1.

Introduction to Java
 Java is a simple and powerful object oriented programming language.
 It is developed by James Gosling and his team at Sun Microsystems, Inc. in 1991.
 In many respects it is similar to C and C++.
 The older name of Java was OAK.
 It was developed to provide a platform-independent programming language.
 Initially it was developed to be used in electronic consumer goods like TV, VCR, washing
machine etc.

2. Features of Java
Java possess the following features
 It is an object oriented programming language.
 Java programs are both compiled and interpreted.
 Java programs are platform independent.
 Java is a robust programming language.
 It is a multithreaded programming language.
 It can access data from a local system as well as from net.
 Java programming is written within a class. The variables and functions are developed and
defined within the class.
 Java programs can create Applets (Programs which run on web browsers) and Applications
are general programs like any other programming languages.
 Java doesn’t require any preprocessor or inclusion or header files from creating java
application program.
 Java is a case sensitive language. It distinguishes the upper case and lower case letters.

3. Types of Java Programming

A Java Program can be written in the following two ways:
 Stand alone System (Java Application):
 A Java program is developed by the user and it is the one that can be created and
executed independently to produce some output.
 Any java class with a main method can be considered as a standalone java application.
 Internet Applets (Java Applets):
 An applet is a small Internet-based program written in Java for the Web, which can
be downloaded by any computer.
 The applet is usually embedded in an HTML page on a Web site and can be executed
from within a browser.

4. JAVA VIRTUAL MACHINE(JVM)

 JVM stands for Java Virtual Machine.
 JVM is the engine that drives the Java code.
 Mostly in other Programming Languages, compiler produce code for a particular system but
Java compiler produce Bytecode for a Java Virtual Machine.
 When we compile a Java program, then bytecode is generated. Bytecode is the source code
that can be used to run on any platform.
 Bytecode is an intermediary language between Java source and the host system.
 It is the medium which compiles Java code to bytecode which gets interpreted on a different
machine and hence it makes it Platform/Operating system independent.

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5. What is Java Packages?
 A java package is a group of similar types of classes, interfaces and sub-packages.
 Package in java can be categorized in two form, built-in package and user-defined package.
 There are many built-in packages such as java, java.awt, java.applet, javax.swing, java.net,
java.io, java.util, java.sql, java.lang, java.net, java.txt, java.math etc.
 java.lang is the default package.
 To use a package we need to import it in our program.

Advantage of Java Package

 Java package is used to categorize the classes and interfaces so that they can be easily
maintained.
 Java package provides access protection.
 Java package removes naming collision.

Simple example of java package

The package keyword is used to create a package in java.
//save as Simple.java
package mypack;
public class Simple{
public static void main(String args[]){
System.out.println("Welcome to package");
}
}

6. What is the use of import keyword?

 Import keyword is used to import built-in and user-defined classes into the java source file.
 It is used to make the classes and interface of another package accessible to the current
package.
 The syntax to import a class into the source file is
import packagename.classname;
or
import packagename.*;
 e.g import javax.swing.*;

7. What is variable? State different types of variable.

 A variable is a named storage space in a program whose value can be manipulated during the
execution of the program.
 Each variable has a specific type, which determines the size and the range of values that can
be stored within that memory.
 We must need to declare all variables before they can be used.

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  Following is the basic form of a variable declaration –
<data type> variable1=values;
 There are three kinds of variables in Java such as –
 Local variables
 Local variables are declared in methods, constructors, or blocks.
 Local variables are created when the method, constructor or block is entered and the variable
will be destroyed once it exits the method, constructor, or block.
 Local variables are visible only within the declared method, constructor, or block.
 There is no default value for local variables, so local variables should be declared and an
initial value should be assigned before the first use.
 Instance variables
 Instance variables are declared in a class, but outside a method, constructor or any block.
 When a space is allocated for an object, a slot for each instance variable value is created.
 Instance variables are created when an object and destroyed when the object is destroyed.
 Instance variables can be declared in class.
 Access modifiers can be given for instance variables.
 The instance variables are visible for all methods, constructors and block in the class.
 Instance variables have default values. For numbers, the default value is 0, for Booleans it is
false, and for object references it is null.
 Instance variables can be accessed directly by calling the variable name inside the class.
 Class variables /Static variables
 Class variables also known as static variables are declared with the static keyword in a class
 There would only be one copy of each class variable per class, regardless of how many
objects are created from it.
 Static variables are rarely used other than being declared as constants.
 Static variables are stored in the static memory.
 Static variables are created when the program starts and destroyed when the program stops.
 Visibility is similar to instance variables. However, most static variables are declared public.
 Static variables can be accessed by calling with the class name ClassName.VariableName.

8. Is null value same as 0 or not?

 Null Value is not same as 0. Because, "0" is a value.
 It is the unique, known quantity of 0, which is meaningful in arithmetic and other math.
Whereas "Null" is a non-value.
 It is a "placeholder" for a data value that is not known or not specified.
 Mathematical operations cannot be performed on null.
 The result of any mathematical operation is undefined, and therefore also generally
represented as null.
9. What is the use of this keyword?
 this keyword in java can be used inside the Method or constructor of Class.
 It(this) works as a reference to the current Object, whose Method or constructor is being
invoked.
Uses of this keyword
 this can be used to refer current class instance variable.
 this can be used to invoke current class method (implicitly)
 this() can be used to invoke current class constructor.
 this can be passed as an argument in the method call.
 this can be passed as argument in the constructor call.
 this can be used to return the current class instance from the method.

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10. What is the use of final keyword?
 When the final keyword is used with some variables they become constants and hence cannot
be changed during the execution of the program.
 When the final keyword is used with the method, the method cannot be overridden by
subclasses.
 A final class cannot be extended. e.g String class is a final class so we cannot extend it.
 Final variables, methods and classes are used for security purpose.
e.g
public class A{
public final int x =1; // declared as final variable
public final void disp() // declared as final method
{
System.out.println(“Final Method”);
}
}

public class B {
public static void main(String args[ ]){
A a = new A();
a.x = 2; //illegal : final variable can’t be changed
}
public class C extends A{
public void final disp(){
System.out.println(“Final method in Derived C”); } //illegal : final method with same
signature) can’t be overrriden
}
public void disp(int a) {
System.out.println(“This number is +a);} //legal : this is method overloading
}

11. What is Function / Method?

A function is a block of statements used for a specific purpose. It is called by a name. It can be used
to pass data as a parameter to operate and can optionally return data.

A method is a piece of code that is called by a name and it is associated with an object. In most
respects it is identical to a function except for the following two key differences:
 A method is implicitly passed the object on which it was called.
 A method is able to operate on data that is contained within the class.

12. Different types of Method

There are two types of methods such as :
 Predefined method and
 user defined method.
Predefined Methods:
 For a common purpose the predefined methods are written by the compiler designers
which are stored in the predefined classes in some packages.
 If the predefined methods are necessary in our programs then we require to import the
classes.
Userdefined Methods:
 These are the methods a user writes for a specific purpose.
 User defined methods needs to be written inside a class.

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  The general format is:
public static int methodName(int a, int b)
{
Method body;
}

13. What is Constructor?

 Constructor is a block of codes similar to the method.
 It is a special type of method with a name same as that of the class name and used to initial
the data members of the class.
 It is called when an instance of the object is created, and memory is allocated for the object.
 There are various types of constructors such as Default Constructor, Parameterized
Constructor and Copy Constructor.

14. Differentiate between Method and Constructor

Constructor Method
Constructor is used to initialize the state of an Method is used to expose behavior of an
object. object.
Constructor must not have return type Mehod must have return type.
Constructor is invoked implicitly. Method is invoked explicitly.
The java compiler provides a default Method is not provided by compiler is any
constructor if you don’t have any constructor. case
Constructor name must be same as the class Method name may or may not be same as class
name. name.

15. What is a String?

 String is a sequence of characters enclosed with in double quotation mark (“”).
 But in java, string is an object that represents a sequence of characters.
 The java.lang.String class is used to create string object.
 There are two ways to create String object:
1. By string literal
2. By new keyword
 In Java, String literal is created by using double quotes. For Example:
1. String st="welcome";
2. String st= new String("welcome");
3. char s[ ] = {‘w’,’e’,’l’,’c’,’o’,’m’,’e’);
String st = new String(s);
Example:
public class Example{
public static void main(String args[])
{
String s1="java";//creating string by java string literal
char ch[]={'s','t','r','i','n','g','s'};
String s2=new String(ch);//converting char array to string
String s3=new String("example");//creating java string by new keyword
System.out.println(s1);
System.out.println(s2);
System.out.println(s3);
}}

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16. Java String Functions
I. length() : length() function returns the number of characters in a String or length of a String.
Syntax : int var = <string variable>. length();
Example :
String str = "Count me";
System.out.println(str.length());
Output : 8

II. charAt():charAt() function returns the character located at the specified index.
Syntax : char var = <string variable>. charAt (index value);
Example :
String str = "COMPUTER";
System.out.println(str. charAt(4));
Output : U
NOTE: Index of a String starts from 0, hence str.charAt(2) means third character of the String
str.

III. indexOf(): It returns the first occurrence of the specified character. If a character is not
present then it returns -1.
Syntax : int var = <string variable>. indexOf(character value);
Example :
String str = "MALAYALAM";
System.out.println(str. indexOf(‘A’));
Output : 1
System.out.println(str. indexOf(‘A’,2));
Output : 3
System.out.println(str. indexOf(‘P’));
Output : -1
System.out.println(str. indexOf(‘Y’));
Output : 4
System.out.println(str. indexOf(‘Y’,5));
Output : -1

IV. lastIndexOf():It returns the last occurrence of the specified character. If a character is not
present then it returns -1..
Syntax : int var = <string variable>. LastIndexOf(character value);
Example :
String str = "MALAYALAM";
System.out.println(str. indexOf(‘A’));
Output : 7
System.out.println(str. indexOf(‘A’,5));
Output : 5
System.out.println(str. indexOf(‘P’));
Output : -1
System.out.println(str. indexOf(‘Y’));
Output : 4
System.out.println(str. indexOf(‘Y’,3));
Output : -1

V. toLowerCase(): It returns string with all uppercase characters converted to lowercase.

Syntax : String var = <string variable>. toLowerCase();
Example :

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 String str = "COMPUTER";
System.out.println(str.toLowerCase());
Output : computer

VI. toUpperCase():It returns string with all lowercase characters converted to uppercase.
Syntax : String var = <string variable>. toUpperCase();
Example :
String str = "computer";
System.out.println(str.toUpperCase());
Output : COMPUTER

VII. trim():This method returns a string from which any leading and trailing whitespaces has
been removed.
String str = " hello ";
System.out.println(str.trim());
hello
NOTE: If the whitespaces are between the string, for example:
String s1 = " Hello Students "; then System.out.println(s1.trim()); will output "Hello
Students".
trim() method removes only the leading and trailing whitespaces.

VIII. substring(): It returns a part of the string. substring() method has two forms,
 public String substring(int begin);

 public String substring(int begin, int end);

Note :
 character of begin index is inclusive and character of end index is exclusive.
 The first argument represents the starting point of the subtring. If the substring() method
is called with only one argument, the subtring returned, will contain characters from
specified starting point to the end of original string.
 But, if the call to substring() method has two arguments, the second argument specify the
end point of substring.
String str = "COMPUTER";
System.out.println(str.substring(3));
Output : PUTER
System.out.println(str.substring(3,6));
Output : PUT

IX. replace():This function is used to replace a character by another character or to replace a

string by another string at all its occurrence in the given String.
Syntax:String <variablel> = String<variable>.replace<character to replace>,<character to
appear>
String <variablel> = String<variable>.replace<sub string to replace>,<sub string to appear>
Example:
String s = "MXLXYXLXM";
String p = s.replace ('X', 'A');
Here, each character 'X' of the string is replaced by 'A'. Hence, the new string p results
in "MALAYALAM".
String s = "MXLXYXLXM";
String p = s.replace (3,'X', A');

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 In this function, each character 'X' of the string is replaced by A' starting from 3rd.
index. ... Hence, the new string p results in "MAXAYALAM".
String s = "The green bottle is in green bag";
String p = s.replace ("green", "red");
Here, each sub string "green" of the given string is replaced by "red". Hence, the new
string p results in "The red bottle is in red bag".

X. concat():This function is applied to concatenate (join) two strings together.

Syntax: String variable = string variablel.concat(string variable2)
Example:
String x = "COMPUTER";
String y = "APPLICATIONS";
String z = x. concat(y);
Here, both the strings x and y will be joined together. Hence, z results in
"COMPUTERAPPLICATIONS".
Java language also uses an operator '+' to concatenate two or more strings together.
Example:
String x = "COMPUTER";
String y = "APPLICATIONS";
String z = "SCIENCE";
String p = x+y;
Here, p results in COMPUTERAPPLICATIONS
String p=x+z;
Here, p results in COMPUTERSCIENCE.
String p = x + ' ' + y + ' ' + z;
Here p results in COMPUTER APLICATIONS SCIENCE

XI. equals ():This function is used to compare two strings together to check whether they are
identical or not. It returns a Boolean type value true if both are same, false otherwise.
Syntax: boolean variable = string variablel . equals(string variable2);
Example:
String x = "COMPUTER";
String y = "SCIENCE";
boolean z = x.equals(y);
Here, z results in false.

String x = "COMPUTER";
String y = "computer";
if (x.equals(y))
System.out.println("same");
else
System.out.println("different");
OUTPUT: different
because equals() function treats corresponding upper case and lower case characters
differently.
XII. equalsIgnoreCase():This function is also used to compare two strings to ensure whether both
are identical or not after ignoring the case (i.e., corresponding upper and lower case characters
are treated to be same). It also returns a boolean data as true or false.
Syntax: boolean variable = string variablel . equalsIgnoreCase(string variable2);
Example:
String x = "COMPUTER";

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 String y = "computer";
boolean p = x.equalsIgnoreCase(y);
System.out.println(p);

Output: true.

if(x.equalsIgnoreCase(y))
System.out.println("same");
else
System.out.println("different");

Output: different

XIII. compareTo(): It is also a type of function which compares two strings. It not only checks the
equality of the strings but also checks whether a string is bigger or smaller than other or not.
The function can return an integer value depending upon the condition you want to check.

Syntax: int variable = string variable1.compareTo(string variable2);

Example:
String x = "COMPUTER";
String y = "SCIENCE";
int n = x.compareTO(y);
Here, n = 0, if x and y both the strings are same.
n > 0, if string x is greater than string y.
n < 0, if string x is less than string y.

In the example given above n is assigned a -ve value, as the string COMPUTER is smaller
than SCIENCE in alphabetical order.

XIV. endsWith(): This function is used to check whether a given string has specified suffix or not.
It returns a boolean type value true or false accordingly.
Syntax: boolean b= string variable 1.endswith(string variable2);
Example:
String p= "COMPUTER IS FUN";
String b= "FUN";
boolean x= p.endswith(b);
It will return x as true.

XV. startsWith(): This function returns a boolean type value true if a given string is used as prefix
to another string, false otherwise.
Syntax: boolean b= string variable 1.startsWith(string variable2);
Example:
String p= "COMPUTER IS FUN";
String b= "YOUR";
boolean x= p.startsWith(b);
It will return x as false as string p does not start with YOUR.

XVI. valueOf():valueOf() method is present in String class for all primitive data types and for type
Object. valueOf() function is used to convert primitive data types into Strings.
Example:
int num = 35;
String s1 = String.valueOf(num); //converting int to String

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 System.out.println(s1+"IAmAString");

Output: 35IAmAString

17. Java Character Functions

These functions deal only with the character manipulations. Some of them are explained below:
I. Character.isLetter(): This function is used to check whether a given argument is an alphabet or
not. It returns a boolean type value either true or false.
Syntax: boolean variable = Character.isLetter(character);
Example:
boolean p=character.isLetter('c');
The function will return true to the variable p.
boolean p=Character.isLetter('6');
It will return false.
II. Character.isDigit( ): This function returns a Boolean type value true if a given argument is a
digit otherwise, false.
Syntax: boolean variable = Character.isDigit(character);
Example:
boolean p=Character.isDigit('7'); It returns true to the variable p
boolean p=Character.isDigit('G'); It returns false to the variable p.
III. Character.isLetterOrDigit( ): This function returns true if the given argument is either a letter
or a digit, otherwise false.
Syntax: boolean variable=Character.isLetterOrDigit(character);
Example:
boolean b=Character.isLetterOrDigit('A');
It returns true to the boolean variable b as 'A' is a letter.
boolean b=Character.isLetterOrDigit('r');
It returns true as the given character ‘r’ is a letter.
boolean b=Character.isLetterOrDigit('9');
It returns true as the given character '9' is a digit.
boolean b=Character.isLetterOrDigit('*');
It returns false as the given character '*' is neither a letter nor a digit.
IV. Character.isWhiteSpace( ): This function can be used to check for existing blank or gap in a
String. It will return a boolean type value (i.e.: true) if the given argument is a white space (blank)
and, false otherwise.
Syntax: boolean variable=Character.isWhiteSpace(character);
Example:
boolean b=Character.isWhiteSpace(' ');
It returns true to the boolean variable b as the given character is a blank
boolean b=Character.isWhiteSpace('*' );
It returns false to the boolean variable b as the given character is not a blank.

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 V. Character.isUpperCase(): This function will return true if the given argument is an upper case
letter otherwise false.
Syntax: boolean variable = Character.isUpperCase(character);
Example:
boolean p=Character.isUpperCase('A');
It returns true to the variable p.
boolean p=Character.isUpperCase('g'); It returns false to the variable p.
VI. Character.isLowerCase( ): This function will return true if the given argument is a lower case
letter otherwise false.
Syntax: boolean variable = Character.isLowerCase(character);
Example:
boolean p=Character.isLowerCase('LP); It returns false to the variable p.
boolean p=Character.isLowerCase('g'); It returns true to the variable p.
VII. Character.toUpperCase( ): This function returns the given argument in upper case character.
The given character remains same if it is already in upper case. It returns the same character if the
character used with the function is non-alphabet.
Syntax: char variable = Character.toUpperCase(character);
Example:
char c=Character.toUpperCase('a'); It returns letter A to the variable c.
char c=Character.toUpperCase('G'); It returns G to the variable c.
char c=Character.toUpperCase('?');
It will return the same character because the given character is non-alphabet.
VIII. Character.toLowerCase( ): This function returns the given argument in lower case character.
The given character remains same if it is already in lower case. It returns the same character if the
character used with the function is non-alphabet.
Syntax: char variable = Character.toLowerCase(character);
Example:
char c=Character.toLowerCase('A); It returns letter a to the variable c.
char c=Character.toLowerCase('g'); It returns g to the variable c.
char c=Character.toLowerCase('*');
It will return the same character as the given character is non-alphabet.

18. Java Math Functions

i. Math.sqrt(): This function is used to find the square root of a positive number. It returns a double
type value.
Syntax: <Return Data type><variable> = Function name (Positive number);
e.g.,
double n=Math.sqrt(4.0);
It returns a double type value for n as 2.0
double n=Math.sqrt(6.25);
It returns a double type value of n as 2.5

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II. Math.min( ): This function returns minimum of two numbers. The return value depends on the
values used as the arguments of the function (i.e., if the arguments are integer numbers the result
is integer number and so on).
Syntax: <Return Data type><variable> = Function name (argument 1, argument 2);
e.g.:
int n=Math.min(4, 6);
It returns an integer type value of n as 4, which is minimum of 4 and 6.
double n= Math.min(4.6, 2.8);
This will return a double type minimum value of n as 2.8 double x=Math.min(-3.5, -9.5);
It returns the double type minimum value for x as -9.5

III. Math.max( ): This function is used to find the maximum of two given arguments. It returns a
value depending upon the arguments (i.e., if the two arguments are integer types then return value
is integer).
Syntax: <Return Data type><variable> = Function name (argument 1, argument 2);
e.g.:
int n=Math.max(4, 8);
It will return an integer type maximum value for n as 8.
double n=Math.max(12.7, 8.4);
This will return a double type maximum value for n as 12.7
double x=Math.max(-67.66, -97.45);
This function returns a double type value for x as -67.66

IV. Math.pow(): This function is used to find the power raised to a specified base (number). It
always returns a double type value.
Syntax: <Return Data type><variable> = Function name (number 1, number 2);
e.g.:
double d= Math.pow(2.0, 3.0);
The function returns a double type value to d as 2.03.0= 8.0 double d= Math.pow(5.0, -2.0);
The value of d will be returned as a double value as 0.04

V. Math.log(): This function returns natural logarithmic value of a given argument. It always returns
a double type value.
Syntax: <Return Data type><variable> = Function name (Positive number);
e.g.:
double x = Math.log(6.25);
It returns a double type value to x as 1.8325

VI. Math.abs(): This function is used to return absolute value i.e., only magnitude of the
number. It returns int/long/double value depending upon the arguments supplied.
Syntax: <Retura Data type><variable> = Function name (number);
e.g:
int n = Math.abs(3); It returns an integer value to n as 3.
int n= Math. abs(-8); It returns an integer value to the variable n as 8.
double d=Math.abs(3.66); It returns a double type value to d as 3.66
double d=Math.abs(-9.99); It returns a double type value to d as 9.99

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VII. Math.round(): This function returns the value in rounded form. It always returns an integer data
type. If the fractional part of the number is below 0.5 it returns the same integer of the argument
otherwise, it returns the next integer value.
Syntax: <Return Data type><variable> = Function name (argument);
e.g.:
int n=Math.random(6.25); It will return an integer value to n as 6.
int n=Math.random(6.85); It will return an integer value to n as 7.
int n=Math.random(-8.92); It will return an integer value for n as -9.

VIII. Math.floor(): This function is also used round the given number. It returns a number down to
the nearest integer. The outcome is always a double type number.
Syntax: <Return Data type><variable> = Function name (argument);
e.g.:
double n=Math.floor(6.25); It returns a number for n as 6.0
int n=Math.floor(6.82); It returns a number for n as 6.0 only,
int n=Math.floor(-6.25); It will return a value for n as -7.0
int n=Math.floor(-6.85); It returns a value for n as -7.0

IX. Math.ceil(): This function also provides the rounded value to the next higher integer. It returns a
double type value.
Syntax: <Return Data type><variable> = Function name (argument);
e.g.:
double n=Math.ceil(6.25); It returns a value for n as 7.0
double n=Math.ceil(6.82); It returns a value for n as 7.0 only
double n=Math.ceil(-6.25) It returns a double value for n as -6.0
double n=Math.ceil(-6.85); It returns a double value for n as -6.0

X. Math.sin(), Math.cos(), Math.tan(): These are the trigonometrical functions. They are used to
find the sin, cos, tan values respectively of a given angle in radian as an argument.
Syntax: <Return Data type><variable> = Function name (Value in Radian);
e.g.:
double d = Math.sin(x);
double d = Math.cos(x);
double d = Math.tan(x);
Here, the argument x is an angle provided in radian. These functions return double type values.
Generally, the angles are measured in degrees. Thus, it is necessary to convert them from degree
to radian to perform the above task.

XI. Math.exp(): This function provides exponential value i.e. ex. it returns a double type value.
Syntax: <Return Data type><variable> = Function name (number);
e.g.:
double d= Math.exp(6.25); d results in 518.0128.

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XII. Math.rint(): It returns the truncated value of the number (i.e., the integer part of the number by
removing fractional part).
Syntax: <Return Data type><variable> = Function name (number);
e.g.:
double d=Math.rint(6.25); it returns a double value to d as 6.0
double d=Math.rint(8.92); it returns a double value to d as 8.0

XIII. Math.random(): This function returns a random number between 0 and 1. It returns a double
type value. Normally, the return value is a fractional number.
Syntax: <Return Data type><variable> = Function name ( ) only;
e.g.:
double d=Math.random( ); It will return any double value to d between 0 and 1.

Access Specifier

19. What is Access Specifier / Access Modifier? Describe its types with examples.
Java provides a number of access modifiers to set access levels for classes, variables, methods, and
constructors.
The four access levels are – private, public, protected, default
Example
In same Package In other Packages
Member Inside own
Type Class Inside sub Inside non Inside sub Inside non
classes sub classes classes sub classes
public Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
private Yes No No No No
protected Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Default Yes Yes Yes No No

 Private Access Modifier - private

 Private access modifier is the most restrictive access level.
 Members are accessible only inside their own class and nowhere else.
 Class and interfaces cannot be private.
Example
Consider the following class definitions :
package P1;
class A {
private int x; // declared as private data member can’t be used outside of class A
private void disp( ) { // declared as private function
System.out.println(“I am in class A”);
}
}
 Public Access Modifier - public
 A class, method, constructor, interface, etc. declared public can be accessed from any other class.
 However, if the public class we are trying to access is in a different package, then the public class
needs to be imported.
 The main() method of an application has to be public. Otherwise, it could not be called by a Java
interpreter.
Example

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 Consider the following class definitions :
package P1;
class A {
public int x; // declared as public data member and can be used anywhere
public void disp( ) { // declared as public function
System.out.println(“I am in class A”);
}}
 Protected Access Modifier – protected
 Members are accessible inside their own class in the same package as well as in all subclasses of
their class exist in the same package or any other package.
 Variables, methods, and constructors, which are declared protected in a superclass can be
accessed only by the subclasses in other package or any class within the package of the protected
members' class.
 The protected access modifier cannot be applied to class and interfaces.
Example
Consider the following class definitions:
package P1;
class A {
protected int x; // declared as protected data member and can’t be used outside of
package P1
protected void disp( ) { // declared as protected function
System.out.println(“I am in class A”);
}
}
 Default Access Modifier - No Keyword
 When the members of a class are declared without any access specifier then an java automatically
attach an access specifier to it called as default access specifier.
 These members are accessible within their own class as well as in the same package where it is
declared.
 These members are not accessible outside their package.
 The default modifier is more restrictive than protected.
Example
Consider the following class definitions :
package P1;
class A {
int x; // declared as default data member
void disp( ) { // declared as default function
System.out.println(“I am in class A”); }
}
}

INHERITANCE
20. What is Inheritance?
 The Mechanism of creating new classes from existing classes is called inheritance.
 The old class is known as base class or parent class or super class.
 The new class is known as derived class or child class or sub class
Need for Inheritance?
Inheritance is a wonderful concept of object oriented languages. There are several reasons why
inheritance was introduced into OOPs languages.
1. Code Reusability

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 Inheritance allows the addition of additional features to an existing class without modifying it.
We can derive a new class from an existing class and also we can add new features to it if
required.
2. Transitive nature of Inheritance
If a new class “C” has been declared as a sub class of “B” which is itself a sub class of “A”
then “C” will automatically inherit the properties of “B” as well as “A” . This property is
called transitive nature of inheritance.

21. Describe different types of Inheritance

There are 5 types of inheritance.
1. Single Inheritance
When a sub class inherits only from one base class, it is known as single inheritance.
e. g.
class A { Class Body }
class B extends A { Class Body }
2. Multilevel Inheritance
When a sub class inherits from a class that itself inherits from another class, it is known
multilevel inheritance. The transitive nature of inheritance is reflected by this form of
inheritance.
e.g.
class A { Class Body }
class B extends A { Class Body }
class C extends B { Class Body }
3. Hierarchical Inheritance
When many sub class inherits from a single base class, it is known as hierarchical inheritance.
e.g.
class A { Class Body }
class B extends A { Class Body }
class C extends A { Class Body }
4. Multiple Inheritance
 When a sub class inherits from multiple base classes, it is known as multiple
inheritance.
 Java does not directly support multiple inheritance.
 It can be implemented by concept of Interfaces.
5. Hybrid Inheritance
 It is the combination of any two of the above four inheritances. When a sub class
inherits from multiple base class and all of its base class inherits from a single base
class, this form of inheritance of known as hybrid inheritance.
 Hybrid inheritance is the combination of every type of inheritance that exist. As java
doesn't support multiple inheritance, hybrid inheritance also can't be implemented.
 Similarly, as multiple inheritance is implemented through interfaces, hybrid
inheritance can be implemented with the help of interface.

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22. Program on Single Inheritance
public class A { // Creating a Base Class named A
int x;
public void disp()
{
System.out.println("Class A");
}
} //end of class A
public class B extends A{ // Creating a Derieved Class named B
int y;
void show()
{
System.out.println("Class B");
}
} //end of class B
class Trial
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
B ob =new B();
ob.x=10;
ob.y=5;
System.out.println("x = "+ob.x);
System.out.println("y = "+ob.y);
ob.show();
ob.disp();
}
}

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Output :
x = 10
y=5
Class B
Class A

23. Program on Multilevel Inheritance

public class A { // Creating a Base Class named A
int x;
public void showA()
{
System.out.println("Class A");
}
} // end of class A
public class B extends A{ // Creating a Derived Class named B from A
int y;
void showB()
{
System.out.println("Class B");
} // end of class B
public class C extends B{ //Creating a Derived Class named C from B
int z;
void showC( )
{
System.out.println("Class C");
} // end of class C

Class Trial
{
public static void main(String args[ ])
{
C oc =new C( );
oc.x=10;
oc.y=5;
oc.z=20;
System.out.println("x = "+oc.x);
System.out.println("y = "+oc.y);
System.out.println("a = "+oc.z);
oc.showA( );
oc.showB( );
oc.showC( );
}
} // end of class Trial
Output
x = 10
y=5
a = 20
Class A
Class B
Class C

24. Program on Hierarchical Inheritance

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 public class A { // Creating a Base Class named A
int x;
public void disp()
{
System.out.println("Class A");
}
} // end of class A

public class B extends A{ // Creating a Derived Class named B from A

int y;
void showB()
{
System.out.println("Class B");
}
} // end of class B

public class C extends A{ // Creating a Derived Class named C from A

int z;
void showC()
{
System.out.println("Class C");
}
} // end of class C

class Trial
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
B ob =new B( );
C oc= new C( );
ob.x=10;
ob.y=15;
oc.x=20;
oc.z=25;
System.out.println("x = "+ob.x);
System.out.println("y = "+ob.y);
ob.showA( );
ob.showB( );
System.out.println("x = "+oc.x);
System.out.println("z = "+oc.z);
oc.showA( );
oc.showC( );
}
}
// end of class Trial
Output
x = 10
y=5
Class A
Class B

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 x = 20
y = 25
Class A
Class C

25. Why multiple inheritance is not supported by JAVA

 To avoid the ambiguity (confusion) java does not support multiple inheritance.
 Suppose there is a classes B which is inherited from class A and C (as shown in the figure).

A C

 Assume that both the class A and C contains a method called display(), and it needs to be
overridden in derived class B.
 Then which class’s method will be overridden?
 To avoid such confusions java does not support multiple inheritance.

Extra Read

Sub Class and Super Class (for MCQ)

 A derived class or a sub class has to identify the class from which it is derived i.e, its base
class or super class.
 A sub class is defined by using the key word extends along with super/base class name in
addition to its own details.
 The syntax of defining a derived/sub class is given below:
class <sub class-name> extends <super-class-name> {
members of sub class
}
For example, consider the following class definitions :
class A {
int x;
char y;
void disp( ) {
System.out.println(“I am in class A”); }
}
class B extends A{
int p,q; //New member of sub class
void show( ) {
System.out.println(“I am in class B”);
}
}
Here B is sub or derived class of A which is the base or super class.
INTERFACES
 An interface is basically a kind of class but not exactly a class.
 Like classes, interfaces contain methods and variables but with a major difference. The
difference is that interfaces define only abstract methods and final variables.

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  The aim of interfaces in Java is to dictate common behavior among objects from different
classes.
 The syntax for defining an interface is very similar to that for defining a class. The general
form of an interface definition is;
interface interface_name{
interface_body;
}
 The keyword interface begins the definition.
 The interface body can only declare two things:
1. Abstract Methods: The methods with an empty body(Only the signature of the methods
is declared).
2. Constants: Variables which cannot be modified; they have to be declared with the
modifier public static final.
POLYMORPHISM
 The word “Polymorphism” originates from Greek language and means many forms.
 Polymorphism is the capability of an action or method to do different things based on the
object that it is acting upon.
 Polymorphism are of two types. Such as compile time polymorphism and runtime
polymorphism.
 Compile time polymorphism is also called as Static binding or early binding (e.g Method
Overloading).
 Rum time polymorphism is also called as Dynamic binding or Late binding (e.g Method
Overriding).
 Method Overloading
It simply refers to the ability to define several methods to have the same name within a particular
class with different signatures (arguments and return type) so that the JVM can easily calls the
appropriate methods. Following are the examples of overloaded methods.
long Math.max(long a, long b)
long Math.max(int a, int b)
long Math.max(double a, double b)
long Math.max(float a, float b)
 Method Overriding
Method Overriding means whenever a subclass has a method with the same signature as a method in
one of its super class then the method in the derived class is said to be overrides the method of its
super class.

More about Inheritance in JAVA(to be remember) (for bit Question Answer)

 Every class declared in java is direct or indirect subclass of a class Object defined in java.lang
package. That means even if we declare a class which is not inheriting from any other class
(i.e no extends clause), the new class has a super class i.e the class Object
 Java allows only single, hierarchical and multilevel inheritance, which means that a class at
most one immediate super class
 Multiple Inheritance is not supported by Java.
 Every class in java has one and only one immediate or direct super class but might have
several subclasses.
 The inheritance relation is transitive. Therefore, every class inherits state and behavior from
all classes which are higher in the class hierarchy(direct and indirect super class).

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