5

c h a p t e r

SITE ANALYSIS AND SITE DOCUMENTS

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Copyright 2023. Wiley.

The Professional Practice of Architectural Working Drawings, Sixth Edition. Nagy R. Bakhoum and Osamu A. Wakita.
© 2024 John Wiley & Sons Inc. Published 2024 by John Wiley & Sons Inc.
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 170 SITE ANALYSIS AND SITE DOCUMENTS

■■ INTRODUCTION of the site situated in its larger surroundings will aid in

developing the site. In addition to the physical aspects of
Site analysis is among the most important aspects of the the site, become familiar with the activities that occur in
preliminary design process. It is the evaluation of an exist- the neighboring area, both positive and negative. These
ing or potential site to determine the fulfillment of the cli- features range from a monthly festival or an annual
ent’s program. A properly selected site can significantly parade to graffiti incidence and crime patterns.
impact the success of a project. Proper analysis of a site Understand the site within the context of the neigh-
can also take full advantage of the potential it offers. borhood. This may require a two-­to three-­block study, in
Site plans locate a building on a specific site in a specific a refinement of the larger-­scale study described earlier.
location both vertically in space and laterally. A grading For a larger building, this research might expand to five
plan assists the architect in the movement of earth in or six blocks around the site.
­order to accommodate this task. In an ideal situation, the
building can be accommodated without significant earth
Sensory Research
movement, specifically import and export of soil.
The overall goal for the architect is to generate a Document and observe significant views to and from the
logical and sensitive development of the land. When the site, both positive and negative. Understand the impact
architect is engaged early in the process, they can help of building and window placement in relation to those
the client with the specific selection process. Architects, views. Often, noise, such as from vehicles, trucks, trains,
landscape architects, planners, and others often aid in buses, or airplanes, can affect site conditions. Even
the process of site selection and analysis and provide smells should be taken into account: it takes only one
this specific service for the client. design of a building downwind from a dairy farm or
Sites are a component of a project that directly affects paper mill for the designer to learn never to overlook the
the cost of a project and construction cost. The specific “scentscape” of a site again!
site may also affect the long list of factors that can help or
hurt a specific program. We will outline specific exam-
ples in this chapter. Site-­Specific Research
Each site is identified by a legal description. Some legal
■■ SITE ANALYSIS DEFINED descriptions are written according to metes and bounds,
but most sites in more developed areas are identified
The purpose of a site analysis is to determine the best use of according to plats, subdivision maps, and area maps.
the site and find a layout that capitalizes on site attributes to Although the format will vary from one municipality to
optimize the fulfillment of the client’s needs while respect- the next, a legal description will typically read some-
ing the inherent site conditions. A site analysis is a specific thing like: Lot 6, Block 27, Tract 4289, as recorded in
study of the project site and how it supports the program. the Richmond County Map Page 5–69. Once you have
Important components of research in site analysis this information, you can determine more specific infor-
include, but are not limited to, determining the following: mation about the site, such as setbacks, zoning require-
ments and limitations, development covenants, building
• Boundaries area, redevelopment district requirements, and required
• Topography dedications and easements.
• Drainage Site-­specific climate research must include factors such
• Traffic (vehicular, pedestrian, transportation) as temperature range, rainfall and snowfall, humidity, pre-
• Setbacks vailing winds, and sun direction, as well as regional con-
• Climate (rain, sun, snow, wind) cerns such as earthquakes, hurricanes, and tornadoes. All
• Lot shape (orientation) of these factors will affect the approach to site design and
• Site utilities (electric, gas, telephone, TV, water, sewer, layout, although some will be more important than others
the Internet) in any given situation. See Figure 5.1.
• Zoning (easements, covenants) Setbacks are predetermined restrictions that aid
• Vicinity in determining the limits on a building footprint. For
• Neighborhood character (positive and negative elements) example, a site may require that the structure not
• Past, present, and future conditions encroach upon a strip of land 20′ in front, 5′ from each
side, and 15′ in the rear; these are the required setback
Community and Neighborhood Research dimensions where building is not allowed. A height lim-
itation will determine the maximum allowable height of
The location within a country, county, state, province, a structure. In most cases, there are also limits on the
and city is a factor in understanding a site. A large view maximum allowable area or square footage of a building.

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 SITE ANALYSIS DEFINED 171

Utility Research
In some areas, such as Manhattan, determining the avail-
ability of electricity, gas, sewer, water, telephone, internet,
and cable television may be as simple as visiting a pub-
lic works or engineering counter. In other areas, such as
Wyoming, finding this information may be much more
involved, and one may have limited utility options. In
large cities, most utilities are immediately available, and
typically are routed underground in the street or under
sidewalks. In the Wyoming countryside, each site owner
may have to have a well drilled to access fresh water and
bear the cost of bringing in the lines for electrical and tel-
ephone service; natural gas, sewer, and cable TV may not
Figure 5.1 Climate impacts. even be options. Obviously, these considerations weigh
heavily on the possible uses of the site and the type of
structure. To fully understand the utilities of a specific site,
one must also determine the depth, pipe diameter, pipe
A building footprint is the total area of a building that
material, and pressure available. See Figure 5.2.
covers the parcel. This footprint can be imagined as the
dry outline that a rainfall will not touch as a result of the
shape of the building on a parcel. Often a floor area ratio Circulation Research
(FAR), or the gross area footage, is established so that the
site cannot be completely covered from setback to set- Understanding how people will approach or access a
back. For example, a 1.5 FAR would limit an architect to site will affect your design for the site. Are there bus and
a building area that is 1.5 times the total lot area. train stops or metro stations near the site? Do service
Zoning—­a municipal system of controlling what activ-
ities and structures are permitted on a piece of property—­is
determined by a governmental agency that has a primary
purpose of public protection, implemented by rules har-
monizing allowable land uses with owners’ desires and the
highest and best use of a site. This is what keeps high-­rise
office buildings and industrial production facilities from be-
ing built on a block of two-­story residences. Dedications
are portions of a site identified by the governing agency as a
required contribution of land for an express public purpose.
Most common is a dedication for a new road or a road
expansion, which can vary in scale from a couple of feet
to a strip 10 or 20 feet wide. Another example is a required
greenbelt area. Often, site owners are not compensated for
a dedication; it is considered a cost of development. A site
may also be subject to easements, which are portions of the
property that others have the right or permission to use in
some way even though the owner retains title to the land;
most common are utility right-­of-­way easements or access
easements where driveways are shared.
Many city and county agencies have established rede-
velopment districts within their jurisdictions. Land use
in redevelopment districts must, for various reasons,
follow a different set of use and building guidelines to
achieve an overarching, specific public goal. In many
cases, these guidelines are more stringent than zoning
requirements for other areas, but in some cases, they
may be less restrictive. Consider an old main street; the
guidelines could outline new buildings must match in
scale and character. Figure 5.2 Utilities.

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 172 SITE ANALYSIS AND SITE DOCUMENTS

trucks or fire trucks figure prominently in the traffic left turn lane or median cut to allow vehicles into your
pattern study? Perhaps there is an elementary school site.) Document and record all of these features, as they
nearby, or vehicles can make a right turn only. Consider will further shape the site plan layout.
future development as well: Is there an electric trolley
stop planned near the site or a future police or fire sta-
tion adjacent to the site?
■■ SITE ANALYSIS APPLIED
Features Implementing Site Analysis
Significant natural features often include the views, but Accumulation of research on a specific site will allow the
natural elements such as a winter spring or creek, a rock architect to establish a series of important supporting doc-
outcropping, or a vertical bluff can strongly influence uments, some of which will require the consultation of a
the layout of a site. See Figure 5.3. civil engineer. Many drawings may be needed to further
The three natural elements that perhaps will most develop the analysis of the site, including the following:
affect a site plan are the existing contours, or the slope
• Vicinity plan
of the site; the soil type (if it is sandy or expansive) and
• Location plan
bearing capacity (how the soil supports the structure of
• Plat map
the building); and the geology, the nature of the earth’s
• Topographic map
structure beneath the soil elements. Geological con-
• Site plan/plot plan
cerns also include things like archeological/prehistoric
• Grading plan
sites that might affect the future building foundation or
• Drainage plan
even location.
• Erosion control plan—­storm water system mitigation
In some regions, native and preexisting trees are pro-
plan (SWSMP)
tected, whether by law or by covenant. In many cities in
• Utility plan
California, for example, the California live oak, walnut,
• Circulation plan
and others are in this category and may not be removed
• Landscape/irrigation plan
or damaged and are typically protected in place.
• Sound study
Man-­made features that are on a site or adjacent to
• Traffic study
the site should be documented as well. Elements such as
• Phasing plan
existing structures, buildings, walls, curbs, gutters, ­sidewalks,
power poles, light poles, and fire hydrants are often difficult Not all of these drawings are created for every job, but
to move or relocate. Even if they can be moved, it is usu- the more complex jobs may require all of them.
ally very expensive to do so; alternatives should be explored
before deciding to relocate an existing feature.
Vicinity Map
On occasion, man-­made features will limit access to a
site. (Perhaps there is a center divide on a street, with no A vicinity map provides an overall view of the region
around the specific site to better introduce the surround-
ing neighborhood or district. Often, this map will be pro-
vided on the cover sheet of a set of working drawings.
See Figure 5.4.

Location Plan
A location plan helps the viewer see the proposed pro-
ject in relation to the specific area where the work is to
be accomplished. This is particularly important on large-­
scale projects such as campuses or warehouse facilities.
See Figure 5.5.

Plat Map

Figure 5.3 Natural features. (Library of Congress, Prints & Photo- The site plan is developed in stages, each dealing with
graphs Division, Reproduction number LC-­DIG-­highsm-­25344 new technical information and design solutions. The first
(original digital file).) step in site plan development is the plat map. This map,

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 SITE ANALYSIS APPLIED 173

Figure 5.4 Vicinity map.

Figure 5.6 Plat map.

Lot lines are laid out by polar coordinates; that is, each
line is described by its length plus the angle relative to
true north or south. This is accomplished by the use of
compass direction, degrees, minutes, and seconds. A lot
line may read N 6° 49′ 29″ W (this describes the lot line
as running north 6 degrees 49 minutes, 29 seconds west-
erly). See Figure 5.7. In some US counties, a boundary
description can be retrieved via the Internet from the
county in which the plat is located.
Figure 5.8A shows a plat map with the given lot lines,
Figure 5.5 Location plan (map). bearings, and dimensions. To lay out this map graph-
ically, start at the point labeled point of beginning
(POB). From the POB, you can delineate the lot line in
normally furnished by a civil engineer, is a land plan that the northeast quadrant with the given dimension. See
delineates the property lines with their bearings, dimen- Figure 5.8B. The next bearing falls in the northwest quad-
sions, streets, and existing easements. The information rant, which is illustrated by superimposing a compass at
from the plat map forms the basis of all future site devel- the lot line intersection. See Figure 5.8C. You can delineate
opment. The property line bearings are described by the remaining lot lines with their bearings and dimen-
degrees, minutes, and seconds; the property line dimen- sions in the same way, eventually closing at the POB.
sions are noted in feet and decimals. These are termed See Figures 5.8D–5.8F. For a plat map layout, accuracy
the metes and bounds. See Figure 5.6. is critical; thus, it is preferable to accomplish this task on
Even when the architect is furnished with only a writ- a computer.
ten description of the metes and bounds of the plat map, With the completion of the plat map layout, a specific
a plat map can still be derived from this information. plot of ground has been established. The boundary of a

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 174 SITE ANALYSIS AND SITE DOCUMENTS

Figure 5.8C Point of beginning and second angle.

Figure 5.7 Compass quadrants.

Figure 5.8A Point of beginning. Figure 5.8D Point of beginning and third angle.

Figure 5.8B Point of beginning and first angle. Figure 5.8E Point of beginning and fourth angle.

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 SITE ANALYSIS APPLIED 175

Figure 5.8F Point of beginning and fifth angle. Figure 5.8H Site plan with building location.

line. In addition, from this parallel line, dimensional

offsets of the building can be established. Note also in
Figure 5.8H that all required yard setbacks will be main-
tained without encroachments.

Function of a Topography Map

For most projects, the architect adjusts the existing contours
of the site to satisfy the building design and site improve-
ment requirements. Finish grading is the process of adjusting
existing contours so that they are in the desired position for
the final stage of the site improvement process. Sometimes
it is referred to as a topo, which is short for topography. The
architect needs a topography or topographical map to study
any slope conditions that may influence the design process.
Usually, a civil engineer prepares this map and shows, in
drawing form, the existing contour lines and their accom-
Figure 5.8G Site plan with building setbacks.
panying numerical elevations. Commonly, these contour
lines are illustrated by a type of broken line. The topography
plat will also influence the development of the property. map is actually a plat map, and its broken lines and num-
For the purpose of the architectural construction draw- bers indicate the grades, elevations, and contours of the site.
ings, this portion of the drawings is called the site plan or See Figure 5.9.
plot plan. This drawing can now be utilized to determine A topography map can appear complex. However, a
the city-­required setbacks required for aesthetics or life cross-­section or a cutaway view through any portion of
safety. In Figure 5.8G, the front yard, side yard, and rear the site can make the site conditions clearer; this will
yard setbacks are illustrated for the purpose of defining also be valuable for the finish grading. See Figure 5.10.
the governing building setback locations. The rise or fall of the contours will represent the change
The next step in site plan development is to provide of elevation, from the front or rear of the site.
a dimensional layout for a proposed building. One To make a cross-­section, draw a line on the topography
method, as shown in Figure 5.8H, is to provide a map at the desired location. This is called the ­section line.
dimension along the west and east property lines. Starting Next, draw a series of horizontal lines, using the same scale
from the front property line, establish a line parallel as the topography map and spacing equal to the grade ele-
with the front of the building, to determine the angle vation changes on the topography map. These lines repre-
of the front of the house in relation to the front property sent the vertical elevation of the grade. Project each point

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 176 SITE ANALYSIS AND SITE DOCUMENTS

Figure 5.9 Topography map.

of grade change to the appropriate elevation line. Now shows a boring log in graphic form. Notice the different
connect the series of grade points to establish an accurate types of information presented in the sample boring log.
section and profile through that portion of the site. In many Figure 5.13 shows a geological cross-­section.
cases, multiple cross-­sections are required to better under- Architects are not significantly involved in preparing
stand the existing or proposed grade. drawings for geology and soils information other than
locating the proposed work on a site plan and perhaps
a site section. However, it is important to have some
■■ SOILS AND GEOLOGY MAP understanding of their content and representation in
order to understand how it may affect design. It will most
Soils investigations evaluate soil conditions such as directly affect the foundation design, system, and size of
type of soil, moisture content, expansion coefficient, foundation. Within the soils or geological report, there is
and soil bearing pressure. Geological investigations typically a recommendations sections, and the architect
evaluate existing geological conditions such as fault must become familiar with it and design according to
lines and bedding planes, as well as potential g­ eological the said recommendations.
hazards.
Field investigations may include test borings at various
■■ SITE PLAN/PLOT PLAN
locations on the site. These drillings are then plotted on a
plat map, with an assigned test boring identification and
a written or graphic report. This report provides findings Drawing a Site Plan
from the laboratory analysis of boring samples under
various conditions. See Figure 5.11. When drawing a site plan, the easiest way to start is to
When there are concerns about geological instabil- call your civil engineer and ask for a digital copy of the
ity and soil, the particular problem areas may be plot- site topography for the project. This drawing becomes
ted on a soils and geology map for consideration in the the base drawing on which various layers are drawn,
design process. Figure 5.11 shows a plat map with each such as setbacks, building location, dimensions, noting,
test boring identified. This map becomes a part of the and so on. See Figure 5.14.
soils and geological report. Borings are done close to If a drawing is available as a hard copy but not digi-
the location of the proposed work established by the tally, you can scan the drawing into the computer, and
architect or the area of structural concern. Figure 5.12 then size and scale it. If you are fortunate enough to

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 SITE PLAN/PLOT PLAN 177

Figure 5.10 Topography map with section lines and cross-­section.

have a building information modeling (BIM) program to without correcting angles until you have closed back to
draw site plans, then it’s just a matter of following the the POB, and then rotate the drawing 90° to the correct
procedure outlined in Figures 5.8A–5.8F. orientation.
In most CAD programs the drafter must adjust his A final note: You will find no key for degree unless
or her thinking to accommodate the computer. For it has been programmed into the computer. Often, you
example, in the majority of instances, the computer has can type in % % d to get the degree symbol. Once the
been programmed to view the east compass bearing as final line is drawn, you must ensure that the polygon is
0°, north as 90°, west as 180°, and south as 270°. If you totally closed.
need to draw a property line N 18° 50′ 00″ E, you must
understand that line will be drawn in the wrong location BIM Site Plan
if you do not adjust the computer orientation. For the
purpose of giving the computer the proper command, The first component to introduce is the existing topography
you must subtract 18° 50′ from 90° and instruct the com- or contouring of the building site. BIM programs allow you
puter to draw a line 71° 10′. Let us continue drawing this to create a three-­dimensional site plan including the shape
lot (developed on Figure 5.8) and construct the second of the slope of the property. This can be accomplished
line of 23° 27′ 40″. Because north is 90°, we must add by importing a topography map produced by the civil
27° 40′ 40″ to 90°, giving us 113° 27″ 40′, and relay this engineer, or you can develop it by selecting points around
instruction to the computer. Understand that the com- the footprint of the ground-­floor plan. Once topography is
puter bearing 0° is the east direction on a compass. It may established, modifying a “topo” is a matter of editing the
prove to be simpler to develop the entire site boundary data or shape. You can add trees, shrubs, plantings, and sod

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 178 SITE ANALYSIS AND SITE DOCUMENTS

Figure 5.12 Example of a boring log.

Figure 5.11 Soils–geology map.

different to keep track of the original data. Once this is

by selecting the appropriate materials from the library and done, cut and fill can be determined in reference to the
placing them. See Figure 5.15. At any stage, additional ele- original topography. See Figure 5.16.
ments, such as property lines, setbacks, utilities, and dimen- Architects may choose to create a project with a north
sions, can be added to the site plan. orientation, but when modeling in BIM true north must
For most building designs, cutting and filling grade be accounted for so that solar studies can be accu-
areas are required to be calculated. A shortfall of BIM, rately depicted and proper representation of shades and
albeit one that is easily overcome, is that BIM will not shadows can be viewed. In addition, the vertical height
recall the original topography. It is necessary to make relative to sea level will be required (default set to 0 at
a copy of the completed site and name it something sea level). Without these two critical adjustments, a site

Figure 5.13 Geological cross-­section.

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 Figure 5.14 Site layout (site plan).

179

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 180 SITE ANALYSIS AND SITE DOCUMENTS

Figure 5.15 BIM site plan.

Figure 5.16 BIM developed site.

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 SITE PLAN/PLOT PLAN 181

plan may be valid but models, shades, and shadow will influencing factors of the building site are determined,
not. See Figure 5.17. the building is placed on the site plan.
Stage III. The placement of the building is derived from
Procedural Stages for Site Plan Development the final preliminary designs relative to the orienta-
tion of the sun, prevailing winds, governing setback
Stage I. The architect requests a digital drawing of requirements, and any existing easements. A solid
the site plan illustrating the property lines, existing line depicts the perimeter lines of the building, and
grade contours, and any major physical features a broken line indicates walls beneath. This is done
such as trees, utility poles, or any other feature that to ensure that the setback dimension lines are to the
may dictate or influence the site plan process. This perimeter wall lines. See Figure 5.20.
digital drawing is provided by a civil engineer (see Stage IV. Items such as the driveway, patio slab, garage,
Figure 5.18). and any other significant features are included on the
Stage II. Easements that are allocated for utility pur- site plan. See Figure 5.21.
poses, such as sewers, are depicted on the drawing Stage V. Provide the finish contour lines, which are drawn
with a broken line. This stage of the drawing also with a solid line and connected to their correlating grade
shows the adjacent streets, street curbs, sidewalks, elevations. The numerical elevation grades have been
and pathways (see Figure 5.19). After the final pre- added, representing 1-­foot intervals. Dimension lines and
liminary building designs and their relationship to the their values are now shown from the property lines to the

Figure 5.17 BIM shades and shadows.

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 182 SITE ANALYSIS AND SITE DOCUMENTS

Figure 5.18 Site plan: Stage I.

perimeter wall lines of the building for layout purposes. ■■ GRADING PLAN
Also shown in this stage are the property line dimensions
and their bearings. See Figure 5.22. Grading
When dimensioning a site plan, locating the building
is the primary goal. There are no other plans in an archi- The grading plan shows how the topography of the site will
tectural set of drawings that will position the building be changed to accommodate the building design. This plan
on the site. That is not to say other dimensions are not shows the existing grades and proposed grades, which are
important: they are, but the locating of patios and other termed finished grades. It also indicates the finished grade
site features is secondary. elevations and the elevations of building floors, walks, and
Stage VI. The final stage includes all the required not- site walls. Existing grade lines are shown with a broken line,
ing. The finish noting on the site plan includes material and proposed finished grades with a solid line. Finished
finish, the walkway material, and any required speci- grading lines represent the end result or desired layout once
fications. In addition, the title and notes are included the site is graded. See Figure 5.24.
on the plot sheet. See Figure 5.23. The grading plan drawing illustrates and defines the
various alterations of the land contours that are needed
For clarity, all the various floor elevations should be to develop the site for a specific structure.
labeled on the site plan. In addition, a symbol legend
should be provided, to define those symbols used on the Floor Elevations
site plan. Finally, the title of the drawing is shown, along
with the north orientation arrow, the street name, and Once the orientation and location of the building have
the scale for the site and roof plan drawings. been established, the process of preparing a grading

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 GRADING PLAN 183

Figure 5.19 Site plan: Stage II.

plan may begin. The first step is to designate tentative Orienting a structure on the site with a minimum
floor-­level elevations, which will be determined by the amount of finished grading is the most environmentally
structure’s location in relation to the existing grades. sensitive response to a site. Once the primary location
It should be noted that in the process of designing a and floor elevation have been established for the garage,
grading plan, tentative floor elevations may have to be the formation and planning for the residence may now
adjusted to satisfy the location of the finished contours proceed, with the intention of ensuring compatibil-
and their elevations. With the establishment of the floor-­ ity with the existing grade elevations and the contour
level elevations, it will then be necessary to reshape the configurations of the existing grades. The architect may
existing grade lines to satisfy floor clearances and site decide to develop a building configuration that will
drainage control. See Figure 5.25. accommodate minimal finished grading conditions and
For the purpose of providing proper drainage around provide a development that is more compatible with the
the building, the designer should encourage surface natural terrain.
drainage to flow to each side of the building and follow In designing a more severe slope, as in cases
the natural slope of the site. Finished contour elevations where a building pad must be enlarged, a maximum
will be shaped to provide a gentle slope around the front slope ratio is laid out. Slope ratios are laid out with
and sides of the building. A minimum of 2% slope is horizontal scaled increments for the tentative slope
recommended for proper drainage of soil areas. ratio. For instance, in some counties a ratio of 2:1

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 184 SITE ANALYSIS AND SITE DOCUMENTS

Figure 5.20 Site plan: Stage III.

is the minimum slope allowed for each site contour. Cut and Fill Procedures
This would allow a site to increase 1 foot in height
for every 2 feet traveled in the horizontal direction. A Contour changes will require either the removal of soil—­a
slope ratio of 3:1 is a more gradual slope, and in many cut into the existing contours—­or the opposite, the addi-
areas an ideal target for slope stability. Slope ratio is tion of soil to the site; the latter is called fill. In reshaping
anticipated for the grade cut for the placement of the contours with cut and fill procedures, one can provide a
building. Increments will start from the established relatively level area for construction. Depending on the
grades adjacent to the building. Once the various soil’s condition and soil preparation, the maximum allow-
increments have been plotted, these points can be able ratio for cut and fill slopes may vary from 1½:1, 2:1,
connected. In most cases, all finish grade elevations or 3:1. A ratio of 3:1 means that for each 3-­foot distance
start at an existing or natural grade elevation and termi- on the horizontal, there is a minimum 1-­ foot change
nate at the respective existing grade elevation. See in vertical elevation. A slope of 3:1 establishes a stable
Figure 5.26. slope that is less likely to slide. In some municipalities, a

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 SITE AND GRADING PLAN 185

Figure 5.21 Site plan: Stage IV.

maximum slope of 3:1 is required for cut and fill. To clar- must then be compacted to an acceptable soil-­ bearing
ify grading conditions, grading sections should be taken capacity if a structure is to be founded in the fill area. To
through these areas. See Figure 5.27. develop the size, shape, and grading for the building pad,
Another approach is to develop a level area on a site it is recommended that an assumed pad elevation be
for the construction of a residence. The level area, called established. This pad elevation may be determined by what
a building pad, will have a minimal slope for drainage is referred to as a daylight grade elevation, defined as that
of approximately 2%. The creation of a building pad will point or elevation where the cut and fill portions of the site
provide the architect with more flexibility in the design, grading intersect at a given grade elevation.
because he or she will not be constrained by grade
elevations, floor transitions, building shapes, or other
considerations. ■■ SITE AND GRADING PLAN
One approach in developing a building pad is to try to
create a balance cut and fill. In this approach, the earth that In this section, we discuss and illustrate another
is cut from the site slope is dispersed and used as the fill example of grading design and the various criteria
material to increase the building pad site. The fill material that dictate design solutions, this time for a two-­story

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 186 SITE ANALYSIS AND SITE DOCUMENTS

Figure 5.22 Site plan: Stage V.

residence. The topography map for this project is floor elevation at 372.50′. This condition is illustrated in
shown in Figure 5.28. Note that the natural or exist- Figure 5.29. Note that a trench drain is located in front
ing grades are indicated with a broken line and a of the garage to divert any water accumulation from the
designated number indicating the grade elevation of sloping driveway. This trench drain will have a grate
each contour line. cover and drain lines to dissipate the water.
For this project, the initial concern was the driveway Another concern in dealing with sloping driveways is
access and slope relative to the garage floor elevation. the transition from the street and the driveway apron ele-
The desired maximum slope of the driveway does not vation to the sloping portion of the driveway. This con-
exceed 1 foot in 10 feet (1:10). This translates into a slope cern is illustrated graphically in the driveway transition
of 10%. Starting at the southerly property line, which is section shown in Figure 5.30. Note the hypothetical
the front property line, the existing contour grade ele- driveway transition, depicted with a broken line, which
vation is 375.00′. From this existing grade elevation of shows steep slope transitions that may cause under-­car
375.00′, it is desirable to maintain a maximum drive- damage and/or bumper scraping.
way slope of 10% within the 15′-­0″ building setback The first step is to develop the grading for a drive-
area. This design solution then establishes the garage way that will provide acceptable slopes for access to

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 Figure 5.23 Site plan: Stage VI.

187

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 Figure 5.24 Grading plan.

188

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 SITE AND GRADING PLAN 189

Figure 5.25 Initial grading.

the garage, which will in turn determine the garage lot is to work with the existing topography, but an ideal
location and floor elevation. Starting at the street grade smooth slope of 12.5% or less is comfortable. In addition
elevation, the initial grade transition from the street to to the vertical slope, the length of a driveway maximum
the driveway should not be so steep as to scrape the cross-­ slope, measured at the width, would be 10%
bumper of an automobile. The initial maximal slope (ideally, less than 5%). In each region of the country, the
ratio is approximately 1 foot vertically to 10 feet hor- local municipality will establish the maximum for this
izontally (1:10), or a 10% slope. A slope of 20% or condition.
a 1:5 ratio would be the maximum allowable in most It is not recommended that one exceed a 20% drive-
jurisdictions. way slope. A maximum 4% slope is recommended for
Although a 20% driveway can be utilized with appro- the side-­to-­side slope or cross-­slope of the driveway.
priate transitions of 10% at the beginning and ending of As mentioned previously, the garage floor elevation
the 20% area, approximately 8–10 feet of 10% grade, has been established at 372.50′. From the garage floor
then 20%, and then another 8–10 feet of 10% will allow elevation, a 6″ floor transition will determine the first-­
a smoother transition for vehicles. A goal for a contoured floor elevation to be 373.00′. The garage floor and

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 190 SITE ANALYSIS AND SITE DOCUMENTS

Figure 5.26 Finished slope design.

Figure 5.27 Cross-­section with finish grades.

first-­floor elevations will now become the basis for the finish grade contours, as depicted in Figure 5.31.
the finished grading design. See Figure 5.31. The exist- Note that the finish grade line elevations connect to
ing grade lines of the site slope gently down from the the existing grade line elevations. Figure 5.31 graph-
southerly property line to the northerly property line. ically illustrates a cross-­section of the building site cut
This condition, based on the established garage and in a south-­to-­north direction. The broken line depicts
first-­floor elevations, will require an earth cut at the the approximate existing grade, and the solid line
front or southerly area of the site, with the soil removed and shaded areas show the finished grade line and fill
being relocated to the rear or northerly portion of the areas. Additional cross-­sections in relationship to abut-
site, which becomes a fill area. The solid lines illustrate ting properties are illustrated in Figure 5.32.

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 DRAINAGE PLAN 191

LEGEND FOR CONTOURS

Figure 5.28 Topography map.

The maximum slope or gradient for cut and fill slope For sloping sites that are going to be developed for
conditions may be determined by the type of soil found commercial and office use, the grading design will have
on the site and local agency requirements. Various soil to address automobile and disabled ­pedestrian access to
types react differently to potential soil erosion. For most the building. The transition from the street to the parking
cases, the maximum slope or gradient may range from 1, area should provide easy access relative to the driveway
to 1½:1, to 2:1. These ratios translate into 66% and 50% slope and the slope of the parking area. Grade transitions
slope conditions, respectively. See Figure 5.33. that require stairs and landings will also require ramps
for people with disabilities, which are regulated by the
Driveway and Curb Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requirements. See
Figure 5.35.
Often, one side of your site will be bounded with a side-
walk, parkway, and a small curb. In most cities, this por-
tion adjacent to a street is maintained by the Department ■■ DRAINAGE PLAN
of Public Works or some other such municipal agency.
Permits are required to break the curb for a driveway; A drainage plan establishes the path by which water
permits can be obtained from the appropriate agency travels on a site, often in a controlled method via a
or agency subdivision (perhaps the city’s Road Depart- nonerosive device. Such devices include pipes, area
ment Bureau or engineering department). Based on the drains, sub-­drains, drains, catch basins, drainage
size of the curb, the agency will configure an angle at swales, diverters/interceptors, and bio-­filters. Other
which you can cut the curb to form the driveway. See controlled methods include shaping of grade, berms,
Figure 5.34. driveways, splash walls, riprap, and velocity reducers.

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 192 SITE ANALYSIS AND SITE DOCUMENTS

Figure 5.29 Site plan/finish grading.

cases, a swale, a “V”-­shaped catching device, is used

to divert the water flow. These swales will gather the
excess water and carry it to a catch basin. Bio-­filters
are a new addition to the drainage arsenal. Bio-­filters
are devices designed to catch harmful chemicals or silt
in surface runoff. There are many types of bio-­filters;
consult regional codes for proper choice and fabrica-
tion. Often, shaping the grade with berms or a 2% slope
can route runoff in the right direction. Even a driveway
can have a low point to guide water; splash walls and
raised curbs are also effective methods. When water
Figure 5.30 Driveway transition section.
flow is excessive, implementation of a velocity reducer
or a riprap area may be required. This slows the water
Area drains are inlets that allow excess water collected flow and disperses the water in a fashion that limits
on the surface of an area to be rerouted with pipes below ­erosion potential. See Figure 5.36.
grade. A drain is typically located in a hard paved area The site may require that floor elevation changes be
where a sub-­drain, sometimes called a French drain, utilized to enhance the compatibility between the struc-
­collects excess water below grade (for example, behind ture and the existing grades. The residence shape may
a retaining wall). These too are connected to a pipe and follow the contours of the existing grade elevations and
outlet. On large sloping sites, it is difficult to control result in a unique shape or configuration. Note that some
water and channel the flow into area drains. In these excavation will occur below the floor levels in order to

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 DRAINAGE PLAN 193

Figure 5.31 Site grading cross-­section.

Figure 5.32 Site sections.

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 194 SITE ANALYSIS AND SITE DOCUMENTS

50% 66%
1 1

2 1-1/2
Figure 5.33 Slope ratios.

called an erosion control plan. Such a plan graphically

demonstrates that water will not carry off silt, dirt, or
contaminants from a site into storm drains, waterways,
or neighboring sites. These can be designed utilizing:
• Sediment control
• Silt fence
• Hay-­bale barriers
• Sediment traps
• Silt curtain
• Sediment mat
• Filter logs
• Erosion control
• Temporary ditch checks
• Mulch
• Erosion control blankets
• Compost
• Erosion stabilization mats
These are a few methods that could be further researched
when planning for erosion control. See Figure 5.37.

■■ THE UTILITY PLAN

Plotting of existing utilities is necessary to the site
improvement process. See Figure 5.2. Such a plan
should show the location of all existing utilities, includ-
ing sewer laterals, water and gas lines, and telephone,
Figure 5.34 How to break a curb for a driveway. TV cable, and electrical service lines. This drawing then
provides a basis for locating new utility connections.
It may also influence the locations of transformers,
provide the under-­floor clearances required by building generators, electrical rooms, and meter rooms in the
codes for wood floors. structure itself.
After completing an analysis of the existing grades
and their contours, in conjunction with the architectural
planning of the residence, a grading plan can be prepared. ■■ CIRCULATION PLAN
In designing large complexes—­ more specifically, com-
■■ EROSION AND SEDIMENT plexes with heavy vehicular circulation—­it may become
CONTROL PLANS necessary to create a plan that articulates the flow of vehicu-
lar travel. These forms of plans are not complex to develop,
When construction of a building occurs in winter months, but are informative to clients, city officials, and architects
the governing agency will require a plan that demon- who are determining appropriate and efficient circulation
strates how runoff is to be controlled onsite. This plan is design. See Figure 5.38.

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 LANDSCAPE, IRRIGATION, AND DRAINAGE PLANS 195

Figure 5.35 Existing grade. (Courtesy of Denn Engineers.)

■■ LANDSCAPE, IRRIGATION, AND The primary information to be found in the site

DRAINAGE PLANS improvement plan is as follows:
1. Site lot lines with accompanying bearings and
Landscape Plan and Plant List dimensions
The final stage of site development for most projects is land- 2. Scale of the drawing
scaping. The landscape drawing shows the location of trees, 3. North arrows
plants, ground covers, benches, fences, and walks. Accom- 4. Building location with layout dimensions
panying this is a plant list, identifying plant species with a 5. Paving, walks, walls with their accompanying
symbol or number and indicating the size and number of material call-­outs, and layout dimensions
plants. See Figure 5.39. Often, a landscape architect will Figure 5.41 shows the primary information found on
be hired as a consultant to specify the ideal plant materials a site improvement plan. The building layout dimension
and make recommendations for the hardscape surrounding lines must be noted to their respective property lines,
the project. providing two measuring points at each side of the
property lines. This, in turn, provides the location of
Irrigation Plan the building on the site. This is helpful when the prop-
erty lines do not parallel the building. This method may
An irrigation plan often accompanies the landscape apply to patios, walks, paving, and walls, which are also
plan. This drawing is typically separate from the land- dimensioned on the site improvement plan.
scape plan, but is directly influenced by the locations Site plans for large sites, such as multiple-­ resident
of plant material. This plan shows all water lines, points housing projects, must show primary information, such
of connection, control valves, and types of watering fix- as utility locations, driveway locations, and building
tures required for irrigation. See Figure 5.40. locations. Further examples of site development plans

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 196 SITE ANALYSIS AND SITE DOCUMENTS

Figure 5.36 Drainage plan. (Courtesy of Denn Engineers.)

appear in later chapters. See Figure 5.42 for a site plan dedications
checklist. See Figure 5.43 for a finished example. drainage plan
erosion control plan
existing contours
Key Terms
fill
area drains finish grading
bearing capacity finished grades
bearings floor area ratio (FAR)
bio-­filters French drain
boring log geological investigations
building footprint geology
building pad hardscape
catch basin location plan
compacted lot line
contour lines man-­made features
coordinates metes and bounds
cross-­section offsets
cross-­slope point of beginning (POB)
cut plant list
daylight grade elevation plat map

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 LANDSCAPE, IRRIGATION, AND DRAINAGE PLANS 197

Figure 5.37 Erosion control plan.

plot plan soil type soils and geology map

redevelopment districts soils investigations
section line sub-­drain
setbacks swale
site analysis topography map
site plan vicinity map
slope ratios zoning

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 198 SITE ANALYSIS AND SITE DOCUMENTS

Existing East Annex

Proposed Multi Purpose

Bldg.

Existing Church
Existing
Daycare

Existing
Existing
Kindergarten
Class/Office

Figure 5.38 Circulation plan.

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 Figure 5.39 Landscape plan and material list.

199

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 Figure 5.40 Irrigation plan.

200

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 Figure 5.41 Site improvement plan.

201

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 202 SITE ANALYSIS AND SITE DOCUMENTS

Figure 5.42 Sample site plan checklist.

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 Figure 5.43 Commercial site plan.

203

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 6
c h a p t e r

FLOOR PLAN

The Professional Practice of Architectural Working Drawings, Sixth Edition. Nagy R. Bakhoum and Osamu A. Wakita.
© 2024 John Wiley & Sons Inc. Published 2024 by John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com\go\bakhoum\theprofessionalpracticeofarchitecturalworkingdrawings

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 FLOOR PLANS 205

■■ FLOOR PLANS In this scenario, metal studs can be used to meet the
code requirement and achieve the desired outcome.
Defining the word floor plan can be simply described as Some building types do not allow the use of combus-
a horizontal cut at eye level through a building with the tible materials, such as wood, so steel or masonry is
upper portion of the roof portion removed and viewed required. Unlike wood studs, these wall types have a
from above. The floor plan is that and much more. It is convention as well.
also a representation of a 3-­D building drawn to scale The point of reference for working drawings is the
and demonstrates the rooms in a building and its adja- floor plan: a drawing viewed from above with the roof
cencies. It demonstrates the wall opening via symbolic removed. Actually, it is a horizontal cut (section) taken at
representation of doors, windows, and other styles of approximately eye level. See Figure 6.1.
passages. Including dimensions, fixtures, furnishings, To better understand this, imagine a knife slicing
finishes, specifications, notes, and appliances, the floor through a structure and removing the upper half (on a
plan is among one of the most communicative illustra- single-­story structure, the half with the roof). The remain-
tions an architect can develop. ing half is then viewed from the air. This becomes the
The floor plan is such an important drawing that most floor plan. See Figure 6.2.
consultants, such as interior designers, structural engi-
neers, MEP, Title 24, and other consulting engineers, uti-
Single-­and Split-­Level Floor Plans
lize as a datum or background for the development of
their drawings. Clients also review and study the floor The floor plan for a split-­level residence is more com-
plans in three phases of architectural services, SD, DD, plicated. In the following example, the entry, powder
and CDs. Contractors rely heavily on plans to estab- room, and garage are at the mid-­level, which is also the
lish things like foundation layout, room layout, and level of the street and sidewalk. Use this level as a point
placement of all fenestrations. of reference.
BIM does an outstanding job of giving the architect The stairs at the rear of the entry lead to the upper
options for wall assemblies; if the exact option is not and lower levels. The lower level contains the master
available, a quick customization or a generic wall type bedroom, master bath, study, bedroom, laundry, and
will do the job. This schedule feature offered in BIM bathroom. See Figure 6.3. The upper level contains the
will give you an exact calculation of the plaster, dry- living room with a wet bar, and the dining room, kitchen,
wall, and linear feet of the lumber needed for bidding breakfast room, and foyer. See Figure 6.4.
purposes and assignment advancement over AutoCAD When these are translated into a floor plan, they
drawing systems. appear as in Figures 6.5 and 6.6. The mid-­level is dupli-
Circulation of space is best demonstrated by the floor cated and common to both drawings.
plan (FP) if buildings consist of several levels; each floor A second approach is to use a break line (a line with
requires an FP. If a building has floors that are identi- a jog in it to indicate that a portion has been deleted),
cal, such as a high-­rise one, a simple label describing showing only a part of the garage on one of the plans.
floor levels can accommodate the job of demonstrating Another approach is to use a straight break line through
those levels. the garage and draft it showing only part of the garage
A floor plan is a multi-­ faceted drawing that can on one of the plans.
require a legend describing wall types or types of In a two-­story building, a single room on the first floor
construction methods. Understanding that the two is sometimes actually two stories high. If this room were a
lines symbolically represent a construction system or living room, for example, it would be treated as a normal
method of construction is imperative. For exterior walls one-­story living room on the first-­floor plan; however,
and interior plumbing walls that are typically drawn as the area would be repeated on the second-­floor plan and
2 × 6 studs with interior finishes such as gypsum dry- labeled as upper living room or just labeled “open.”
wall and exterior walls covered with siding or plaster To simplify the image to be drafted, not every struc-
and in between the studs is a cavity filled with insula- tural member is shown. For example, in a wood-­framed
tion. Plumbing walls require an additional space for structure, if every vertical piece of wood were shown,
plumbing waste and water supply lines, providing two the task would be impossible. Simplifying this image
extra inches of space and maintaining the wall integrity. of the wood structure is done with two parallel lines.
Interior walls can be drawn at 2 × 4 stud walls and if Sometimes the insulation is shown in symbol form and
desired can be insulated as well. is not shown through the total wall. See Figure 6.7. The
When drawing a floor plan, occasionally materials same parallel series of lines can also be used to represent
such as wood studs do not work and metal studs are a masonry wall by adding a series of diagonal lines. See
required. The building code states that all fireplaces Figure 6.8. Steel frame can be represented as shown in
must maintain a 2-­inch clearance from the wood studs. Figure 6.9.

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 206 FLOOR PLAN

Figure 6.1 Cutaway pictorial floor plan.

Walls are not the only important elements in the fram-

ing process, of course. You must also consider the loca-
tions of doors and windows and the special framing they
require. See Figure 6.12.

Interior Dimensioning. Because a wood-­framed wall

is a built-­
up system—­ that is, a wall frame of wood
upon which plaster or another wall covering is added—­
dimension lines must sometimes be drawn to the edge of
studs and sometimes to their center.
Figure 6.13 shows how the corner of a wood-­framed
Figure 6.2 Floor plan. wall is dimensioned to the stud line. Figure 6.14 shows
how an interior wall intersecting an exterior wall is
■■ TYPES OF FLOOR PLANS dimensioned. It is dimensioned to the center so that the
two studs that the interior wall will join can be located.
Wood Framing The process of drawing each stud in a wall becomes
tiresome. So, usually, two lines drawn 6″ apart (in scale)
Figure 6.10 shows the appearance of a corner of a wood-­ are used to represent wood. To make sure that the per-
framed structure. Each side of the wall is built separately. son reading this set of plans knows that the stud is being
An extra stud is usually placed at the end of the wall; it dimensioned and not the exterior surface, the extension
extends to the edge of the building. It therefore acts as is often brought inside the 6″-­wide wall lines. Another
a structural support and gives a larger nailing surface to way to make this clear is to take extension lines to the
which wall materials can be anchored. outside surface and write face of stud (FOS) adjacent to
Figure 6.11 shows the pictorial intersection of an the extension lines. See Figure 6.13.
interior wall and an exterior wall, and a plan view of Dimensioning interior walls requires a centerline
that same intersection. or an extension line right into the wall intersection, as

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 TYPES OF FLOOR PLANS 207

Figure 6.3 Pictorial of lower-­level floor plan. (Courtesy of William F. Smith—­Builder.)

Figure 6.4 Pictorial of upper-­level floor plan. (Courtesy of William F. Smith—­Builder.)

shown in Figure 6.14. A centerline is more desirable from a chart called a schedule. This schedule can be
than a solid line. found by locating the sheet number on the bottom half
Windows and doors are located to the center of the of the reference bubble adjacent to the window or
object, as shown in Figure 6.15. When a structural col- door. See Figure 6.16. (A reference bubble is a circle
umn is next to a window or door, the doors and win- with a line drawn through it horizontally.) Depending
dows are dimensioned to the structural column. The on the office standard this notation can be a circle
size of a particular window or door can be obtained or square.

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 208 FLOOR PLAN

Figure 6.5 Lower-­level floor plan. (Courtesy of William F. Smith—­Builder.)

Figure 6.6 Upper-­level floor plan. (Courtesy of William F. Smith—­Builder.)

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 TYPES OF FLOOR PLANS 209

Exterior Dimensioning. Normally, three-­to-­four-­

dimension lines are needed on an exterior dimension
of a floor plan. The first-­dimension line away from the
object includes the walls, partitions, centers of windows
and doors, and so forth. See Figure 6.17. The second-­
dimension line away from the object (floor plan) includes
walls and partitions only. If, in establishing the second-­
dimension line, you duplicate a dimension, eliminate the
dimension line closest to the object. The third-­dimension
line away from the object is for overall dimensions. The
first-­dimension line away from the structure should be
measured 3⁄4″ to 1½″ from the outside lines of the plan
to allow for notes, window and door reference bubbles,
equipment that may be placed adjacent to the struc-
ture, and so on. The second-­dimension line away from
the structure should be approximately 3⁄8″ to ½″ away
from the first-­dimension line. The distance between all
subsequent dimension lines should be the same as the
distance between the first-­and second-­dimension lines.
Figure 6.7 Representation of wood frame.
A large jog in a wall is called an offset. Because the
jog is removed from the plane that is being dimensioned,
you must decide whether to use long extension lines or
to dimension the offset at the location of the jog.
If the jog were lengthy, it would be better to dimension
the jog on its own. See Figure 6.18 for a small jog.
This would be dimensioned on the second-­or third-­
dimension line, and the fourth-­dimension line would
become the overall.
Objects located independently or outside of the struc-
ture, such as posts (columns), are treated differently.
First, the order in which the items are to be built must
be established. Will the columns be built before or after
the adjacent walls? If the walls or the foundation for the
walls are to be erected first, then major walls near the
columns are identified and the columns are located from
them. See Figure 6.19.
Figure 6.8 Representation of masonry.
Masonry/Concrete Block Structures
When walls are built of brick or concrete block instead
of wood frame, the procedure changes. Everything here
is based on the size and proportion of the masonry unit
used. Represent masonry as a series of diagonal lines.
See Figure 6.20. Show door and window openings in
the same way as you did for wood-­framed structures. You
may represent concrete block in the same way as brick
for small-­scale drawings but be aware that some offices
use different material designations. See Figure 6.21.
Extension lines for dimensioning are taken to the edge
(end) of the exterior surface in both exterior and interior
walls. See Figure 6.22.
Pilasters, which are columns built into the wall by
widening the walls, are dimensioned to the center. See
Figure 6.23. The size of the pilaster itself can be lettered
adjacent to one of the pilasters in the drawing. Another
Figure 6.9 Representation of steel frame.

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 210 FLOOR PLAN

Figure 6.10 Corner at sill.

Figure 6.11 Intersection of exterior wall in interior wall.

Figure 6.12 Framing for a door. Figure 6.13 Dimensioning corners.

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 TYPES OF FLOOR PLANS 211

Figure 6.14 Dimensioning interior walls.

Figure 6.16 Use of reference bubbles on doors and windows.

method of dealing with the size of these pilasters is to
refer the reader of the plan to a detail with a note or
reference bubble. All columns consisting of masonry or construction. As with wood stud construction, you need
masonry around steel are also dimensioned to the center. to dimension to the stud face rather than to the wall cov-
ering (skin).
Windows and Doors. Windows and doors create a There are various shapes of steel studs. See Figure 6.28.
unique problem in masonry units. In wood structures, Figure 6.29 shows how these shapes appear in the plan
windows and doors are located by dimensioning to the view. Drawing each steel stud is time-­consuming, so two
center and allowing the framing carpenter to create the parallel lines are drawn to indicate the width of the wall.
proper opening for the required window or door size. In See Figure 6.28A, B, and C. Steel studs can be called out
masonry, the opening is established before installation by a note.
of the window or door. This is called the rough opening; If only a portion of a structure is steel stud and the
the final opening size is called the finished opening. remainder is wood or masonry, you can shade (poché)
The rough opening, which is usually the one dimen- the area with steel studs or use a steel symbol. See
sioned on the plan, should follow the masonry block Figure 6.30.
module. See Figure 6.24. This block module and the
specific type of detail used determine the most eco- Dimensioning Columns. Steel columns are commonly
nomical and practical window and door sizes. See used to hold up heavy weights. This weight is distributed
Figure 6.25. Therefore, you should provide dimen- to the earth by means of a concrete pad. See Figure 6.31.
sions for locating windows, doors, interior walls, and This concrete pad is dimensioned to its center, as Fig-
anything of a masonry variety to the rough opening. See ure 6.32 shows. When you dimension the steel columns
Figure 6.26. A floor plan of a truck wash constructed of that will show in the floor plan, dimension them to the
masonry is shown in Figure 6.27. center. See Figure 6.33. This relates them to the concrete
pads. Dimensioning a series of columns follows the
Steel Structures same procedure. See Figure 6.34. The dimensions are
taken to the centers of the columns in each direction.
There are two main types of steel systems: steel stud and Sometimes, the column must be dimensioned to the
steel frame. Steel studs can be treated like wood stud face rather than to the center. As Figure 6.33 shows, the

Figure 6.15 Dimensioning doors and windows.

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 212 FLOOR PLAN

Figure 6.17 First dimension line away from the object.

Figure 6.18 Offset dimension locations.

extension line is taken to the outside face of the column.

Axial reference planes are often used in conjunction
with steel columns, as shown in Figure 6.34, and the
column may be dimensioned to the face.
A sample of a portion of a floor plan dimensioned with Figure 6.19 Locating columns from the structure.
and without a series of axial reference planes is shown
in Figure 6.35A and B. Because of the grid pattern often
formed by the placement of these columns, a centerline Walls, especially interior walls that do not fall on the
or a plus (+) type symbol is often used to simplify the established grid, have to be dimensioned—­but only to
drawing. See Figure 6.36. the nearest dimension grid line. Figure 6.37 is a good

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 TYPES OF FLOOR PLANS 213

Figure 6.24 Rough opening in masonry wall.

Figure 6.20 Masonry floor plan.

Figure 6.25 Door jamb at masonry opening.

Figure 6.21 Concrete block material designations used on

floor plans.

Figure 6.26 Locating doors and windows.

example of an interior wall dimensioned to the nearest

column falling on a grid.
Because of design or code requirements for fire
regulations or structural reasons, materials are often
Figure 6.22 Dimensioning masonry walls. combi­ ned: concrete columns with wood walls; steel
mainframe with wood walls as secondary members;
­
masonry and wood; steel studs and wood; and steel and
masonry, for example. Figure 6.38 shows how using two
different systems requires overlapping dimension lines
with extension lines. Because dimension lines are more
critical than extension lines, extension lines are always
broken in favor of dimension lines. The wood structure
is located to the column on the left side once and there-
Figure 6.23 Dimensioning pilasters. after dimensioned independently.

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 214 FLOOR PLAN

Figure 6.27 Masonry floor plan of a truck wash.

and so forth. The door in the wood portion is dimen-

sioned to the center of the door and to the inside edge of
the masonry wall. This assumes that the block wall will
be built first.
Masonry walls and concrete columns, shown in
Figure 6.40, are treated in much the same way as wood
and concrete columns. In both instances, the building
sequence dictates which one becomes the reference
point (datum). See Figure 6.41. Here, steel and masonry
are used in combination. Using the dimensional ref-
erence system, the steel is installed first. The interior
masonry wall is then located from the nearest axial ref-
erence plane and dimensioned according to the block
Figure 6.28 Basic steel stud shapes.
module for that kind of masonry.
Additional axial reference plane sub-­ bubbles are
provided. Numbers are in decimals. Because one face
Wood and masonry, as shown in Figure 6.39, are of the masonry wall is between 1 and 2, 7/10 of the dis-
dimensioned as their material dictates: the masonry is tance away from axial reference plane 1, the number
dimensioned to the ends of the wall and the rough open- 1.7 is used in the sub-­bubble. Also, because the same
ing of windows, while the wood portions are dimen- wall is also halfway between A and B, A.5 is used as
sioned to the center of interior walls, center of doors, a designation. Another example of the process is found

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 TYPES OF FLOOR PLANS 215

Figure 6.29 Representation of steel studs in a floor plan.

in Figure 6.42. The fabricators will locate the steel first, earlier discussion of elevations for a drafted form of
then the masonry wall. Dimension “X” relates one sys- these doors.
tem to another. Sculptured and decorative doors can be carved forms
The general method of dimensioning a window or a put into the doors in the form of a panel door or added
door was discussed earlier. Here, we examine a variety of onto a flush door in the form of what is called a planted
doors and windows and how to draft them. Figure 6.43 door. Different types of trim can also be planted onto a
shows a sampling of the most typically drafted doors. slab door.
Doors A and B in Figure 6.43 show the main difference Door C in Figure 6.43 represents a double-­ action
in drafting an exterior hinged door versus an interior door, a door that swings in both directions. Double-­
hinged door. A straight line is used to represent the door, action doors can be solid slab, panel, or sculptured.
and a radial line is used to show the direction of swing. Two types of sliding doors are shown in Figure 6.43.
Door “I” shows the same kind of door with its thickness Door D, when used on the exterior, typically is made of
represented by a double line. Doors A, B, and I are used glass framed in wood or metal. Pocketed sliding doors
in the floor plans to show flush doors, panel doors, and are rarely found on the exterior because the pocket is
sculptured doors (decorative and carved). hard to weatherproof, and it is difficult to keep rain, ter-
Flush doors, as the name indicates, are flush on both mites, and wind out of the pocket.
sides. They can be solid on the interior (solid slab) or Doors F and G are good doors for storage areas and
hollow on the inside (hollow core). wardrobe closets.
Panel doors have panels set into the frame. These are Where there is a concern about heat loss or heat gain,
usually made of thin panels of wood or glass. A variety a revolving door is a good solution. See door H, which
of patterns are available. See Sweet’s Catalog File under shows a cased opening, that is, an opening with trim
“Doors” for pictures of door patterns. Also, see the around the perimeter with no door on it.

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 216 FLOOR PLAN

Figure 6.32 Dimensioning concrete pads and steel columns.

Figure 6.30 Combination of wood and steel. Figure 6.33 Dimensioning a series of columns.

Figure 6.34 Dimensioning a series of columns by way of the

axial reference plane.

may simply be drawn as a fixed window (window A,

Figure 6.44), depending for explanation on a pictorial
drawing (as shown in Chapter 2). Ideally, casement, hop-
per, and awning-­type windows should be used only on
the second floor or above, for the sake of safety. If they
are used on the first or ground floor, they should have
Figure 6.31 Steel column and concrete pad.
planters or reflection pools or something else around
them to prevent accidents.
Windows in Plan View The best way to find specific sizes of windows and
doors (especially sliding glass doors) is to check the
Typical ways of showing windows in the plan view specific manufacturer’s website. There, you will find
are shown in Figure 6.44. When a plan is drawn at a interior doors ranging from 1′-­6″ to 3′-­0″ and exterior
small scale, each individual window, of whatever type, doors ranging from 2′-­4″ to 3′-­6″. Sizes of doors and

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 SYMBOLS 217

Figure 6.35 Dimensioning a floor plan with steel columns.

minimum and maximum areas as a measure of energy-­

efficient structures. Still, another criterion for door size
is consideration of wheelchairs and the size required for
building accessibility (Americans with Disabilities Act
compliance).

■■ SYMBOLS
Electrical and Utility Symbols
Just as chemistry uses symbols to represent elements,
architectural floor plans use symbols to represent elec-
Figure 6.36 Columns forming a grid pattern.
trical and plumbing equipment. Figure 6.45 shows the
ones most typically used. These are symbols only. They
do not represent the shape or size of the actual item.
windows also depend on local codes. Local codes For example, the symbol for a ceiling outlet indicates
require a certain percentage of the square footage to the location of an outlet, not the shape or size of the
be devoted to windows and doors to provide light and fixture. The description of the specific fixture is given in
ventilation. These percentages often come in the form of the specifications document.

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 218 FLOOR PLAN

Figure 6.37 Locating interior walls from axial reference bubbles.

Figure 6.38 Concrete and wood.

Figure 6.39 Wood and masonry.

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 SYMBOLS 219

Figure 6.40 Concrete columns and masonry walls.

Figure 6.41 Steel and masonry.

Some symbols are more generally used than others in

the architectural industry. A floor plan, therefore, usually
contains a legend or chart of the symbols being used on
that particular floor plan.

Number Symbols
Symbols 1, 2, and 3 in Figure 6.45 show different types
of switches. Symbol 2 shows a weatherproof switch, and
symbol 3 shows a situation in which there might be a
number of switches used to turn on a single light fixture
or a series of light fixtures. See Figure 6.46. A centerline-­
type line is used to show which switch connects with
which outlet. This is simply a way of giving this informa-
Figure 6.42 Steel and masonry. tion to the electrical contractor. (However, Figure 6.46

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 220 FLOOR PLAN

Letter Symbols
A letter used instead of a number represents a special
type of switch. For example, “K” is used for key-­operated,
“D” for dimmer, “WP” for weatherproof, and so forth.
As with switches, letter designations are used to
describe special duplex convenience outlets, for
example, “WP” for waterproof. A duplex convenience
outlet is generally referred to by the public as a wall plug.
The call letters “GFI” mean ground fault interrupt.
They designate a special outlet used near water (bath-
rooms, kitchens, etc.) to prevent electric shock. “SP”
designates special purpose—­perhaps a computer outlet
on its own circuit and unaffected by electrical current
flowing to any other outlet.
A combination of a switch and a regular outlet is
shown in Figure 6.45, symbol 8. This illustration shows
a duplex convenience outlet that is half active (hot) at
all times. In other words, one outlet is controlled by a
switch and the other is a normal outlet. The switch half
can be used for a lamp and the normal outlet for an
appliance.

Other Symbols
A square with a circle within it and two lines represents a
floor outlet. See symbol 13, Figure 6.45. The various types
of light outlets are shown by symbols 14 through 18.
A flush outlet is one in which the fixture will be
installed flush with the ceiling. The electrician and
carpenter must address the problem of framing for the
Figure 6.43 Doors in plan view. fixture in the members above the ceiling surface. See
symbol 21, Figure 6.45.
A selection of miscellaneous equipment is shown in
is not a wiring diagram.) If one switch controls one or a symbols 22 through 36.
series of outlets, it is called a two-­way switch. A three-­
way switch comprises two switches controlling one
outlet or a series of outlets. Three switches are called Special Explanation
a four-­way, and so on. Thus, you name switches by the Symbols 24, 25, 26, 28, 31, and 32 in Figure 6.45 require
number of switches plus one. For example, the num- special explanation as follows:
ber 3 is placed next to the switch when there are two
switches, the number 4 for three switches, and so on. Symbol 24. Used for electrical connections (usually on
See Figure 6.46 for examples of switches, outlets, and the outside) for such things as outdoor lighting and
their numbering system. sprinkler connections.
Symbol 4 in Figure 6.45 represents a duplex con­ Symbol 25. A “J” box is an open electrical box that
veni­ence outlet with two places to plug in electrical allows the electrician to install fixtures or tie wires
appliances. together at that location.
Numbers are used to indicate the number of outlets Symbol 26. This is not the TV antenna itself, but the point
available other than the duplex, the most typical. For at which you connect a television antenna line from
example, if a triplex outlet is required, the number 3 is cable or satellite dish.
placed beside the outlet symbol. A number in ­inches, Symbol 28. Location to push a button to ring a door-
such as 48″, may be used to indicate the height of the bell or chime.
outlet from the floor to the center of the outlet. See Symbol 31. The connection between the utility company
Figure 6.45, symbols 6, 7, and 9. and the structure where the power panel is installed.

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 SYMBOLS 221

Figure 6.44 Windows in plan view.

Symbol 32. As the structure is zoned for electrical distri- circuitry has found its way into the architectural con-
bution, circuit breaker panels are installed. This allows struction world. Today, we are being asked to think in
you to reset a circuit at a so-­called substation without terms of the following:
going outside to the main panel or disturbing the rest
1. What type of general lighting would be appropriate
of the structure.
for a given structure?
Symbol 34 represents a gas outlet, and 35 is a con- 2. What wall washes, by color and intensity, should be
trol for fuel gas. Symbol 34 would be used to indicate a used in a specific area?
gas jet in a fireplace, and 35 would be used to indicate 3. What specific tasks are to take place in an area, and
the control for the gas, probably somewhere near the what kind of lighting would satisfy the requirements
fireplace. Symbol 36 is a hose bibb, a connection for a of this task?
water hose. 4. What type of mood do we wish to create, and how
Symbols 37 through 39 represent present-­day symbols. will we dim or employ colored lights to produce
Incandescent track lighting shown in 37 and 38 indi- that specific mood?
cates a card reader for a security door, such as a hotel 5. How should the floor area be lit to facilitate the safe
room door or conference room door, that is opened by movement of people through a corridor at night or
a card reader. Symbol 39 represents an outlet through during the day, as in a school environment?
which to receive computer data. Symbol 40 indicates 6. How can we efficiently light stairs, both to iden-
two wires mounted on the ceiling for attachment of the tify the positions of the steps and to show where
movable and repositionable light often referred to as they begin?
cable lighting. 7. How will specialty lighting be employed, such as
fiber optics or neon lighting to identify an entry area
or light located to produce a light beacon to the
Electrical and Computers sky at night?
Although most residences are still wired in the con- Electrical wiring falls into three basic categories: con-
ventional manner, the use of the computer to control ventional, retrofit, and centralized controller (computer).

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 222 FLOOR PLAN

Figure 6.45 Electrical and utility symbols.

1. Conventional. This system presently exists in the building additions and alterations where the cost
majority of today’s structures. Lights are hardwired of rewiring can become prohibitive. Radio-­wave
from switch to outlet, and the system is not very flex- signals can be disturbed by steel studs, the chicken
ible (see Figure 6.46). wire present in older walls as a base mesh for
2. Retrofit: stucco or plastic, or by distance (approximately
a. Radio frequency. An old conventional toggle-­ 25′ distance limit).
style switch is replaced by what we will refer to b. Power line carrier (PLC). Also uses smart switches,
as a “smart switch.” The smart switch is capable but rather than sending a radio-­wave signal, it
of transmitting and receiving signals to and from sends an electrical pulse through the existing
other outlets (modules). This system is ideal in wiring. A single switch can be replaced with a

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 SYMBOLS 223

Figure 6.47 Change from old to new smart switches (called

control stations).

of the structure for visual impact or to deter possible

intruders (possibly motion-­ activated flashing lights).
Think in terms of how best to secure your house elec-
trically, by opening or closing windows or draperies.
Controls can also be programmed to provide music
throughout a structure, to activate a television, or even
to dramatically showcase works of art.
Figure 6.46 Switch to outlet (conventional). The next step to take with your client is to decide from
which locations you would like to control these various
lighting scenes. Let us now look at the three basic com-
smart switch with multiple controls. This enables
ponents in this type of control system. As mentioned
one smart-­ switch location to control multiple
before, the first are the control stations, wall-­mounted
outlets, fixtures, appliances, and so forth. Home-­
keypads suitable for use in both wet and dry areas of a
Touch by Lite-­ Touch, Inc. is an example of
structure. The second is the central control unit (CCU).
such a system.
The CCU is the brain of the system, that is, where the
3. Centralized controller (computer). Using low-­
programming resides. It receives signals from the control
voltage wires, the switches are connected to a
stations and then processes them. Each control station is
central processor. We no longer think in terms of a
connected to the CCU with low-­voltage wire. This is very
single light switch controlling a bank of lights, but
different from the old system, in which the lights were
rather a single control station with as many as nine
hooked up to the control station. Once programmed,
buttons that can control any or all lights in a struc-
the CCU will maintain the information even during a
ture. These control stations, which are wall-­mounted
power outage or spike—­ and, yes, the CCU can be
keypads, replace the old-­ fashioned switches and
programmed for times when the occupants are away on
dimmers (see Figure 6.47B). Note that nine switches
vacation. Lighting can be programmed to give the struc-
and dimmers are replaced with one control station
ture an appearance of being occupied and then returned
the size of a single-­gang toggle switch.
to its original setting upon the owners’ return. The client
Figure 6.47A is a conventional switch similar to that can be trained to program his or her own system, or the
shown in Figure 6.45. With a simple circle added to an system installer can reprogram the system via the tele-
existing switch, a drafter can indicate that a smart switch phone. Thus, a technician need not come to the struc-
should be installed. Thus, you can easily adjust an exist- ture to reprogram the CCU.
ing drawing. Figure 6.47B shows a slight variation of the Control modules make up the third component. These
same smart switch that is drafted from scratch. are self-­contained modules that actually do the work.
The first major change is in the way we think about Receiving their instructions from the CCU, they dim
lighting. Do not think of a room with its lighting con- lights; drive motorized devices to open skylights, win-
trolled by a single switch; instead, plan lighting scenes. dows, and draperies; raise or lower the screen in a home
Position the lighting to create a visual pathway through theater; or merely turn on the garden and pool lights (see
a structure. Consider how you would light the exterior Figure 6.48).

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 224 FLOOR PLAN

Figure 6.48 Three components of the Lite-­Touch system.

Drawing for the Installer ­ rovide a ­system that cannot be compromised during
p
surgery. In an office or school building, you may need
The next task is to convey to the installer the informa- an electrical door opener or interconnecting telephone
tion about the system you have designed, the location of service and in-­floor ductwork for a computer room.
the control stations, and the number of control points you
have at one location. The number of control points at a
given location can be dealt with using a chart. A ­routing Appliance and Plumbing Fixture Symbols
schedule (a chart similar to that shown in Figure 6.49) can Many templates are available for drafting plumbing fix-
easily be developed and become part of the electrical ture and kitchen appliances. A good architectural tem-
plan. The first column identifies the location of the control plate contains such items as:
station in the structure, and the second column actually
tells the manufacturer the actual number of control points • Circles
needed. Each control station in that location (say #1) is • Various kitchen appliances
then labeled, such as 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, and so on. • Door swings
Each group of outlets—­for example, six outlets in the • Various plumbing fixtures
ceiling in the living room—­is then given a call letter. In • Electrical symbols
this chart, the designation E-­1 is used for the general • Typical heights marked along edges
light in the living room, E-­3 is used for mood lighting, Figure 6.51 shows some of these fixtures and
and E-­2 may be used as a spotlight for paintings. appliances.
Control-­station groups can be identified with a single
number (see Figure 6.50A). The symbol should be a
square. The outlets are connected as in the conventional
method but are not connected to the control stations ■■ OTHER FLOOR PLAN
identified by a C and an S with a line through it. Now ­CONSIDERATIONS
look at Figure 6.50B. The outlets are connected to a
symbol that should be a square. The symbol should not It is often necessary to show more than one or two build-
duplicate those already used for the control stations. ing materials on a floor plan. Let us take a college music
The electrical symbols shown in this chapter are building as an example of a structure that has a multitude
mostly used in residential applications, although most of walls of different materials, including the following:
of them are similar in commercial, institutional, and 1. Masonry
industrial settings. For hospitals, you need a symbol 2. Wood studs
for a nurse call system or signal center system and very 3. Two types of soundproof partitions
specialized auxiliary systems. You may also need to run 4. Low walls
a multitude of equipment for surgery at one time and 5. Low walls with glass above

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 OTHER FLOOR PLAN C
­ ONSIDERATIONS 225

Figure 6.49 Routing schedule.

Poché Walls
The word poché, mentioned earlier, refers to the process
of darkening the space between the lines that represent
wall thickness on a floor plan. A special pochéd wall
can easily be done on the computer with lines or dots.
However, each line type must mean something. It might
mean an existing wall, a wall to be, or even a new wall.
Figure 6.54 shows an example of pochéd walls.

Figure 6.50 Routing symbol for control stations/outlets. Stairs

An arrow is used on the plan of the stair to show the
We need to establish an acceptable symbol for each direction in which the stair rises. See the partial floor
material and to produce a legend similar to that in plan in Figure 6.55. Notice how the arrowheads show
Figure 6.52. A sample of a partial floor plan using some direction and how the number and size of the treads and
of these materials symbols is shown in Figure 6.53. risers are indicated.

Combining Building Materials Noting Logic

Because of ecological requirements (such as insulation), The basic approach used for noting (notation) logic
structural reasons, aesthetic concerns, and fire regula- is to show a complete set of working drawings as
tions, materials often must be combined. For example, if a complete set of specifications were included.
insulation may be adjacent to a masonry wall, a brick ­Specifications are the written documentation of what
veneer may be on a wood stud wall, and steel studs may is drafted; they give information that is not given in the
be next to a concrete block wall. Figure 6.54 shows drawings. Brand names, model numbers, installation
examples of what some of these combined-­ materials procedures, and quality of material are just a few of the
walls will look like on the floor plan. items included and discussed in a set of specifications.

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 226 FLOOR PLAN

Figure 6.51 Appliance and plumbing fixtures.

Figure 6.52 Legend for music building floor plan. Figure 6.53 Partial floor plan: Music building.

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 OTHER FLOOR PLAN C
­ ONSIDERATIONS 227

Figure 6.55 Stair directions and number of treads.

Thus, inclusion of the specifications affects the noting

on the floor plan.
Because of the precise descriptions contained in the
specifications, only general descriptions are necessary
on the floor plan. For example, it is sufficient to call
out a “cooktop” as a generic name and let the speci-
fications take care of the rest of the description. “Tub”
and “water closet” are sufficient to describe plumb-
ing fixtures.
Because further description would only confuse the
drawing, these items should be described in the spec-
ifications (specs). In other words, specific information
should not be duplicated. If it is, changes can present
problems. For example, suppose brand “A” is selected
for a particular fixture and is called out as brand “A” on
the floor plan rather than by its generic term. Later, it
is changed to brand “B.” Now both the floor plan and
specs must be changed; if one is missed, a discrepancy
that can cause confusion results.
Many architectural firms that superimpose the
electrical plan on top of the floor plan note the electrical
rating necessary for a particular piece of equipment; for
example, range 9 KW, oven 5 KW, dishwasher 1.5 KW,
and refrigerator 110 V. Electrical ratings can also be
included in an electrical appliance schedule if one
Figure 6.54 Combinations of building materials. exists. It is important to track electrical ratings so as not

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 228 FLOOR PLAN

to overload a circuit and trip the circuit breaker, or cause have worked out some type of checking system. A check-
snow to appear on the TV screen every time you use, say, list (or check sheet) is frequently used to mitigate missing
a dishwasher. information. It lists the most commonly missed items in
Because sizes of rooms are often found on presenta- chart form, making it easy for you to precheck your work
tion drawings (scaled drawings), some people think that before a checker is asked to review a particular drawing.
sizes of rooms (9 × 12, 10 × 14) belong on a floor plan. See Figure 6.61 for a floor-­plan checklist.
They do not. These approximate sizes are fine for client
consumption but are useless in the construction process.
■■ DRAWING A FLOOR PLAN
Providing Satisfactory Dimensions WITH A COMPUTER
One of the most common criticisms from the field The procedure for drawing a floor plan on a computer
(workers on the job) is that the floor plans do not con- is somewhat different from that normally used only a
tain enough dimensions. Because these people cannot few years ago to draw a floor plan manually. However,
scale the drawings (something we would not want them the information placed on the floor plan, as well as the
to do anyway), they are dependent on dimensions; be dimensioning techniques and the formal representations
sure they are all included! Remember that notes take used, remain valid for construction purposes.
precedence over the drawing itself. If a member is The floor plan should be layered out on the grid the
called a 2 × 10 but is drawn as a 2 × 8, the note takes architect used. The structure may be built on a 4-­or
precedence. 5-­foot grid, and this grid should be drawn on the datum
layer. If there is no set module, the datum grid can be set
to 1-­or 2-­foot increments (see Figure 6.62). If the struc-
Sampling of Other Types of Floor Plans ture is built of masonry, there may be a block module to
Not all floor plans fit on a sheet, even a 36 × 48 sheet. which this grid can be set.
The Vista del Largo structure is a good example. Multiples of 16″ have become a favorite spacing,
To maintain readability, the plan was cut in half, and it inasmuch as most building products come in multiples
uses a key plan at a very small scale located on the bot- of 16″. Thus, 16, 32, and 48 become easy modules to
tom right corner of the sheet to show how the cut was locate. In working with steel, the columns may be set
made and how to reassemble it. Look at Figure 6.56. to a larger grid, such as 12′-­6″ spacing. If the grid is
A structure such as the Costa home, which falls into this large, set your snaps (spacing where the cursor will
the category of a restoration drawing, is seldom seen momentarily stop) to a smaller spacing. If you are round-
in the field of architecture relative to the percentage of ing off walls to the nearest 3″, then 3″ will be a good
drawings produced. See Figure 6.57. distance to set your snaps. In dimensioning conventional
Also rarely used is a space plan that shows furniture for stud construction, the snap should be set at 1″, allowing
a residence; this does, however, give the client a better the drafter to dimension to the FOS (see Figure 6.63).
understanding of the physical constraints and benefits Let us take a look at the computer drawings, done in
of the structure. See Figure 6.58. However, it is a good six stages, for the first-­floor plan of the Adli residence.
plan to superimpose an electrical plan over such a space Remember, you may need more than 10 layers to accom-
plan for the simple reason that, based on the furniture plish these six stages.
layout, an electrical plan can be developed from it. For Stage I (Figure 6.64). This is the most critical stage
an example, see Figure 6.59. because it sets the field of work and the basic out-
A good example of a small commercial plan appears lines for the structure. If we were working with steel,
in Figure 6.60. In this figure, we are looking at Grand the columns would be set and positioned during this
Park Plaza, which is a steel structure of mixed use; it ties stage. The properties of the outline can be listed, so
in a commercial venture and residential that is why we that plan users can immediately find the square foot-
call it mixed use. age of the structure and its perimeter. This outline can
be used to position the structure on the site, to verify
Checklist: Checking Your Own Drawing the required setbacks, or to compare this figure with
the allowable buildable area of a particular site.
There are so many minute details to remember in the Stage II (Figure 6.65). All walls are established at this
development of a particular drawing that most offices stage. Exterior walls and interior bearing walls can be

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