).

Using initial data we obtain

f ( x ) + g ( x ) = φ ( x ), −c f 0 ( x ) + cg0 ( x ) = ψ( x ), for all x ∈ R.

After straightforward calculation it follows that for all x ∈ R and some fixed a ∈ R
Z x Z x
1 1 1 1
f ( x ) = φ( x ) − ψ(s) ds, g( x ) = φ( x ) + ψ(s) ds.
2 2c a 2 2c a

Now we see that

Z x−ct Z x+ct
1 1 1 1
u( x, t) = f ( x − ct) + g( x + ct) = φ( x − ct) − ψ(s) ds + φ( x + ct) + ψ(s) ds.
2 2c a 2 2c a

Finally we obtain D’Alembert’s solution

Z x+ct
1 1 1
u( x, t) = φ( x − ct) + φ( x + ct) + ψ(s) ds. (4.25)
2 2 2c x −ct


1 for α < x < β
Example 1. u( x, 0) = φ( x ) ≡ ,
0 for otherwise

and ut ( x, 0) = 0.

Since ψ ≡ 0, the integral vanishes and so

u( x, t) = 12 φ( x − ct) + 12 φ( x + ct)
1
This equation tells you that the initial fn. φ splits into two halves, each of height 2 which
move apart in opposite directions with speed c.

46
 Rule: Blue = Green + Red
Example 2. u( x, 0) ≡ 0, ut ( x, 0) = ψ( x ).

In this case φ ≡ 0, and so

Z x+ct
1
u( x, t) = ψ(ξ ) dξ
2c x −ct


1 for | x | < a
Now consider the function: ψ( x ) = .
0 for | x | > a

This corresponds to an initial impulse or ‘hammer blow’ to the string across the range
| x | < a.

The best way to approach this is as follows. Let


0 for x < − a
1 x
Z 
Ψ( x ) = ψ(ξ ) dξ = ( a + x )/2c for − a < x < a
2c −∞
(2a)/2c for x > a


which we can establish by careful consideration of the integral.

Then it is clear that

u( x, t) = Ψ( x + ct) − Ψ( x − ct)

Need pictures to see how this wave evolves. Two linear ramps, the green one moves to the
left with increasing time at a speed c and represents the first term above and the red one
goes right with speed c. The solution (blue) is the value of the red line subtracted from the
value of the green line.

47
 Rule: Blue = Green−Red

4.3.2 Wave equation with f ( x, t) 6= 0 and zero initial data

In this section we solve the following problem

utt = c2 u xx + f ( x, t), x ∈ R, t > 0, (4.26)

u( x, 0) = 0, ut ( x, 0) = 0 x ∈ R. (4.27)
We again use Duhamel’s principle to find the solution of the above problem. Let us start with
the following auxiliary problem. Fix any s > 0 and consider

vtt = c2 v xx , x ∈ R, t > s, (4.28)

v( x, s) = 0, vt ( x, s) = f ( x, s), x ∈ R. (4.29)
Due to translation invariance of the wave equation we can easily check that for each fixed s
Z x +c(t−s)
1
v( x, t; s) = f (r, s) dr.
2c x −c(t−s)

solves the problem (4.28), (4.29) (note that v( x, s; s) = 0, vt ( x, s; s) = f ( x, s)). Now we

define the following function
Z t
w( x, t) = v( x, t; s) ds
0
and claim that it solves (4.26), (4.27). Let’s verify it.

It is clear that w( x, 0) = 0 and therefore (4.27) is satisfied. Now

Z t Z t
wt ( x, t) = v( x, t; t) + vt ( x, t; s) ds = vt ( x, t; s) ds,
0 0
Z t Z t
wtt ( x, t) = vt ( x, t; t) + vtt ( x, t; s) ds = f ( x, t) + vtt ( x, t; s) ds.
0 0
and Z t
wxx ( x, t) = v xx ( x, t; s) ds.
0

48
Therefore for all t > 0
Z t
2
wtt − c wxx = f ( x, t) + (vtt ( x, t; s) − c2 v xx ( x, t; s)) ds = f ( x, t).
0

We just showed that

Z t Z x +c(t−s)
1
u( x, t) = f (r, s) dr ds
2c 0 x −c(t−s)

solves (4.26), (4.27).

4.3.3 General problem

Now we are ready to solve the following general problem

utt = c2 u xx + f ( x, t), for x ∈ R, t > 0 (4.30)

u( x, 0) = φ( x ), ut ( x, 0) = ψ( x ) for x ∈ R. (4.31)
It is straightforward to check that if v( x, t) satisfies

vtt = c2 v xx , for x ∈ R, t > 0 (4.32)

v( x, 0) = φ( x ), vt ( x, 0) = ψ( x ) for x ∈ R. (4.33)
and w( x, t) satisfies
wtt = c2 wxx + f ( x, t), for x ∈ R, t > 0 (4.34)
w( x, 0) = 0, wt ( x, 0) = 0 for x ∈ R (4.35)
then u( x, t) = v( x, t) + w( x, t) solves (4.30), (4.31). Since we already know from the
previous subsections how to solve the problems for v( x, t) and w( x, t) we obtain
Z x+ct Z t Z x +c(t−s)
1 1 1 1
u( x, t) = φ( x − ct) + φ( x + ct) + ψ(r ) dr + f (r, s) dr ds.
2 2 2c x −ct 2c 0 x −c(t−s)

4.4 Reflection of Waves

Consider utt = c2 u xx for x > 0 with the B.C. at x = 0 given by u(0, t) = 0 for t > 0.

I.C’s are u( x, 0) = φ( x ), ut ( x, 0) = ψ( x ), for x > 0.

This is a semi-infinite problem as in §4.6.1. Use the same solution trick as then:
 
φ( x ), x > 0, ψ( x ), x > 0,
I.e. let Φ( x ) = and Ψ( x ) = be the odd
−φ(− x ), x < 0 −ψ(− x ), x < 0
extensions of the I.Cs into x < 0.

So let U ( x, t) satisfy Utt = c2 Uxx in −∞ < x < ∞ with U ( x, 0) = Φ( x ) and Ut ( x, 0) = Ψ( x ).

Then from previous section, solution is

49
 Z x+ct
1
U ( x, t) = 12 [Φ( x − ct) + Φ( x + ct)] + Ψ(ξ ) dξ
2c x −ct

Now
R ct
U (0, t) = 12 [Φ(−ct) + Φ(ct)] + 1
2c −ct Ψ ( ξ ) dξ =0

(after using the oddness of the functions).

Since U ( x, t) satisfies the same PDE, ICs as u( x, t) in x > 0 and the BC at x = 0 it follows
that u( x, t) = U ( x, t) in x > 0.
(
1 for 1 < x < 2
Example: φ( x ) = , ψ( x ) ≡ 0. Take the odd extension of φ,
0 for 0 < x < 1 or x > 2
the first graph on the left below. Then U ( x, t) = 12 [Φ( x − ct) + Φ( x + ct)]

The series of pictures are increasing in time. The pictures show the two separate parts of u
(red and green) and the blue line is the sum of those two parts. It can be seen that the
reflection at the wall flips the wave over and reflects it back towards the right.

Signal splits

Signal reflected
and negative

Rule: Blue = Green + Red

50
Chapter 5

PDEs on Infinite Domains: Fourier

Transforms

5.1 The Fourier Transform

5.1.1 Definitions

Defn: The Fourier transform (F.T.) of f ( x ) is

Z ∞
fˆ(k) = f ( x )e−ikx dx
−∞

Notes:

√
1. Sometimes, there is a factor of 1/ 2π in the definition; sometimes e−ikx is eikx .
This is OK, as long as consistent with the definition of the inverse. Also, sometimes fˆ
written as f (k ) or F (k ).

2. Integral only exists if f ( x ) → 0 “fast enough” as x → ±∞.

3. Can think of F.T. as an operation: fˆ = F { f }; F is a linear operator.

Example 1. Take f ( x ) = e−a| x| , with a > 0. Then

 ax
e for x < 0
f (x) = Taking the F.T.:
e−ax for x > 0
Z 0 Z ∞
fˆ(k) = e(a−ik) x dx + e(−a−ik) x dx
−∞  0
1 1
= +
a − ik a + ik
 
2a
= .
a2 + k 2

51
 2
Example 2. Take f ( x ) = e−ax , with a > 0. Then taking the F.T.:
Z ∞ 2
Z ∞ 2
r
− ax2 −ikx − k4a ik
− a( x + 2a ) π − k2
fˆ(k ) = e e dx = e e dx = e 4a
−∞ −∞ a

5.1.2 Simple Properties

1. F is a linear operator: For fns f , g and consts a, b we have

F { a f + bg} = aF { f } + bF { g}

2. If f ( x ) is even in x, then fˆ(k) is even in k.

Proof:
Z ∞ Z ∞
−ikx
fˆ(k ) = f ( x )e dx = f (− x )eikx dx
−∞ −∞
Z ∞
= f ( x )e−i(−k) x dx
−∞
= fˆ(−k)
where f ( x ) = f (− x ) and a change of variables x → − x have been used.
Similarly, if f ( x ) is odd then fˆ(k ) is odd also.

3. Furthermore, if f is real & even, then fˆ is real.

Proof:
Z 0 Z ∞
fˆ(k ) = f (− x )e−ikx + f ( x )e−ikx dx
−∞ 0
Z ∞
= 2 f ( x ) cos(kx ) dx
0

Similarly, if f ( x ) is real & odd, then fˆ(k ) is imaginary.

 
df
4. (V. Important) f (k ) ≡ F
c 0 = ik fˆ(k). This is key result for application of F.T.’s
dx
to PDEs.
Proof:
Z ∞
d f −ikx
f 0 (k) =
c e
−∞ dx
h i∞ Z ∞
= f ( x )e−ikx + ik f ( x )e−ikx dx
−∞ −∞
= ik fˆ(k)
by integration by parts and using f ( x ) → 0 as x → ±∞.

5. (Shift Property) If g( x ) = f ( x + a), then ĝ(k) = eika fˆ(k).

Proof: Z ∞ Z ∞
−ikx 0
ĝ(k ) = f ( x + a )e dx = f ( x 0 )eika e−ikx dx 0 = eika fˆ(k )
−∞ −∞
After using x 0 = x + a.

52
5.1.3 Products and Convolutions

F { f g} 6= F { f }F { g}, it’s more complicated.

Defn: The convolution of fns f , g is the fn f ∗ g defined by

Z ∞
( f ∗ g)( x ) = f (ξ ) g( x − ξ ) dξ
−∞

Then f ∗ g = g ∗ f .

Proof: Easy.
Z ∞ Z ∞
( g ∗ f )( x ) = g(ξ ) f ( x − ξ ) dξ = g( x − ξ 0 ) f (ξ 0 ) dξ 0
−∞ −∞

after a change of variables ξ 0 = x − ξ.

Transforms of Products and Convolutions

F { f ∗ g} ≡ f ∗ˆ g = fˆĝ

Proof: Start with the L.H.S. of above:

Z ∞ Z ∞
 Z ∞ Z ∞

−ikx −ikξ −ik( x −ξ )
e f (ξ ) g( x − ξ ) dξ dx = f ( ξ )e g ( x − ξ )e dx dξ
−∞ −∞ −∞ −∞
Z ∞ Z ∞ 
−ikξ 0 −ikx 0 0
= f ( ξ )e g ( x )e dx dξ
−∞ −∞
= fˆ(k) ĝ(k)

after switching order of integration and using a change of variable x 0 = x − ξ.

5.1.4 Inverse Fourier Transforms

Defn: The inverse F.T.: Z ∞

1
f (x) = fˆ(k )eikx dk
2π −∞

Can think of this as f ( x ) = F −1 { fˆ} where F −1 is the inverse operator to F .

Obviously it has to be shown that f ( x ) = F −1 { fˆ} is true.

Claim: RIf f ( x ) is continous function decaying fast enough at ±∞ and

ˆf (k) = − ikx 1 ˆ
dx then f ( x ) = 2π R f (k )eikx dk.
R
R f ( x )e

Proof: Let us define

Z Z 
1 1 1
Z Z Z
−ikz
g( x ) = fˆ(k )e ikx
dk = f ( z )e dz e ikx
dk = f (z)e−ik(z− x) dz dk
2π R 2π R R 2π R R

53
We have to show that g( x ) = f ( x ) but it is really not clear what to do with this g( x ).
Therefore we try to approximate this g( x ) by the following functions
Z 
1 1
Z Z Z
−ik(z− x ) −ek2 −ik(z− x )−ek2
ge ( x ) = f ( z )e e dk dz = f (z) e dk dz.
2π R R 2π R R

It is clear that ge ( x ) → g( x ) as e → 0. Using Example 2 we know that

r
π − ( x − z )2
Z
−ik(z− x )−ek2
e dk = e 4e .
R e
Therefore it is clear
1 ( x − z )2
Z
ge ( x ) = √ f ( z )e− 4e dz.
4πe R
But we already know (recall fundamental solutions) that

1 ( x − z )2
Z
ge ( x ) = √ f ( z )e− 4e dz → f ( x ) as e → 0.
4πe R

Therefore we have ge ( x ) → g( x ) and ge ( x ) → f ( x ) which implies g( x ) = f ( x ). QED

Fourier
Z ∞ Integral Theorem. If f is piecewise continuous and absolutely integrable
| f ( x )| dx < ∞ then integral for fˆ(k) converges. At a point of discontinuity, x = c say,
−∞
f ( x ) defined by its inverse F.T. converges to 12 ( f (c−) + f (c+)) as in F.S.

Proof: too difficult for this course.

Example 3: Let’s try to informally find the Fourier transform of δ( x )

Z ∞
F {δ( x )} = δ( x )e−ikx dx = 1
−∞
So F.T. of δ( x ) is unity !

Informal Fourier inversion formula gives

Z ∞ Z ∞
1 ikx 1
δ( x ) = e dk = cos kx dk !!
2π −∞ π 0

since sin kx is odd in k and integrates to zero. It obviously does not make much sense as
this integral does not converge. In order to make sense out of this we have to deal with
approximation of δ( x ) rather than δ( x ), for instance:
2
1 1
Z
− ( x−4ez) 2
δ( x ) = lim √ e = lim e−ikx−ek dk.
e →0 4πe e→0 2π R

Therefore we ”can” formally deal with Fourier transform of δ( x ).

Transform of Shifted Delta Function

Z ∞
F {δ( x − a)} = δ( x − a)e−ikx dx = e−ika
−∞

54
(Consistent with the general property of FTs that if g( x ) = f ( x + a) then ĝ = eika fˆ.)

Inverse F.T. Z ∞
1
δ( x − a) = eik( x−a) dk
2π −∞

Transform of Complex Exponential

Z ∞
F {e iax
}= e−i(k−a) x dx = 2πδ(k − a)
−∞

Example 4. Inverse F.T. says that (see Example 1)

Z ∞
1 2a
f ( x ) = e− a | x | = 2 2
eikx dk
2π −∞ a +k
If we let x → −k and k → x simultaneously, we get
Z ∞
π − a|k| 1
e = e−ikx dx
a −∞ a2 +x 2

I.e. if f ( x ) = 1/( a2 + x2 ) then fˆ(k ) = πe−a|k| /a.

We get this for free – it comes from the inverse FT – and we don’t need to confirm it. But
can we ? Yes – using complex function theory and integration in the complex plane.

We want to calculate Z ∞
g( x ) dx
−∞
where integrand is
e−ikx e−ikx
g( x ) = =
a2 + x 2 ( x − ia)( x + ia)
We extend x to complex values, so there are simple poles (the denominator vanishes with
multiplicity one) at x = ±ia.
Z ∞
To compute g( x ) dx, form a closed contour in the complex x-plane which includes the
−∞
real x-axis. Why ? Because Cauchy’s residue theorem (CRT) states that “the value of the
integral round a closed contour is equal to 2πi times the sum of the residues at the poles inside the
contour.”
e−ik(ia)
Residue at x = ia is lim ( x − ia) g( x ) = .
x →ia 2ia

e−ik(−ia)
Residue at x = −ia is lim ( x + ia) g( x ) = .
x →−ia −2ia
How to close the contour ?

Two (sensible) possibilities: Either close contour with a large semi-circle C+ in the
upper-half complex x-plane or C− in the lower-half plane. Which way to go ?

55
If we choose C+ then CRT says
Z ∞ Z
g( x ) dx + g( x ) dx = 2πiRes(+ia)
−∞ C+

and if C− we choose
Z ∞ Z
g( x ) dx + g( x ) dx = −2πiRes(−ia)
−∞ C−

(the minus sign accounts for the fact that the loop is in a clockwise direction – CRT
assumes anticlockwise)... provided the C+ , C− make sense.

Which one ? Parametrise large semi-circle C± by x = Reiθ as R → ∞. Then

exp{−ikx } = exp{−ikReiθ } = exp{−iRk cos θ }exp{ Rk sin θ }

• If k > 0 then choice −π < θ < 0 means above tends to zero as R → ∞. I.e. go into
lower half plane,
Z ∞
e−ikx e−ak π −ak
dx + 0 = − 2πi = e
− ∞ a2 + x 2 −2ia a
• If k < 0 then if 0 < θ < π means above tends to zero as R → ∞. I.e. go into upper
half plane.
Z ∞
e−ikx eak π
2 2
dx + 0 = 2πi = eak
−∞ a + x −2ia a

This confirms the result !

Example 5: Take f ( x ) = ex . F.T. does not exist because the integral not convergent. Same
for e− x .

1/2a for | x | < a
Example 6: Take f th ( x ) = .
0 for | x | > a

This is called a “top-hat” function. Then

" #
eika − e−ika
Z a
1 sin ka
fˆth (k) = .e−ikx dx = =
−a 2a 2ika ka

5.2 Heat Equation on an ∞-Domain

Consider
ut = Du xx for −∞ < x < ∞
with an I.C. of
u( x, 0) = φ( x ), φ( x ) a given function
R∞ −ikx
Let û(k, t) = −∞ u ( x, t )e dx (i.e. û(k, t) is the F.T. of u( x, t) w.r.t. x).

56
Take the F.T. of P.D.E. (i.e. multiply ut = Du xx by e−ikx and integrate over −∞ < x < ∞).
Then
F {ut } = DF {u xx }
or Z ∞ Z ∞ 2
∂u −ikx ∂ u −ikx
e dx = D e dx
−∞ ∂t −∞ ∂x2
and so Z ∞
∂
ue−ikx dx = D (ik )F {u x } = D (ik )2 F {u}
∂t −∞
which gives
ût = − Dk2 û
because ∂/∂t does not interfere with the F.T. in x and using the property of F.T.’s of
derivatives.

This is just a 1st order O.D.E. in t.

2 Dt
Solution: û(k, t) = Ce−k

for the “integration constant”, C ≡ C (k ) but independent of t.

To determine C (k ) need extra info... the I.C. is what we need (there are no ‘boundaries’ in
this problem, although ±∞ may be regarded as boundaries.

Taking the F.T. of the I.C. gives

û(k, 0) = φ̂(k)
as before, trivial O.D.E. in t with I.C. fixing the integration “constant”.

I.e. Solution in Transform space is:

2
û(k, t) = φ̂(k )e− Dk t .

Inversion ? For specific φ( x ), will know φ̂(k ) and may be able to invert directly.

Here we don’t have a specific φ̂(k)... Can use convolution because û is in the form of a
product of two transform functions of k. All that’s needed for convolution to work is that
we know the functions that give the two F.T.’s in the product.

Well F {φ( x )} = φ̂(k ), so that’s easy.

Using Example 2 we have ( )

2
e− x /4Dt 2 Dt
F √ = e− k
4πDt

So convolution theorem gives

Z ∞
1 ( x − ξ )2
−1 −k2 Dt
u( x, t) = F {φ̂(k)e }= √ φ ( ξ )e− 4Dt dξ
4πDt −∞

57
5.2.1 Heat equation with the right hand side

Consider
ut = Du xx + f ( x, t) for −∞ < x < ∞
with an I.C. of
u( x, 0) = φ( x ),
R∞ −ikx
Let û(k, t) = −∞ u ( x, t )e dx

Take the F.T. of P.D.E. (i.e. multiply ut = Du xx + f ( x, t) by e−ikx and integrate over
−∞ < x < ∞). Then
F {ut } = DF {u xx } + F ( f )
or Z ∞ Z ∞ 2 Z ∞
∂u −ikx ∂ u −ikx
e dx = D 2
e dx + f ( x, t)e−ikx dx
−∞ ∂t −∞ ∂x −∞
and so Z ∞
∂
ue−ikx dx = D (ik )F {u x } + F ( f ) = D (ik )2 F {u} + F ( f )
∂t −∞
which gives
ût = − Dk2 û + fˆ
Initial condition gives û(k, 0) = φ̂(k ) and therefore we are now solving the first order ODE
with the right hand side. It is clear that
Z t
− Dk2 t − Dk2 t 2
û(k, t) = φ̂(k)e +e eDk s fˆ(k, s) ds
0

Taking inverse FT we obtain

Z Z tZ
u( x, t) = Φ( x − y, t)φ(y) dy + Φ( x − y, t − s) f (y, s) dy ds.
R 0 R

5.3 Particular Initial Conditions

5.3.1 Delta Function

If u( x, 0) = δ( x ) (e.g. all the heat/chemical initially dumped at the origin – a decent

mathematical model), then φ( x ) = δ( x )

and
Z ∞ x2
1 − ξ )2
− ( x4Dt e− 4Dt
u( x, t) = √ δ ( ξ )e dξ = √
4πDt −∞ 4πDt

Defn: This is the fundamental solution of the diffusion equation.

Properties of this solution

58
 R∞
• Initially u( x, 0) = δ( x ) and so −∞ udx = 1. This is the total amount of “stuff” in the
system at t = 0.
• For each fixed t, u( x, t) is a Guassian in x, but spreads out with increasing t.
Z ∞
1
Z ∞
2 /4Dt 1 √
• For t > 0 we have u dx = √ e− x dx = √ 4πDt = 1. I.e. the
−∞ 4πDt −∞ 4πDt
amount of stuff in the system remains constant. Expected.
( x − a )2
e− 4Dt
• For the I.C. to u( x, 0) = δ( x − a), easy to see solution is u( x, t) = √
4πDt

5.3.2 Heaviside Function

(
1 for x > 0
Assume u( x, 0) = H ( x ) = .
0 for x < 0

Note: Appears not to be valid, as one can’t take the F.T. of the I.C. (it doesn’t tend to zero at
infinity), but can be made rigorous by taking limits.

From the General Solution,

Z ∞
1 2 /4Dt
u( x, t) = √ e−( x−ξ ) dξ
4πDt 0
√
Change of variable: s = (ξ − x )/ 4Dt. Then
1
Z ∞
2 1 √
u( x, t) = √ √ e−s ds = erfc(− x/ 4Dt)
π − x/ 4Dt 2
where Z ∞
2 2
erfc(z) = √ e−s ds
π z
is a special function call the Complementary Error Function. Also, define
Z z
2 2
erf(z) = 1 − erfc(z) = √ e−s ds
π 0

as the Error Function. This relationship follows since

Z ∞ Z ∞
2 − s2 1 2
√ e ds = √ e−s ds = 1 ≡ erf(∞)
π 0 π −∞

Note also that erf(z) = −erf(−z) is an odd function whilst erf(0) = 0.

1 erf( z )

erfc( z)

−1

59
Using this information, gives
√
u( x, t) = 12 (1 + erf( x/ 4Dt))

as the solution with the Heaviside function as the I.C.

u(x,t)
t=0

large t

small t

2
d √ e− x /4Dt
Final note: (erf( x/ 4Dt)) = √ .
dx 4Dt

5.3.3 Use of Superposition

The P.D.E. is linear, so can apply the principle of superposition. E.g. infinite domain with
mass Q a at x = a and mass Qb at x = b. Then solution is the sum of the solutions of the two
parts separately:
2 2
Q a e−( x−a) /4Dt + Qb e−( x−b) /4Dt
u( x, t) = √
4πDt

using formula above (and interchanging the variables, k → − x and x → k).

60
Chapter 6

First Order PDEs

6.1 The method of characteristics

6.1.1 The Simplest Case

Suppose u( x, t) satisfies the PDE

aut + bu x = 0
where a, b are constant.

If a = 0, the PDE is trivial (it says that u x = 0 and so u = f (t)).

If a 6= 0, it reduces to
ut + cu x = 0 where c = b/a. (6.1)

We know from that the solution is f ( x − ct). This represents a wave travelling in the x
direction with speed c, and with constant shape.

u(x,t)

t=1
t=0 t=2

x
c
A new approach:

Assume x = x (s) and t = t(s) describes curves in the ( x, t)-plane where s parametrises the
curve.

By the chain rule,

du dt dx
= ut + u x
ds ds ds

61
 dt dx du
So if = 1 and = c then = ut + cu x = 0.
ds ds ds
Then, integrating t = s + const, x = cs + const and u = const along one of these curves.

Elimating s gives x = ct + const or x = ct + ξ, say. So along curves x − ct = ξ, a constant,

u = const. In the ( x, t)-plane these are straight lines of gradient 1/c passing through x = ξ.
t

ξ= constant (different constant on each curve)

Solution constant along each curve in (x,t) space
x

Consider the IC u( x, 0) = f ( x ), a given function. Then since x = ξ at t = 0, u = f (ξ ) on

t = 0 and so u must always equal f (ξ ) along the characteristic curves ξ = x − ct.
Therefore u( x, t) = f (ξ ) = f ( x − ct).

6.1.2 A more complicated example

Consider
ut + xu x = sin t with I.C. u( x, 0) = f ( x ).
- a 1st order inhomogeneous linear PDE with non-constant coefficients.

Use method of characteristics as before, in which ( x, t) are mapped into variables (ξ, s)
along which the PDE can be transformed into an ODE.

Specifically, we choose to set x = ξ and s = 0 on t = 0.

By chain rule:
du dt dx
= ut + u x = sin t
ds ds ds
So the characteristic equations are:
dt dx du
if (i): = 1, and (ii): = x, then (iii): = sin t,
ds ds ds
Integrating up and imposing x = ξ, s = 0 on t = 0 gives
du du
(i): t = s, (ii): x = ξes , and (iii): = sin t, ⇒ = sin s ⇒ u = − cos s + C (ξ )
ds ds
where C (ξ ) is a constant along each curve, but varies from curve to curve hence the
dependence on ξ.

Since x = ξ on t = 0, u(ξ, 0) = f (ξ ) on s = 0, and so

u(ξ, s) = 1 − cos s + f (ξ )

Inverting variables: s = t and ξ = xe−s = xe−t . So solution is, in terms of ( x, t)

u( x, t) = 1 − cos t + f ( xe−t )

62
In this example, the characteristic curves are not straight lines – given by ξ = xe−t =
constant. Note also, solution is not a constant along the characteristic curves.
t ξ= constant

6.1.3 Semi-linear PDEs

These have a general form a( x, t)ut + b( x, t)u x = c( x, t, u). Can be non-linear, but must be
linear in the derivatives.

E.g.: Consider
ut + cu x = u2 , with u( x, 0) = cos x

Same method as before... so the characteristic equations are:

dt dx du
(i): = 1, (ii): = c, (iii): = u2
ds ds ds
Integrating up and imposing x = ξ, s = 0 on t = 0 gives

−1
(i): t = s, (ii): x = cs + ξ, and (iii): = s + C (ξ )
u
where C (ξ ) is to be determined by the transformed IC: u(ξ, 0) = cos ξ when s = 0. So
easily find
cos ξ
u(ξ, s) =
1 − s cos ξ
and inverting variables: s = t and ξ = x − ct (the characteristics are straight lines) gives

cos( x − ct)
u( x, t) =
1 − t cos( x − ct)

Note: solution ‘blows up’ when t = 1 and cos( x − c) = 1... the strange+interesting effects
of non-linearity.

6.1.4 Quasi-linear PDEs

Consider the PDE of a general type

ut + g(u)u x = 0, with I.C. u( x, 0) = f ( x )

where g is a given function of one variable. Must be linear in ut and u x , but may be
nonlinear in u.

63
Same method again... so the characteristic equations are:
dt dx du
(i):= 1, (ii): = g(u), (iii): =0
ds ds ds
Integrating up and imposing x = ξ, s = 0 on t = 0 gives
(i): t = s, and (iii): u = C (ξ )
where C (ξ ) is to be determined by the transformed IC: u(ξ, 0) = f (ξ ) when s = 0. I.e.
u(ξ, s) = f (ξ ).

We have missed out (ii), but can now integrate that too since
dx
= g( f (ξ )), ⇒ x = sg( f (ξ )) + ξ
ds
Using s = t, we have
x = tg( f (ξ )) + ξ (6.2)

as the equation defining characteristic curves. These are straight lines in the ( x, t) plane
with slope 1/g( f (ξ )). Solution is constant along characteristics, with
u( x, t) = f (ξ ) = f ( x − tg( f (ξ ))).

Note: Since u = f (ξ ), can eliminate ξ:

u( x, t) = f ( x − tg(u))
which is an implicit equation defining u( x, t).

6.2 Examples of Nonlinear Wave Problems

6.2.1 Examples with Shock Waves

Example 1. Suppose
g(u) = 1 + u, so ut + (1 + u)u x = 0. (6.3)
with 
 1 for x ≤ 0
u( x, 0) = f ( x ) = 1 − x for 0 < x < 1
0 for x ≥ 1


A simple physical interpretation of the solution goes as follows. The wave speed
c = 1 + u = 1+initial height. So for x < 0, c = 1 + 1 = 2 and travels faster than for x > 1,
where c = 1 + 0 = 1.

speed = 2

speed = 1

64
In the I.C. we can interchange x with ξ.

So

• For ξ < 0, g( f (ξ )) = 1 + u(ξ, 0) = 1 + 1 = 2. So slope of char. is 1/2 and equation of

char. is x = 2t + ξ (from (6.2)).

• For ξ ≥ 1, g( f (ξ )) = 1 + u(ξ, 0) = 1 + 0 = 1. So slope of char is 1 and equation of

char. is x = t + ξ

• For 0 < ξ < 1, g( f (ξ )) = 1 + 1 − ξ = 2 − ξ. So slope of char is 1/(2 − ξ ) and

equation of char is x = (2 − ξ )t + ξ.

Sketch of chars:

1 2 x

• The two bounding curves are (A): x = 2t and (B): x = t + 1. They cross when ( x, t)
are the same, i.e. at 1 + t = 2t or t = 1, x = 2.

• Interior curves are given by x = (2 − ξ )t + ξ for 0 < ξ < 1. Easy to see they all pass
through x = 2, t = 1.

Solution: u = f (ξ ) so
for ξ ≤ 0


 1

u( x, t) = 0 for ξ ≥ 1


1 − ξ for 0 < ξ < 1


or, in terms of ( x, t),

for x ≤ 2t


 1


0 for x ≥ 1 + t

u( x, t) =
1+t−x

  
for 2t < x < 1 + t


1−t


(last equation comes from x = (2 − ξ )t + ξ implies ξ (1 − t) = x − 2t implies

ξ = ( x − 2t)/(1 − t) and so 1 − ξ = 1 − (( x − 2t)/(1 − t))).

65
Can see that the solution blows up at t = 1. This is where the characteristics cross one
another. Always the case: when characteristics cross the solution breaks down. Indicative of
shock waves.

Physically, in this problem, it is where the linear ramp becomes vertical; infinite gradient
implies derivatives don’t exist.

Very interesting... but not here.

Example 2. The same PDE but a smooth initial condition: 21 [1 − tanh 3( x − 12 )]. Here is its
graph:

u(x, 0)

x
0 1 4

It is a smoothed-out version of Example 1.

Characteristics:

−1 2

6.2.2 Example with an Expansion Fan

Example 3: The same PDE ut + (1 + u)u x = 0, but this time with an initial condition which
increases with x:

 0 for x ≤ 0
u( x, 0) = f ( x ) = x/a for 0 < x < a where a > 0
1 for x ≥ a


The characteristics spread out, and there are no shocks in this problem.

66
 t

gradient=1
gradient = 1/2

x
0 a

In the limit as a → 0 the solution is called an expansion fan.

gradient=1

gradient = 1/2

x
0

6.3 Traffic Flow

This theory was invented in Manchester in 1955 by Sir James Lighthill and G. B. Whitham.

6.3.1 The Traffic Flow Equation

Let x be distance along a road (not necessarily straight).

Traffic density ρ( x, t) on a road is defined as the number of cars (or other vehicles) per
unit distance at the point x and time t.
Z b
Then the number of cars at time t in the region a < x < b is ρ( x, t) dx.
a

ρ is really a subtle kind of average.

Conservation Law: No cars can be created or destroyed and so can use the conservation
law in §2.3.1 (‘stuff’ is now cars).
∂ρ ∂φ
=−
∂t ∂x
where φ( x, t) is flux. In this context, flux is the rate at which cars are crossing the fixed point x.
I.e. it is (density of cars) × (speed of cars).

φ( x, t) = ρ( x, t)u( x, t)

where u( x, t) is the Traffic speed. So we have

0 = ρt + (ρu) x = ρt + ρ x u + ρu x (6.4)

67
This one equation involves two dependent variables ρ and u. Need another equation
linking ρ and u to close the model.

Instead of u = u( x, t), propose u = u(ρ) = u(ρ( x, t)).

I.e. ones speed is not dependent where you are on the road, or what time it is, only on the
density of the traffic surrounding you. So

φ = ρu = ρu(ρ) ≡ f (ρ), say.

Now we get
∂ρ ∂
0= + f (ρ) = ρt + f 0 (ρ)ρ x (6.5)
∂t ∂x
This is a quasi-linear PDE of the type already investigated in §6.1.4.

6.3.2 The Quadratic Model

Assumptions:

1. When ρ = 0, u = umax , the maximum speed a car will travel at on an empty road (the
speed limit ?)

2. u = 0 when ρ = ρc where ρc = 1/spacing between cars in a jam.

Consider the simplest model, in which u is a linear function of ρ:

 
ρ
u = umax 1 − for ρ ≤ ρc (6.6)
ρc

Now f (ρ) = ρu = umax ρ(1 − ρ/ρc ) and

Plug into the conservation eqn (6.5) to get

ρt + c(ρc − 2ρ)ρ x = 0 (6.7)

where
umax
c= . (6.8)
ρc

This is the type of PDE considered in §6.2, but with a negative coefficient for the quadratic
term ρρ x .

Wave speed = 1/(slope of characteristics) = c(ρc − 2ρ). Can be +ve or -ve.

Speed of traffic is c[ρc − ρ] > 0 from (6.6) and (6.8).

So the wave speed < traffic speed.

This means that changes in density travel more slowly than cars. So when you drive, you
go faster than the changes in density; that’s why you have to slow down to avoid

68
thickening of traffic. This is the other way round from water waves, where as you float
with the wave, breakers come up behind you. The reason is the nonlinear term ρρ x in (6.7)
has a minus sign, where the nonlinear term in (6.3) has a plus sign.

It is easy to verify that if ρ( x, 0) is an increasing function, you get shock formation, so when
traffic starts to get thicker (as when a motorway lane closes), discontinuities tend to
develop. Anyone who has driven on a busy motorway knows that traffic jams can form
suddenly and for no obvious reason. They are shock waves formed by the steepening of
initially smooth changes of density.

Remark:

These quasi-linear equations also closely connected to other observable phenomena, such
as glacier flows and sedimentation in river deltas.

69
Chapter 7

PDEs in R2 and R3

7.1 Harmonic Functions

In this section we investigate a very special class of functions functions called harmonic. We
will be concentrating on harmonic functions in R2 but the results of this section are valid in
Rn and most proofs are transferrable directly to Rn .

D EFINITION 7.1.1 Let n ∈ N+ and Ω ⊂ Rn be an open connected set. A function u ∈ C2 (Ω) is

called harmonic if ∆u( x ) = 0 for all x ∈ Ω.

The basic examples of harmonic functions are

E XAMPLE 7.1.2 Here are several examples of harmonic functions in R2 :

1. u( x, y) = x + y, Ω ⊂ R2 is any open set;

2. u( x, y) = x2 − y2 , Ω ⊂ R2 is any open set;

3. u( x, y) = ln( x2 + y2 ), Ω ⊂ R2 is any open set that does not include 0.

Note that in the third example if Ω contains 0 then u( x, y) will not be harmonic as it is not
in C2 (Ω).

7.1.1 Mean Value Property

Harmonic functions have many very nice properties. Here we prove that harmonic
functions satisfy the mean value property (MVP). We always denote by Br ( x ) a ball of radius
r centered at a point x.

D EFINITION 7.1.3 Let Ω ⊂ R2 be an open connected set and u ∈ C (Ω). We say that

70
 1. u satisfies the first mean value property in Ω if
1
Z
u( x ) = u(y) dSy , for any Br ( x ) ⊂ Ω.
2πr ∂Br ( x )

Note that we can rewrite the above as

Z 2π
1
u( x ) = u( x + r n̂(θ )) dθ, (7.1)
2π 0

where n̂(θ ) = (cos θ, sin θ ), r > 0 is such that Br ( x ) ⊂ Ω.

2. u satisfies the second mean value property in Ω if
1
Z
u( x ) = u(y) dy, for any Br ( x ) ⊂ Ω.
πr2 Br ( x )

Note that we can rewrite the above as

Z 2π Z r
1
u( x ) = u( x + sn̂(θ ))s dθ, (7.2)
πr2 0 0

where n̂(θ ) = (cos θ, sin θ ), r > 0 is such that Br ( x ) ⊂ Ω.

Now we show that the first and the second MVPs are equivalent and therefore later we
refer to both of them as mean value property.

P ROPOSITION 7.1.4 A function u ∈ C (Ω) satisfies the first mean value property if and only if it
satisfies the second mean value property.

Proof. Assume u satisfies the first mean value property. Take any r > 0 such that
Br ( x ) ⊂ Ω, then for all 0 < s < r we have
Z 2π
1
u( x ) = u( x + sn̂(θ )) dθ.
2π 0

Multiplying both parts by 2πs and integrating from 0 to r we obtain

Z 2π Z r
2
πr u( x ) = u( x + sn̂(θ ))s dθ.
0 0

Hence we obtain the second mean value property.

Assume now that the second mean value property is satisfied. Take any r > 0 such that
Br ( x ) ⊂ Ω, then we have
Z 2π Z r
2
πr u( x ) = u( x + sn̂(θ ))s dθ.
0 0

Differentiating with respect to r we obtain

Z 2π
2πru( x ) = u( x + r n̂(θ ))r dθ.
0

Dividing both parts by 2πr we obtain the result. 

Now we would like to show that functions satisfying mean value property and harmonic
functions are indeed the same. We first proof the following result.

71
P ROPOSITION 7.1.5 Let Ω ⊂ R2 be open connected domain and u ∈ C2 (Ω) be a harmonic
function. Then u satisfies mean value property in Ω.

Proof. Let x ∈ Ω be any point. We take any r > 0 such that Br ( x ) ⊂ Ω and want to show
that if ∆u = 0 in Ω then Z 2π
1
u( x ) = u( x + r n̂(θ )) dθ.
2π 0
In order to prove this result we will use integration by parts or Green’s identity. The
divergence (or Gauss) theorem tells us that for any vector field F ( x ) defined for x ∈ Ω and
any Ω0 ⊂ Ω we have Z Z
divF ( x ) dx = F ( x ) · n̂ dS( x ),
Ω0 ∂Ω0
where n is a normal vector to Ω0 . Now we take Ω0 = Br (0) \ Be (0). Since ∆u = 0 and
∆ ln | x | = 0 for x 6= 0 we have the following equality
Z Z
0= u( x + y)∆ ln |y| − ln |y|∆u( x + y) dy = div(u( x + y)∇ ln |y| − ln |y|∇u( x + y)) dy
Ω0 Ω0
Z Z
= u( x + y)∇ ln |y| · n̂ dS(y) − u( x + y)∇ ln |y| · n̂ dS(y)+
∂Br (0) ∂Be (0)
Z Z
ln |y|∇u( x + y) dS(y) − ln |y|∇u( x + y) dS(y) (7.3)
∂Br (0) ∂Be (0)

We can simplify the right hand side to obtain

Z 2π Z 2π
u( x + r n̂(θ )) dθ − u( x + en̂(θ )) dθ = 0.
0 0

Here we used the fact that

Z Z Z
ln |y|∇u( x + y) dS(y) = ln |y| ∇u( x + y) dS(y) = − ln |y| ∆u( x + y) dy = 0.
∂Br (0) ∂Br (0) ∂Br (0)

Now we have Z 2π Z 2π
u( x + r n̂(θ )) dθ = u( x + en̂(θ )) dθ
0 0
and taking e → 0 we obtain
Z 2π
u( x + r n̂(θ )) dθ = 2πu( x ).
0

So we prove the result. 

We can also give a different proof of this result.

Proof 2. Let x ∈ Ω be any point. We take any r > 0 such that Br ( x ) ⊂ Ω and want to show
that if ∆u = 0 in Ω then Z 2π
1
u( x ) = u( x + r n̂(θ )) dθ.
2π 0
We are using integration by parts
Z Z Z
0= ∆u(y) dy = ∆u( x + y) dy = ∇u( x + y) · n̂ dS(y)
Br ( x ) Br (0) ∂Br (0)
Z 2π Z 2π
∂ ∂
=r u( x + r n̂(θ )) dθ = r u( x + r n̂(θ )) dθ. (7.4)
0 ∂r ∂r 0

72
Therefore we have
Z 2π Z 2π
u( x + r n̂(θ )) dθ = u( x ) dθ = 2πu( x ).
0 0

The result follows. 

Now we understand that harmonic functions satisfy mean value property and want to
prove the opposite result.

P ROPOSITION 7.1.6 Let Ω ⊂ R2 be open connected domain and u ∈ C2 (Ω) satisfies mean value
property in Ω. Then u is a harmonic function.

Proof. Let x ∈ Ω be any point. Want to show that if

Z 2π
1
u( x ) = u( x + r n̂(θ )) dθ
2π 0

for all Br ( x ) ⊂ Ω then ∆u( x ) = 0. Using formula (7.4) we see that for all Br ( x )
Z Z Z
∆u(y) dy = ∆u( x + y) dy = ∇u( x + y) · n̂ dS(y)
Br ( x ) Br (0) ∂Br (0)
Z 2π Z 2π
∂ ∂ ∂
=r u( x + r n̂(θ )) dθ = r u( x + r n̂(θ )) dθ = 2πr u( x ) = 0. (7.5)
0 ∂r ∂r 0 ∂r
Now we take an average and let r → 0 to obtain

1
Z
0 = lim 2 ∆u(y) dy = ∆u( x ).
r →0 πr Br ( x )

The result is proved. 

7.1.2 Maximum Principle

In this section we prove a maximum principle for harmonic functions. We start with the
following result.

P ROPOSITION 7.1.7 Let Ω ⊂ R2 be an open connected domain and u be a harmonic function

defined on Ω. Assume u achieves maximum at a point x0 ∈ Ω then u( x ) ≡ const for all x ∈ Ω.

Proof. Since x0 ∈ Ω and Ω is an open set we can find r > 0 such that Br ( x0 ) ⊂ Ω and
therefore by mean value property we have

1
Z
u ( x0 ) = u( x ) dx.
πr2 Br ( x0 )

Since u( x0 ) ≥ u( x ) for all x ∈ Ω the only wy to satisfy mean value property is to have
u( x ) = u( x0 ) for all x ∈ Br ( x0 ). Now take any point xn ∈ Ω, we want to show that
u( xn ) = u( x0 ). We can connect x0 and xn by a continuous curve that we cover by
intersecting balls Br0 ( xi ) ⊂ Ω with 2r0 < r in such a way that | xi+1 − xi | < r0 for

73
i = 0, ..., n − 1. By the first step we already know that u( x1 ) = u( x0 ), repeating the
arguments we obtain that

u ( x0 ) = u ( x i ), for all i = 1, ..., n.

Therefore we have the result. 

Changing u to −u we obtain the following result.

C OROLLARY 7.1.8 Let Ω ⊂ R2 be an open connected domain and u be a harmonic function

defined on Ω. Assume u achieves minimum at a point x0 ∈ Ω then u( x ) ≡ const for all x ∈ Ω.

Note that we only used mean value property to prove maximum principle. Using above
results we clearly have

P ROPOSITION 7.1.9 Let Ω ⊂ R2 be an open connected domain and u be a harmonic function

defined on Ω. Then u attains its minimum and maximum values over Ω̄ on ∂Ω.

Now we want to use maximum principle to show some uniqueness properties of harmonic
functions.

P ROPOSITION 7.1.10 Let Ω ⊂ R2 be an open connected domain and u be a harmonic function

defined on Ω̄. Then u is uniquely defined by its values on the boundary ∂Ω.

Proof. Assume there is a harmonic function v defined on Ω̄ and such that v( x ) = u( x ) for
all x ∈ ∂Ω. It is clear that a diference w( x ) = u( x ) − v( x ) is also a harmonic function.
Moreover, w( x ) = 0 for all x ∈ ∂Ω. Since we know that minimum and maximum of
harmonic function are achieved at the boundary by obtain 0 ≤ w( x ) ≤ 0 for all x ∈ Ω̄.
Therefore w( x ) ≡ 0 and v( x ) coincides with u( x ). 

C OROLLARY 7.1.11 Let Ω ⊂ R2 be an open connected domain and u be a solution of a Poisson

equation
∆u( x ) = f ( x ) for all x ∈ Ω, u( x ) = u0 ( x ) for all x ∈ ∂Ω.
Then u is unique solution.

Proof. Assume there are two solutions u and v. Then their difference w( x ) = u( x ) − v( x ) is
harmonic and zero on ∂Ω. Therefore w( x ) ≡ 0 and we have a contradiction. 

74
7.2 The Laplacian in non-Cartesian Coordinates

7.2.1 2D Polars (plane polars)

We transform ∇2 u = u xx + uyy to (r, θ ) coordinates, where


x = r cos θ,
,
y = r sin θ

Application of the chain rule eventually gives:

2 ∂2 u 1 ∂u 1 ∂2 u
∇ u= 2 + + 2 2 (7.6)
∂r r ∂r r ∂θ

7.2.2 3D: Cylindrical Polar Coordinates

Cylindrical polar coordinates are (r, θ, z) with x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ as before, Then

∂2 u 1 ∂u 1 ∂2 u ∂2 u
∇2 u = + + + 2 (7.7)
∂r2 r ∂r r2 ∂θ 2 ∂z

7.3 Separation solutions

7.3.1 Cartesian Coordinates (2D)

Consider ∇2 u = 0 inside a rectangular domain, 0 < x < a, 0 < y < b, say. Then

∂2 u ∂2 u
+ 2 =0
∂x2 ∂y

Let u( x, y) = X ( x )Y (y). Then X 00 ( x )Y (y) + X ( x )Y 00 (y) = 0 and so

X 00 ( x ) Y 00 (y)
=− =k
X (x) Y (y)

where k is the separation constant. Need B.C’s to determine k.

Example: if u(0, y) = 0, u( a, y) = 0 then k = −µ2 and X ( x ) = sin(nπx/a), where

µ = nπ/a.

Then solving for Y (y), (Y 00 (y) = µ2 Y (y)) gives

Y (y) = An sinh(nπy/a) + Bn cosh(nπy/b)

or
Y (y) = Cn e(nπy/a) + Dn e−(nπy/a)
(typical to use the former representation if the y-domain is finite, latter if infinite).

75
E.g. 1 Let u( x, 0) = 0 and u( x, b) = f ( x ). Then
∞
u( x, y) = ∑ ( An sinh(nπy/a) + Bn cosh(nπy/a)) sin(nπx/a)
n =1

So u( x, 0) = 0 implies Bn = 0 for all n and u( x, b) = f ( x ) implies

∞
f (x) = ∑ ( An sinh(nπb/a)) sin(nπx/a)
n =1

and then, using expansion formula,

h f , sin(nπx/a)i
An sinh(nπb/a) =
|| sin(nπx/a)||2
determines An and hence u.

E.g. 2 if u( x, 0) = f ( x ) and u( x, y) → 0 as y → ∞. For 0 < x < a then Cn = 0 in above (for

bounded solutions) and
∞
u( x, y) = ∑ Dn e(−nπy/a) sin(nπx/a)
n =1

is general solution. Find Dn by putting y = 0 with

∞
f ( x ) = u( x, 0) = ∑ Dn sin(nπx/a)
n =1

and continue as in E.g. 1.

Of course, Dn (and previously An sinh(nπb/a)) are the coefficients of the Fourier Sine
Series for f ( x ) (see section 3).

7.3.2 Plane Polars

If a 2D problem has boundaries which fit naturally to a circular geometry then separation
in polars is natural.

For example, solving ∇2 u = 0 inside a circle, r < a, with u(r, θ ) = f (θ ) on r = a.

I.e. Solve
∂2 u 1 ∂u 1 ∂2 u
+ + =0
∂r2 r ∂r r2 ∂θ 2

Separation ? Look for solutions of the form

u(r, θ ) = R(r )Θ(θ )

Plug in
ΘR0 RΘ00
ΘR00 + + 2 =0
r r

76
and divide by RΘ/r2
r2 R00 rR0 Θ00
+ =− =k
R R Θ
where k is a separation constant.

So we have
r2 R00 + rR0 − kR = 0, and Θ00 + kΘ = 0. (7.8)

7.3.3 The Θ Equation

To find the separation constant, we want an inhomog. equation with inhomog BC’s. The
R(r )-eqn won’t do it, but the Θ(θ )-eqn will...

General solutions are √ √

Θ = A cos( k θ ) + B sin( k θ ) (7.9)
Note that if k < 0 then cos and sin become cosh and sinh.

On our original problem, we assume u and its derivatives are continuous for all r, θ. So we
must insist that u(r, θ ) = u(r, θ + 2π ) and uθ (r, θ ) = uθ (r, θ + 2π ).
√
Looking at (7.9) we can do this if k = m (or k = m2 ) where m is an integer. Then

Θ = Am cos(mθ ) + Bm sin(mθ ), m∈Z

Notes:

• Only need m ≥ 0 since m < 0 gives the same functions with Bm replaced with − Bm .

• with k < 0 cosh and sinh functions won’t work.

7.3.4 The R Equation

The R equation in (7.8) with k = m2 gives

r2 R00 + rR0 − m2 R = 0 (7.10)

Solution ? Note non-constant coefficients. Try R(r ) = r α where α is a constant. Then (7.10)
is
α(α − 1)r α + αr α − m2 r α = 0
=⇒ (α2 − m2 )r α = 0,
so α2 = m2 , and α = ±m.

General solution is
R(r ) = Cm r m + Dm /r m (7.11)

However, when m = 0, r m and r −m are the same functions – 1, so there must be another...

The equation for m = 0 is r2 R00 + rR0 = 0. Easy to solve.

77
 dR0
For r 6= 0 we have r = − R0 . Separate variables and integrate to get
dr
log R = − log r + log D0 so that R0 (r ) = D0 /r. Then integrate again to get R, giving
R(r ) = C0 + D0 log r (7.12)

7.3.5 The full solution

Putting all different solutions together using superposition gives the general solution
∞  
Dm
u(r, θ ) = (C0 + D0 log r ) A0 + ∑ Cm r + m ( Am cos mθ + Bm sin mθ )
m
(7.13)
m =1
r

[Note: For m = 0 we have A0 cos 0θ + B0 sin 0θ = A0 , giving u(r, θ ) = A0 (C0 + D0 log r ).]

Example 1. ∇2 u = 0 for r < a with BC u( a, θ ) = f (θ ) where f is a given function for

0 < θ < 2π.

The domain includes the point r = 0. Must avoid singularities (infinities) in the solution
and so Dm = 0 for all m and D0 = 0.

Hence
∞
u(r, θ ) = a0 + ∑ r m ( am cos mθ + bm sin mθ )
m =1
where am = Am Cm and bm = Bm Cm in the notation of (7.13).

The B.C. at r = a gives

∞
a0 + ∑ am ( am cos mθ + bm sin mθ ) = f (θ ) for 0 < θ < 2π
1

where f is a given function. Thus am , bm are (apart from factors of am ) the Fourier Series
coefficients. Find using expansion formula (section 3).

Example 2. ∇2 u = 0 in 1 < r < 2. This region is called an annulus.

B.C.’s needed on r = 1, 2:
u(1, θ ) = f (θ ), u(2, θ ) = g(θ ) for 0 < x < 2π
where f and g are given functions.

The solution is given by (7.13), but can include all the Dm ’s and D0 as r = 0 is not part of
the annular region. Follow as before but apply conditions on both r = 1 and r = 2 and get
coupled equations for Cn and Dn .

7.4 Diffusion in a Cylinder

Consider diffusion in a long cylinder (e.g. heat flow in a hot water pipe). Choose
cylindrical polars, z along cylinder axis.

78
Assume u is independent of z and θ. So u = u(r, t) and satisfies
   
1 1 d du
ut = D urr + ur ≡D r (7.14)
r r dr dr

where D > 0 is the diffusion coefficient.

We need an initial condition:

u(r, 0) = f (r ) for 0 < r < a (7.15)

We also need a B.C. on r = a, so consider

u( a, t) = 0 for t > 0 (7.16)

Separation of Variables

Let u(r, t) = R(r ) T (t), substitute into (7.25):

T0 R0
 
1 00
= R + = −k.
DT R r

(We chose −k, because from what we know about diffusion we expect exponential decay in
time, thus implying that k > 0 in the above assignment)

The T eqn: Easy T 0 = −kDT has solutions Ce−kDt . Still need to know what values k takes.

The R eqn: is
(rR0 )0 + krR = 0. (7.17)

√ with m = 0 and k = λ. So solutions bounded at r = 0 given by

This is the same as (7.20)
Bessel functions J0 (r k ) and √
R(r ) = BJ0 (r k ) (7.18)
for constant B.
√ √
Values of k determined by B.C. R( a) = 0. I.e. J0 ( a k ) = 0 so k = z0,i /a, i = 1, 2, . . . and

R(r ) = Bi J0 (z0,i r/a)

are the eigenfunctions.

General solution

Superposition of all sep. solutions gives a general solution

∞
!
−z20,i D t z r
u(r, t) = ∑ ai e
0,i
2
J0 (7.19)
i =1
a a

for unknown coefficients ai , which are contracted from C and Bi .

79
To find ai , apply the I.C. u(r, 0) = f (r ), r < a so
∞
∑ ai J0 (z0,i r/a) = f (r ) for 0 < r < a (7.20)
i =1
From the expansion theorem (this is all S-L),
Z a
h f (r ), J0 (z0,i r/a)i f (r ) J0 (z0,i r/a)rdr
0Z
ai = ≡ a
h J0 (z0,i r/a), J0 (z0,i r/a)i
J02 (z0,i r/a)rdr
0
which can be found (at least numerically).

Note that the orthogonality result of Bessel functions is, ensured by SL theory is
Z a
h J0 (z0,i r/a), J0 (z0,j r/a)i ≡ J0 (z0,i r/a) J0 (z0,j r/a)rdr = 0, i 6= j
0

7.5 The Wave Equation: Normal Modes

7.5.1 Normal modes for the 2D wave equation

Consider
utt = c2 ∇2 u ≡ c2 (u xx + uyy ) (7.21)
inside a domain D.

Solution determined by:

• Initial values of u and ut at all points of D,

• Values of u on S, boundary of D for all t.

We shall only consider the case where u = 0. This corresponds to vibrations on a drum skin
with fixed edges. Easy to generalise to setting the normal derivative of u equal to zero on S.

The simplest vibration is sinusoidal in time. I.e. motion is proportional to sin ωt or cos ωt
where period of oscillations is 2π/ω.

A normal-mode solution of (7.14) to be a solution of the form

u( x, y, t) = φ( x, y) cos(ωt + δ) (7.22)
where δ is constant phase-shift.

Plugging (7.15) into (7.14) gives

−ω 2 φ( x, y) cos(ωt + δ) = c2 (∇2 φ) cos(ωt + δ)
=⇒ −∇2 φ = (ω 2 /c2 )φ
The function φ is an eigenfunction of −∇2 with eigenvalue λ = ω 2 /c2 . So the angular
frequency is √
ω=c λ
in terms of the eigenvalue.

80
7.5.2 An Example

We find the eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of −∇2 on rectangle 0 < x < a, 0 < y < b with
u = 0 on the boundary.

I.e. solve
−(φxx + φyy ) = λφ (7.23)
with φ(0, y) = φ( a, y) = φ( x, 0) = φ( x, b) = 0 Solve (7.16) by separating variables. I.e. let
φ( x, y) = X ( x )Y (y), with X (0) = X ( a) = 0 and Y (0) = Y (b) = 0. Then, substitute into
(7.16), and the usual argument gives

X 00 Y 00
=− −λ = k
X Y
where k is a separation constant.

Solve for X ( x ), so that k = −n2 π 2 /a2 and X ( x ) = sin(nπx/a).

The Y (y) equation is then

Y 00 (y) + (k + λ)Y (y) = 0
Since λ is unknown, we let k + λ = µ so that the Y-eqn is Y 00 + µY = 0 with with
Y (0) = Y (b) = 0. Just like the eqn for X, we have µ = m2 π 2 /b2 with Y (y) = sin(mπy/b)
for m = 1, 2, . . . and so k + λ = m2 π 2 /b2 implying:

n2 π 2 m2 π 2
λ= + 2 , n, m = 1, 2, . . .
a2 b
√
and φ( x, y) = sin(nπx/a) sin(mπy/b). The frequencies of the normal modes are ω = c λ
so that r
n2 m2
ω = ωnm = cπ + 2
a2 b
There exist an infinite, discrete set of frequencies.

The shape of the normal mode is constructed from the separate components so that

u( x, y, t) = φnm ( x, y) cos(ωnm t + δ) = sin(nπx/a) sin(mπy/b) cos(ωnm t + δ)

Defn The fundamental frequency means the lowest value of ωnm which is when
n = m = 1 and r
1 1
ω11 = cπ +
a2 b2
and the corresponding fundamental mode is φ11 ( x, y) = sin(πx/a) sin(πy/b)

EXTRA ONLINE: Square domain

non-examinable content in this section – for interest only

In the simplest case where the domain is a square, with a = b, the frequencies ωnr are given
by the infinite matrix

81
  √ √ √ 
√2 √5 √10 ...
cπ  5
√ √8 √13 ... 

ωnr =  (7.24)
a  10 13 18 ... 
... ... ... ...
   
3πx 2πy
The 3, 2 mode φ32 ( x, y) = sin sin is illustrated below by a contour
a a
diagram, showing the curves in the x, y plane along which φ32 ( x, y) is constant.

The solid contours

are where φ32 ( x, y) > 0 and the dotted contours
are where φ32 ( x, y) < 0. There are three maxima
and three minima. The straight lines are where
φ( x, y) = 0. They divide the rectangle into six regions,
called cells; each cell consists of a single peak or valley.

As
time increases the peaks and valleys each oscillate√up
and down with angular frequency ω32 = (cπ/a) 13.
When φ is increasing in one cell, it is decreasing
in the adjacent cells; the peaks become valleys
and the valleys become peaks after a time π/ω32 .

The other normal modes are similar, but with different numbers of cells in the x and y
directions. The fundamental mode has just one cell.

The solution of an initial value problem can be found as a superposition of normal modes.
So when you bang a drum, the sound produced is a combination of the normal modes. The
principle is similar to Fourier series solutions, but the details are lengthy and beyond the
scope of this course.

EXTRA ONLINE: Why the guitar is tuneful and drums are noisy

non-examinable content in this section – for interest only

Guitars

A guitar string satisfies the 1-d wave equation with boundary conditions that u = 0 at the
endpoints, x = 0 and a say. It is easy to see that it has normal modes
 nπx   
nπct
sin cos + δ , n = 1, 2, . . .
a a

The angular frequencies are cπ/a, 2cπ/a, 3cπ/a, . . .; they are integer multiples of the
fundamental frequency cπ/a. So the sound wave that travels to your ears is a combination
of frequencies which are integer multiples of the fundamental (angular) frequency cπ/a. It

82
is therefore a periodic function of time with period 2a/c; the higher frequencies correspond
to higher terms in the Fourier series solution of the wave equation.

A periodic sound wave like this is heard by the ear as a musical note. The pitch of the note1
is determined by the period of the wave; high frequencies give high notes. The Fourier
coefficients an , bn determine the character of the sound. If a1 or b1 is much larger than all
the n > 1 coefficients, then the note sounds flute-like and smooth. But if an or bn does not
decrease rapidly with n (for example, if the n-th coefficient behaves like 1/n) then the note
sounds quite sharp in character and perhaps even harsh. Thus you can hear something
about the Fourier coefficients in a musical sound.

Drums

The vertical vibration of a drumskin satisfies the wave equation in 2d. The boundary
condition is zero displacement at the edge of the drum. If the drum is rectangular, its
vibration is a combination of the normal modes derived above. For a square drum, where
a = b, the normal modes have frequencies ω given by (7.17); the first few are
√ √ √ √
ω = 2πc/a, 5πc/a, 8πc/a, 10πc/a, . . .

They are not integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. Therefore the sound
produced by a drum is not heard as a musical note, it is heard as a noise.

Of course most drums are not square but round. One can work out the normal modes for a
circular drum, and the answer shows that their frequencies are not integer multiples of the
fundamental frequency. That is why drums bang while strings play tunes.

7.6 The Wave Equation in Plane Polar Coordinates

7.6.1 Separation of Variables

Consider the wave equation in a circular domain (vibrations of a circular drumskin,

oscillations on the surface of a cup of tea):

∂2 u 1 ∂u 1 ∂2 u
 
2 2 2
utt = c ∇ u ≡ c + + 2 2 , 0<r<a (7.25)
∂r2 r ∂r r ∂θ

with u = 0 on r = a.

Let u( x, y, t) = φ(r, θ ) cos(ωt + δ) as before.

Then
∂2 φ 1 ∂φ 1 ∂2 φ
   ω 2
− + + = φ = λφ
∂r2 r ∂r r2 ∂θ 2 c
and λ is the eigenvalue, to be found.
1 pitch describes whether it is a high or a low note

83
Separate variables: φ(r, θ ) = R(r )Θ(θ ) and then above is
R0 Θ RΘ00
 
00
− R Θ+ + 2 = λRΘ (7.26)
r r
Divide by R(r )Θ(θ )/r2 to get
r2 R00 rR0 2 Θ00
+ + λr = − =k
R R Θ
where k is sep. const.

The Θ Equation

We have Θ00 + kΘ = 0.

Since we are solving inside a circle, need Θ(0) = Θ(2π ) and Θ0 (0) = Θ0 (2π ) and so
k = m2 and Θ = Am cos mθ + Bm sin mθ, for m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
where Am , Bm are constants.

The R Equation

With k = m2 , so the R equation in (7.19) is

R 0 m2
R00 + − 2 R + λR = 0
r r
where λ is unknown eigenvalue (once λ is known then so is ω) and m is an integer.

This equation cannot be solved in terms of elementary functions. But it can be analysed by
Sturm-Liouville theory. Instead, put into SL form as
m2
(rR0 )0 − R + λrR = 0, 0<r<a (7.27)
r
This is a SL equation with p(r ) = σ (r ) = r, q(r ) = −m2 /r. Must have boundedness of R
and R0 at r = 0 whilst R( a) = 0 because u vanishes on the circle r = a.

Simplifying the Equation

√ √ √
Rescale the independent
√ variable: x = r λ and let y ( x ) = R ( x/ λ ) or R ( r ) = y ( r λ ).
Then d/dr = λd/dx so that
√
√ m 2 λ λx
λ( xy0 )0 − y( x ) + √ y( x ) = 0
x λ
=⇒ x2 y00 ( x ) + xy0 ( x ) + ( x2 − m2 )y( x ) = 0 (7.28)

This is called Bessel’s equation.

84
7.6.2 Solutions of Bessel’s Equation

Bessel’s equation (7.21) does not have solutions in terms of elementary functions. Their
solutions are called Bessel functions. The are well-studied and have many useful
properties.

There are two linearly independent solutions:

(
Jm ( x ), (bounded at the origin ∼ x m )
Ym ( x ), (singular at the origin ∼ x −m log( x ))

[We won’t include Ym as we don’t want to include singularities at x = 0 (r = 0) in our

solution, although for problems which exclude the origin you must include them (not in
this course)]

The functions Jm ( x ) have the following features:

1. Power series representation (cf. cos or sin)

xm x2 x4
 
Jm ( x ) = m 1− 2 + −... (7.29)
2 m! 2 1!(m + 1) 24 2!(m + 1)(m + 2)

2. Sketch:
1 J0

0.8

J1

0.4 J2

0
2 6 10 14 16 20

−0.4

The first three Bessel functions.

3. Jm ( x ) are roughly like cos( x + e)/x1/2 for large x.

4. J0 (0) = 1 and Jm (0) = 0 for m ≥ 1

5. (Important) Jm ( x ) = 0 has infinitely many solutions. Label these roots, x = zm,i ,

i = 1, 2, 3, . . ..

85
7.6.3 Normal Modes of a Circular Membrane

Go back to the problem: circular membrane, radius r = a.

√
Since y( x ) = Jm ( x ) and R(r ) ≡ y( x ) = y(r λ), the general solutions, bounded at r = 0 of
the R(r )-eqn are given by √
R(r ) = Cm Jm (r λ)
where Cm an arbitrary constant.

The boundary condition at the edge of the drum gives R( a) = 0. So

√
Jm ( a λ) = 0. (7.30)

Therefore we must have √

a λ = zm,i , i = 1, 2, . . .
where zm,i are the zeros of Jm ( x ). Hence
z r
m,i
R(r ) = Cm,i Jm for r ≤ a, i = 1, 2, . . . (7.31)
a
with Cm,i constants, after modifying the notation.

Hence, the frequencies of oscillations are given by

√ zm,i c
ω/c = λ = zm,i /a, or ωm,i =
a
The modal shape of the membrane comes from reconstructing the solution from its
separable parts
z r
m,i
u(r, θ, t) = φm,i (r, θ ) cos(ωm,i t + δ) = Cm,i Jm [ Am cos mθ + Bm sin mθ ] cos(ωm,i t + δ)
a
where ωm,i = zm,i c/a.

The first few zeros of the Bessel functions (approx)

z0,1 = 2.4 . . . , z1,1 = 3.8 . . . , z2,1 = 5.1 . . . , z0,2 = 5.5 . . .

So the fundamental (lowest-frequency) mode has frequency ≈ 2.4c/a where a is the radius
of the drum and c is the speed of waves on the drumskin. The larger the radius, the lower
the frequency. This is why a bass drum must be big.

7.6.4 The Initial-value problem

In both the rectangular and circular membrane problem, an initial value problem in which
u and ut are specified at t = 0, a general solution is formed by the superposition of all
possible normal modes. The unknown coefficients can, in principle, be found by applying
initial conditions on u and ut at t = 0, but this is too complicated for this course.

86