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SolarPro_4.4

The document discusses various aspects of solar energy technology, focusing on performance guarantees for PV systems, solar thermal commissioning, and advancements in solar module technology. It highlights the importance of solar trackers for efficiency gains and outlines best practices for solar thermal systems. Additionally, it features interviews with industry professionals and showcases innovative products and solutions for utility-scale solar power plants.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
19 views108 pages

SolarPro_4.4

The document discusses various aspects of solar energy technology, focusing on performance guarantees for PV systems, solar thermal commissioning, and advancements in solar module technology. It highlights the importance of solar trackers for efficiency gains and outlines best practices for solar thermal systems. Additionally, it features interviews with industry professionals and showcases innovative products and solutions for utility-scale solar power plants.

Uploaded by

solutions418
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
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June/July 2011 Galvanic Corrosion Guidelines for PV Structures

O p t i m a l D e s i g n , I nstallation & Perfor mance solarprofessi o n a l . c o m

Array Trackers
Increase Energy Yield &
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Managing Risks and
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Best Practices for
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Interview:
Raghu Belur
Enphase Energy
Establishing a
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Contents June/July 2011 Issue 4.4

Fe a tu re s
56 PV Performance Guarantees:
Managing Risks & Expectations
28 PV Trackers Performance guarantees are widely used in the com-
In an era where 1%-2% efficiency gains define an mercial solar industry, yet they are frequently misun-
inverter’s competitive differentiation, and efficiency derstood. Their purpose, however, is no mystery. A
deltas from module to module max out around 12%, PV performance guarantee contract is the tool used
utilizing a solar tracker can result in a whopping to give the at-risk owner confidence that the system
20%–40% increase in accrued kWh compared to a and investment will perform as expected.
fixed-tilt system. Are trackers the best answer for large By Mat Taylor and David Williams
ground-mounted PV arrays?
By Stephen Smith
74 Turning on the Heat:

28
Solar Thermal System
Commissioning
Low natural gas prices and lack of public
awareness of solar thermal technologies
are the two most oft-cited barriers to signifi-
cant expansion of the industry within
the US. The technology’s public profile
can be greatly improved with the deploy-
ment of high-performance solar heating
systems that are professionally and
methodically commissioned.
By Justin Weil and Patrick O’Boyle

56
74

6 S O L ARPRO | June/July 2011


Contents 2 June/July 2011 Issue 4.4

D e p a r t m ent s
FRONT END

94 10

14
Contributors Experience + Expertise

QA Quality Assurance
Galvanic Corrosion Considerations for
PV Arrays

22 The Wire Industry Currents

BACK END
94 Interview An Experienced Perspective
Raghu Belur, Enphase Energy

100 98 Training Continuing Education for the Pro

100 Projects System Profiles


LoyaltyOne, Mississauga, Ontario
CherryWood Village Retirement Community,
Portland, OR

103 Advertiser Index

f On the Cover Thirty Mecasolar MS-2 Tracker 10


dual-axis trackers are deployed at the Reclamation District
108 Solar Farm in Knights Landing, CA. Foundations for the
trackers elevate the arrays above the Sacramento River’s 100-
year flood plain. Bob Parkins, director of engineering for Solar
Development, led the project team, with electrical installation
by Butterfield Electric and structural work by Ascent Builders.

22 The 386 kW array utilizes 1,680 Trina Solar modules.


Photo courtesy Solar Development

8 S O L ARPRO | June/July 2011


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Quality
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Blake Gleason, PE
Technical Editor/Solar Thermal Systems Chuck Marken
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12 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
QA Quality Assurance

Galvanic Corrosion Considerations for PV Arrays

P
hotovoltaic modules are next to zinc or aluminum. Another of the S-5! mounting clamp, provides
designed for an operational way to read this is that steel corrodes a word of caution about using the
life span of more than 25 years next to brass and stainless steel, while galvanic scale. “Some installers might
in the field. The design of the entire aluminum and zinc corrode next to steel want to use the galvanic scale to iden-
installation, not just these expensive when an electrolyte and a conductive tify dissimilar metals, but the graphi-
components, should target a similar path are present. cal galvanic scale is not always a good
life span. The focus here is to describe Every metal has a standard electri- way to determine whether one metal
the potential impact of galvanic corro- cal potential (voltage) based on its abil- is compatible with another,” he says.
sion on array structures and to identify ity to release or accept electrons when “When metals oxidize, the oxide layer
best practices to minimize this impact. in contact with a dissimilar metal and created is a new material that may or
While some visible cosmetic corrosion an electrolyte. In reality, the galvanic may not exhibit the electrochemical
effects over time may be tolerable, the system is more dynamic than most characteristics of the parent material.”
failure of structural components is published material on voltage-potential In general, the greater the potential
clearly not. data suggests. The actual reaction that between two metals, the greater the
takes place between two metals in the driving force of the galvanic circuit and
The Galvanic Series environment is dependent on electro- the more rapid the corrosion rate. If the
Galvanic corrosion is the result of an lyte concentration, pH, temperature potential is small, the driving force may
electrochemical reaction. For galvanic and other factors. Rob Haddock from be of no consequence. Whether or not
corrosion to take place, four things Metal Roof Innovations, manufacturer a metal serves as an anode or a cathode
must exist simultaneously: an anode, a is determined by the neighboring

A d a p t ed f ro m A d va n ce d Mat er i al s , Man u f a ct ur i n g , an d Te st i n g I n f o r m a t i o n A n a l y s i s Ce n t e r
cathode, an electrolyte and a con-
ductive path between two pieces of
Galvanic Series materials. The local environment
also influences the reaction.
Magnesium Active (Anode)
metal. A galvanic circuit is created Moisture provides the electro-
in which the anode loses electrons to Zinc ▲ lyte that enables galvanic corro-
the cathode with the assistance of the Galvanized Steel sion to occur. Generally speaking,
electrolyte. The galvanic cell created by Aluminum as humidity increases, so does the
two dissimilar metals and the presence Mild Steel rate of corrosion. Atmospheric
of the electrolyte operates only in one Cast Iron contaminants, such as chlorides
direction. Consequently, the anode (in marine environments) and
Lead
eventually disintegrates. sulfur dioxide and nitrous oxides
Brass
In PV installations, the anode and (in industrial locations), are
cathode consist of metals, such as stain- Copper deposited on array structures.
less steel, copper and aluminum. Water Bronze Once deposited, the contaminants
commonly serves as the electrolyte. Monel react with oxygen and water and
Whether galvanic corrosion is a seri- Nickel (passive) typically increase corrosion rates
ous problem depends on the potential Stainless Steel 304 (passive) by releasing electrons from the
failure point. For a PV installation, the metal’s surface. It is interesting to
Stainless Steel 316 (passive)
long-term effects of corrosion can range note that corrosion rates can be
Silver
from unsightly finishes to racking or effectively decreased in areas of
fastener failure. Titanium high rainfall, as contaminants are
The more dissimilar the metals, as Gold regularly washed away from the
reflected by their relative position in the Graphite structural materials.
galvanic series (see Table 1), the greater Platinum Noble (Cathode)
the corrosion potential in the galvanic Corrosion Mitigation
circuit. The general rule is to avoid Table 1 The similarity of metals is indicated Guidelines
joining metals far apart in the galvanic by their relative position in the galvanic series. The Advanced Materials, Manu-
series. For example, steel is anodic next The more dissimilar the metals, the greater the facturing and Testing Informa-
to brass, and stainless steel is cathodic corrosion potential in a galvanic circuit. tion Analysis c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 1 6

14 S o l a r pr o | June/July 2011
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Center’s Guide to Corrosion Prevention 70
G210
and Control (download at ammtiac.
60
alionscience.com/pdf/Corrosion_ G165 rural
Hdbk_S2.pdf ) suggests some general 50

Service life (years)


best practices. G140 suburban
temperate
• Use only one material to fabricate 40 marine
G90
electrically isolated systems or
30
components where practical. G60 industrial
• If mixed-metal systems are used, G40

Co u r t e sy G a lv I nfo C e nte r
20
select combinations of metals tropical
10
as close together as possible in the marine
galvanic series, or select metals 0
that are galvanically compatible. 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00
• Avoid the unfavorable area effect
Zinc thickness per side (mils) (1.00 mil = 25.4 microns = 0.595 oz/ft2 = 182 g/m2 )
of a small anode and large cathode.
Small parts or critical components
Figure 1 The service life for hot-dip galvanized finishes depends on the environmen-
such as fasteners should be the
tal conditions of its installation.
more noble metal.
• Insulate dissimilar metals wher- together on the galvanic scale, select Guidelines established by Unirac
ever practical, such as when using the appropriate protective coatings for include data provided by the GalvInfo
a gasket. It is important to insulate an installation’s environmental condi- Center (galvinfo.com), which hosts the
completely if possible. tions, reduce the contact area between Zinc Coating Life Predictor, a calcula-
• Apply coatings with caution. dissimilar metals and physically tor that incorporates rainfall, salin-
Keep the coatings in good repair, isolate dissimilar metals with noncon- ity, sulfur dioxide, relative humidity,
particularly the one on the ductive, nonporous materials. temperature and sheltering as factors
anodic material. Material coatings. While the galvanic in predicting coating life. Steve Bauer,
• Avoid threaded joints for materials series showcases relative reactivity, applications engineering manager at
far apart in the series. coatings trump the raw metal potential. Unirac, recommends hot-dip galvaniza-
• Design for the use of readily Corrosion is most often combated with tion for steel structural components. As
replaceable anodic parts, or make paints, electroplating or other coatings shown in Figure 1, a thicker galvaniza-
them thicker for longer life. such as hot-dip galvanization. If intact tion coating provides greater protec-
How does this translate to practice? and properly maintained, the coating tion. The minimum coating for steel
Since an anode, a cathode, an elec- prevails in the material interactions and array structures is a G90 coating that
trolyte and a conductive path are limits potential galvanic corrosion. is approximately 0.75 mils thick. The
necessary to create a galvanic cell, The aluminum used in module coating’s service life varies consider-
controlling those four elements can frames and array rails is anodized to ably based on a project’s location and
decrease the rate of corrosion. increase the material’s corrosion resis- environmental conditions, so thicker
Ideally, one could eliminate the tance. Aluminum naturally builds up an galvanization may be necessary.
anode or cathode by using only one oxide layer when exposed to oxygen. The Coatings should be repaired if dam-
metal type for the array structure. anodizing creates a thicker oxide layer, aged, especially if they are on an anodic
Controlling the electrolyte is not so which acts as a barrier to corrosion. material such as steel. When galva-
practical. If the electrolyte (moisture) In some cases, one metal’s corro- nized channel is cut in the field, always
is removed, the likelihood of corrosion sion potential is used to protect another apply cold-galvanizing paint to protect
decreases significantly. This is why PV metal. For example, galvanized channel the steel. Since the occasional paint
systems installed in desert climates are is protected by a zinc coating. The zinc scratch is practically unavoidable during
less prone to galvanic corrosion than in the galvanized coating reacts with installation, repair or restore a chipped
those located in more humid environ- the atmosphere to create layers of zinc coating whenever possible. Unsightly
ments. Unfortunately, we can only plan oxide and zinc carbonate, protecting the rust can be reduced and the service life
to have weather, not control it. steel underneath it. When used adjacent of the product extended. More than one
The most practical ways to reduce to other metals, the galvanized steel product manufacturer recommends
the potential for galvanic corrosion coating sacrifices itself to protect other, suitable paint for maintenance of a com-
are to choose metals that are close more structurally important metals. promised coating. c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 1 8

16 S o l a r pr o | June/July 2011
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Contact surface area. The rate of cor- Isolation strategies. When in doubt, EPDM rubber can be used to iso-
rosion depends primarily on where two seek ways to physically and electrically late dissimilar metals, whether built
or more dissimilar metals fall in the gal- separate potentially problematic metal into the washer or inserted as a sepa-
vanic series and the amount of electro- combinations. Using rubber washers to rate material sheet. Certain plastics
lyte present. The metals’ surface contact isolate galvanized screws from painted may suffice if they are rated for out-
area is also an important consideration, steel sheet goods is common practice door conditions. Some installers have
since it determines the ratio of cathode in the roofing industry. Stainless steel more confidence in EPDM roofing
to anode. Keep in mind that the galvanic washers with an ethylene propylene materials than in plastics, even if the
cell is in solution. By overwhelming the diene monomer (EPDM) gasket already plastic material selected is designed to
solution with anodic material—but lim- adhered are commonly available at sustain UV exposure.
iting the cathodic component—the solu- hardware supply houses. Fastener selection. The major selec-
tion becomes saturated with electrons Metal channel manufacturers have tion you need to make is fastening
and corrosion is limited. introduced products that isolate cop- hardware. Since many corrosion events
In the reverse condition, as in steel per from the steel channel by way of take place at a bolted connection, the
nails used to fasten a copper mate- plastic clamps. These are designed for integrity of each connection is a legiti-
rial, the cathode dominates with its plumbers who are clamping copper mate concern. The fastener selected
ability to absorb or dissolve any and pipe to steel strut, whether electro- should not be anodic in relation to the
all electrons offered by the anode. For plated with zinc or hot-dip galvanized. structural members. In PV applications,
example, if zinc-coated steel roofing Cooper B-Line Iso-Pipe isolation wrap stainless fasteners commonly available
nails are used to secure copper flash- and isolating clamps such as Vibra- as 18-8 variety meet this requirement.
ing, the nails quickly fail. It is best to Clamps also provide material isolation Always consider the points of
avoid using a small amount of anode and eliminate the metal-to-metal con- contact. Thoroughly review the prod-
(steel) in contact with a large amount tact that can start the galvanic corro- uct manufacturer’s specification sheets
of cathode (copper). sion process. and installation manuals and look for

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18 S o l a r pr o | June/July 2011
opportunities to exceed the stated goal the potential for galvanic corrosion into account the climate where the
in these instructions. For example, REC between the fastener and the aluminum array is located. In addition, consult
Solar product literature recommends the structure. with material trade associations, such
use of stainless steel fasteners to prevent The cost of materials is always a as the American Galvanizers Associa-
galvanic corrosion, but also allows for factor. While metal prices change on tion (galvanizeit.org). They can offer
galvanized or zinc-plated fasteners. Sharp a regular basis due to market factors, sound guidance and summaries of past
Solar, in a recent addendum on ground- at the time of writing aluminum strut research related to galvanic corrosion.
ing, recommends stainless steel hardware channel costs twice as much as galva- Field Inspection Guidelines for PV
only. Cooper B-Line recommends the use nized channel, and stainless steel chan- Systems, written by Bill Brooks of Brooks
of stainless steel hardware with its alumi- nel is four times the cost of galvanized. Engineering (available from Interstate
num channel. According to Tom Young at For hardware, stainless steel fasteners Renewable Energy Council, irecusa.org),
DPW Solar, the intent of using stainless are about four times more expensive calls out the importance of proper array
steel fasteners is “to keep them less active than their zinc-plated counterparts. structure materials selection and instal-
than the materials they’re fastening.” lation. According to Brooks: “Histori-
While stainless steel has become Long-Term Durability cally, in the California market due to the
commonplace in PV hardware Always carefully consider the metals low corrosion rates, dissimilar metals
assemblies, the new Dura-Con line of specified for your PV installation. Focus are commonly seen in contact with one
fasteners offered by Mudge Fasteners on long-term durability, and pay close another. The fact that installations often
employs coatings that reportedly meet attention to mechanical connections have this error should not be seen as
or exceed the performance of stain- that may be susceptible to galvanic cor- license to continue a practice that can
less steel. According to Paul Mudge, rosion and possible structural failures have severe consequences in high corro-
the new line of nuts, bolts, washers and after 10 or 20 years in service. Consult sion environments.”
lag bolts offers a lower-cost alternative with equipment manufacturers regard- —Erika Weliczko / REpower SOLUTIONS /
to stainless steel hardware and reduces ing installation best practices that take Cleveland, OH / repowersolutions.com

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Some of the brands we proudly represent:
the Wire Industry Currents

U.S. Solar Market Insight Published


[Washington, DC] Growth in the solar industry is the
highlight of the 2010 year-in-review report published
by the Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA) and
GTM Research. In the executive summary, available
for free download, the two groups report that the US
solar industry as a whole grew by 67% over the previ-
ous year. The report is broken out into three market
segments: PV, concentrating solar power (CSP) and
solar heating and cooling (SHC).
The report indicates that the installed capacity of
grid-connected PV systems grew to 878 MW in 2010, a
102% increase over 2009. The largest growth sector was
in utility-scale PV, growing from an installed capacity
of 70 MW in 2009 to 242 MW in 2010. The PV industry
saw a relatively even distribution among the residential,
nonresidential and utility markets, helping to keep the out the installations into solar water and space heating
industry balanced. Even with the strong growth, the US (SWH) and solar pool heating (SPH) applications. The
market share in global installations fell from 6.5% in 2009 report indicates more modest gains for SWH, with 5%
to 5% in 2010. annual growth. The SPH industry saw a small gain as
The CSP and SHC components of the report show well, after 3 years of decline.
promising growth as well. Only three CSP projects came The executive summary does a good job of outlining
online in 2010 for a total of 77.5 MWac. This may not the big picture for all technologies. The full report can
seem impressive, but considering that the CSP industry be purchased directly through GTM and includes more
did not see any installations between 1992 and 2006, in-depth information and analysis.
this growth is good news. For SHC, the report breaks SEIA / 202.682.0556 / seia.org

Electrical Tool Tether Products Available


[Ventura, CA] The tether products from Hammerhead Industries were designed to help
reduce workplace accidents caused by falling tools. Its Gear Keeper line of products
includes retractable tethers and energy absorbing lanyards that accommodate tools and
instruments weighing up to 30 pounds. Products can be configured to match the needs
of nearly any user. The retractable tethers include a flushing mechanism that automatically
clears any collected debris from the retractor. There are options for belt clips that offer
360° rotation, allowing a full range of motion for your tools, and shoulder strap
clips that allow tools to slide along the strap for convenience and safety.
Hammerhead Industries / 888.588.9981 / gearkeeper.com

22 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
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the Wire
Unirac Releases Flat Flashing
[Albuquerque, NM] In an effort to increase quality and simplicity in racking installa-
tions, Unirac has introduced its Flat Flashing. This two-part flashing is intended for use
on any composition asphalt shingle roof and requires sealant only when the installer

Snake Tray feels it is necessary. The 8-inch-by-12-inch flashing has a factory-installed gasket to
seal the lag screw penetration point. The flashing also comes standard with a square

Provides Wire aluminum plate, which gives the L foot a solid


surface to sit on and places the

Management gasket in compression to


create a positive
seal. The
[Bay Shore, NY] Snake Tray flashing is
offers two products specifically compatible with
for the PV market. Solar Snake all Unirac roof-mount
Tray options are available for and tilt-up arrays.
low-slope roof applications Unirac / 505.242.6411 / unirac.com
and ground-mount instal-
lations. The rooftop tray is
manufactured with stainless

Power-One Introduces
3-Phase String Inverters
[Camarillo, CA] The Aurora Trio 10 kW and 12 kW inverters incorpo-
rate 3-phase output for use in commercial applications. Similar to the
steel and is hand-bendable, smaller residential units from Power-
allowing the tray to be easily One, the Trio inverters offer dual dc input
routed around obstacles. The sections, each with an independent
built-in mounting rings and MPPT, allowing for greater flexibility
in system design and installation. The
stainless steel hardware aid in
enclosures are rated at NEMA 4X and
the installation process and
have integrated disconnects. Power-
allow for connection to equip-
One offers a standard 10-year warranty
ment, securing the tray in
with an option for 15 or 20 years. The
place. The “lobster trap” design
10 kW unit has options for 208, 480 and
allows easy placement of the
600 Vac, and the 12 kW is available in
conductors and securely holds 480 or 600 Vac. All inverters in this line
them in place. The ground- include nighttime disconnect to help
mount solution is a UL classi- reduce tare losses. In January 2011,
fied cable management system Power-One also celebrated the opening
and can span 30 feet between of its Phoenix, Arizona, manufacturing
the integrated supports. It facility that is expected to employ 350
includes a mounting rail for people. The facility will produce 1 GW of
combiner box installation and inverters by the end of the year and has
is available in stainless steel room to expand to 4 GW.
or hot-dip galvanized steel. Power-One / 805.987.8741 / power-one.com
Snake Tray / 800.308.6788 /
snaketray.com

24 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
July 12–14, 2011
North America’s Premier
Exhibition and Conference for the Solar Industry
Moscone Center, San Francisco

800 Exhibitors
1,600 Conference Attendees
22,000+ Visitors

Co-located with
www.intersolar.us
the Wire
Breaker-Based
Combiners
Offered
Flir Imaging
[San Jose, CA] Bentek Solar
Cameras Aid O&M
offers a full line of string [Boston, MA] A thermal imaging camera can be a great addition
combiners and recombiners to most integrator’s tool belts. These cameras allow you to visualize
for residential, commercial and analyze temperatures of mechanical and electrical equipment and
and utility-scale projects. They quickly identify problem areas. While imaging cameras are not specifically
have added a new line of circuit designed for PV or solar thermal applications, they can provide valuable
breaker–based recombiners insight into unexpected problems. The Flir i-Series, consisting of the i-3,
targeting commercial-scale i-5 and i-7, offers intuitive designs at a lower cost. These cameras have
projects at 250 kW to 1 MW. The precise temperature measurements and the ability to transfer data collected
600 Vdc breakers serve as the on-site to a computer for full inclusion in reports. The E-Series of cameras
overcurrent protection as well offers higher screen resolution and includes a 3-megapixel camera. The
as the disconnecting means. E-series also provides a wireless connection to mobile devices, such as the
The enclosures are available in iPhone and iPad, and can transmit data between Meterlink-enabled
measurement instruments, such as digital multimeters.
Flir / 800.464.6372 / flir.com

Valentin Software
Releases Revisions
[Carlsbad, CA] Valentin
Software, producers of design
steel and stainless steel con- and modeling software for
figurations with NEMA 3R or 4 the PV and solar thermal
ratings. A NEMA 4X enclosure industries, released version
is available in fiberglass. The 5.0 for its PV*Sol Expert
recombiners come in two clas- program and 5.0 for T*Sol
sifications. One accommodates Pro. The PV*Sol revision
two, three or four inputs, and introduces the ability to
breaker ratings range from 80 to incorporate a digital image of
400 amps. The other accepts up the proposed array location
to six strings inputs protected so it can be represented
with either 100, 200 or 400 amp- virtually and all roof dimensions can be analyzed. The new version
rated breakers. Bentek offers also includes a number of additions to the drawing library, allowing
options for smart combiners, the placement of site-specific obstructions to the modeling program
integrating modbus connec- and automatic optimization of array angles and interrow distances.
tions for monitoring options, The new version of T*Sol is focused on the US thermal market, allow-
and makes combiners to order. ing users to model systems based on US cities and commonly avail-
Bentek Solar / 866.505.0303 / able products, including Solar Rating and Certification Corporation
bentek.com (SRCC) certified collectors. T*Sol 5.0 also includes new screen design
and graphics features.
Valentin Software / 888.786.9455 / valentin-software.com

26 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
“ Thanks to Quick Mount PV, the alliance between
roofing and solar is stronger than ever.

Chip Upshaw, Fidelity Roof

3rd Generation Roofer Relies on Quick Mount PV


Ernest Upshaw said it when he founded Fidelity Roof in 1948: COMPOSITION SHAKE
“We’re in the business of keeping people dry.” Thousands
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words to heart.
When he introduced solar
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B
y aiming a solar generating source at the sun throughout the solar
day, tracking systems increase energy harvest more than any other
BOS components. Given their highly prominent role in squeezing
as many usable electrons out of a group of solar panels as possible,
why do some solar integrators, financiers and developers shy away from spec-
ifying tracker systems? Why do some consider trackers obsolete and prime
candidates for the cost-chopping guillotine on the race to grid parity?

PV Trackers In an era when 1%–2% efficiency gains define an inverter’s


module to module, utilizing a solar tracker can result in a

By Stephen Smith
Co u r t e s y S u n P o we r C or p o r at i o n

28 S o l a r Pr o | October/November 2010
Trackers beautifully illustrate human ingenuity and appli- understand site-specific requirements. When this due
cations engineering. A solar tracker can elegantly remove a diligence is not followed, the results can be embarrassing.
significant constraint on a PV panel’s ability to capture light Tobin Booth, president and CEO of Blue Oak Energy, cau-
and convert it to electricity. So what is the deal? Are the tions: “Be aware that trackers may become fixed-tilt arrays
naysayer’s arguments valid or just a case of efficiency envy? before you are finished with the design.” However, diligence
Are trackers the best answer for large ground-mounted PV in matters regarding site-specific requirements ensures
arrays? The answer is fairly common in the dynamic and that viable projects move forward from concept to comple-
diverse solar industry—it depends. tion, which is the best way to further the acceptance of
My goal here is to help demystify trackers for on-site trackers throughout the solar industry.
power generation. Because print resources on this subject
are limited, I interviewed many industry subject matter
experts and share their insights along with my own. The History
pros and cons of tracking systems must be communicated Solar trackers have been around for almost 50 years. Steve
transparently. This requires realistic cost and performance Baer, a founder and former president of Zomeworks, says
numbers. At the same time, customers need guidance to he built his first passive tracker in 1968. “We only began

competitive differentiation and efficiency deltas max out around 12% from
whopping 20%–40% increase in accrued kWh compared to a fixed-tilt system.

Co u r t es y S P G S o la r a n d Xa n t e rr a P ar ks & R es o r t s

solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o 29
PV Trackers

Before the US grid-tied PV market


developed, the Track Rack and Watt-
sun products were primarily sold to
the residential off-grid market where
trackers were a particularly good match
for summer peak loads. Baer points to
stock watering as an example: “A tracker
enables greater use of a pump, well and
water trough.” As described by Wattsun
founder Ron Corio in Solar Cells and
Their Applications (see Resources), in
the 1980s and 1990s the evolution of the
PV tracker market “exhibited slow but
steady growth.”
The first large-scale solar track-
Courtesy Zomeworks

ers were built in 1983 on the Carrizo


Plains in California. (This happens to
be the same area chosen more recently
by industry behemoths First Solar and
SunPower for 750 MW of proposed solar
Passive tracking The Track Rack from Zomeworks follows the sun passively, power plants.) In 1977, ARCO Solar
using compressed fluid with a low boiling point. It was one of the earliest PV track- began manufacturing solar panels in
ers developed and sold commercially. response to the oil and energy crisis. A
few years later, ARCO leased land on
manufacturing passive trackers for sale in the late 1970s, the Carrizo Plains and assembled two intricately designed
when we figured Willard Geer’s patent on the idea had and controlled dual-axis tracker PV power plants, totaling
expired.” Track Rack, still in production today, is a non- 5.2 MW. However, power from these plants was sold to the
motorized pole-top tracker that uses refrigerant and alumi- grid at a mere $0.04 per kilowatt-hour. Since the plants were
num channel reflectors to shift PV panels toward the sun. not economically viable, they were eventually sold off and
In the 1980s, Array Technologies—which, like Zomeworks, is disassembled.
based in Albuquerque, New Mexico—began offering closed- New tracker design for PV power plants stagnated dur-
loop, optically controlled Wattsun solar trackers that are ing most of the Reagan era. As the solar market started
still produced today. its phoenix-like rise in the 1990s, a few c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 3 2

Horizontal single-axis tracker This


505 kW tracking PV system was
installed in 2005 at a Johnson & John-
son facility in Skillman, NJ, using Pow-
erLight’s PowerTracker. A prototype,
the MaxTracker by Shingleton Design,
was deployed as early as 1999. After
SunPower acquired PowerLight in 2006,
the PowerTracker was renamed the T0
(or tilt zero) tracker. It is reportedly the
C ou r t e s y S u n P ow er C or p o r at i o n

most widely deployed tracker system in


the world today.

30 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
 


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C o u r t e s y S u n P o w e r C or po r a ti o n PV Trackers

Tilted single-axis tracker Each electric linear actuator in the SunPower T20 tracker system—pictured here at the Greater
Sandhill Solar Farm in Mosca, CO—can drive up to 177 kW of PV mounted on up to 48 trackers. The driveline connections are
articulated to accommodate uneven terrain.

tracker products came to market. Early 1990s designs lacked modules and PowerLight’s proprietary PowerTracker. This
the standardization, reliability and, most importantly, the project, completed in late 2004, validated the possibility of
cost structure to be implemented on a large scale. Solar eco- building and financing utility-scale tracker projects.
nomics were (and still are) driven by the nature of various The PowerTracker is widely considered to be the pre-
subsidy programs. Prevalent programs in the 1990s were cursor to all large-scale single-axis tracker products. In its
based on system peak ratings (kWp) and not performance latest revision, the PowerTracker is called the T0 tracker
(kWh), so the increased capital investment for a tracker ( for tilt zero tracker) by SunPower, which purchased Power-
design made less financial sense. Light in 2006. According to Christiana Rattazzi, marketing
This all changed in Germany during the late 1990s. A manager for utility and power plants at SunPower, the T0 is
grassroots effort towards energy independence spurred the currently the most widely deployed single-axis PV tracker
creation of the Renewable Energy Sources Act. This land- system in the world. Subsequent efforts to improve on the
mark policy eventually highlighted a feed-in-tariff (FIT) pro- performance of the T0 single-axis tracker resulted in a
gram, a highly effective policy framework for accelerating tilted single-axis tracker system with a 20° tilt angle, the
the deployment of renewable energy. The key to its success is SunPower T20.
that a FIT provides a guaranteed financial return on invest- The message became quite clear to project developers:
ment based on the sale of energy to the utility grid. Gleaning maximum energy and thus maximum revenue from
Concurrently in the United States, PowerLight Corpora- utility-scale power plants was most feasible with solar trackers.
tion, the largest US-based systems integrator at the time, The German FIT kick-started the global solar industry and, in
orchestrated a deal with Shingleton Design, a small engi- turn, the PV tracker industry. Installed solar capacity doubled
neering firm, to jointly license and distribute Shingleton’s annually between 2003 and 2008. FIT policy structures were
single-axis tracker invention: the MaxTracker. It was sub- approved in Spain, South Korea, Greece, Australia and Italy
sequently rebranded as the PowerLight PowerTracker. This in the following years. Within 6 years of Bavaria Solar One’s
innovative single-axis tracker used only one small motor to completion, there were over 100 manufacturers selling trackers
rotate nearly 200 kW of PV modules. PowerLight’s timing to the global market. The success of PV trackers was so over-
in bringing this product to market was impeccable. Within whelming that Paula Mints, principal PV analyst at Navigant
a year of the deal, PowerLight contracted to install what Consulting, is widely quoted as having predicted that between
was the largest solar park in the world, the 10 MW Bavaria 2009 and 2012 tracking systems would be used in at least 80% of
Solar One project in Germany, which employed Sharp Solar PV installations above 1 MW. c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 3 4

32 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
Nature provides us with the gift of energy through the sun, but unfortunately, nature’s wrath may not be all that friendly to your
PV system under stressful conditions. Snow, wind, extreme heat or cold, and seismic activities can wreak havoc on underengineered,
underdesigned and insufficiently tested racking structures. Only UNIRAC solar structures have been engineered and third-party
tested to withstand the harshest of elements and events for a long and enduring service life. Complies with IBC, IRC, ASCE-7-05, ADM,
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Not just for sunny days.


PV Trackers

Direct-point tracker The


concentrated PV technology
from Amonix uses acrylic
Fresnel lenses to concentrate
direct sunlight up to 500
times its usual intensity onto
high-efficiency multijunction
solar cells. Each proprietary
tracker carries the equivalent
of 53 kWac and uses highly
accurate dual-axis tracking
to follow the sun’s position
within 1°.
C o u r t e s y A m on i x

The three main single-axis tracker subcategories—horizon-


Tracker Types tal, vertical and tilted—are differentiated by the relationship of
In general, trackers can be broken down according to motive the axis of rotation relative to the ground.
method (passive or active) and the number of axes in which Horizontal single-axis tracker. This is the most common
they move (single or dual). Active trackers use motors to move single-axis tracker design. As the name suggests, a hori-
their solar generating source from horizon to horizon. Pas- zontal tracker rotates east-to-west on an axis parallel to
sive trackers employ the heating and cooling of refrigerant- the ground. This type of tracker is typically characterized
like liquid/gas elements and reflective mirrors to tilt the by a small drive motor connected to a long central drive
tracking array towards the sun. Passive trackers are less arm running east-west between rows of panels mounted
accurate than active trackers. However, accuracy is less on steel tubes. The drive member connects to the panel
important for flat-plate PV arrays, which generate power tubes via welded or bolted connections. As the drive mem-
with global horizontal irradiance, the sum of both direct ber is pushed or pulled via an assortment of mechanisms,
normal irradiance and diffuse horizontal irradiance, than it it slowly moves its panels from east to west throughout the
is for concentrated or concentrating solar technologies. day. Planarity keeps all array panels pointing uniformly and
The next delineation between tracker types is the num- maintains a geometry that reduces motor maintenance
ber of axes in which they move. Single-axis trackers follow over time. By maintaining the planarity of an entire hori-
the sun using one axis of rotation; dual-axis trackers follow zontal tracker array, designers can ensure equalized loading
the sun in two axes. on the tracker’s motor. Because horizontal trackers can be
packed closely together without excessive self-shading, they
Single-Axis Trackers can achieve relatively high power densities per acre. Typi-
PV trackers designed with a single axis of rotation account cal horizontal single-axis tracker systems in North America
for the most installed capacity globally. In the US, SunPower include the DuraTrack HZ from Array Technologies, the T0
has built several large PV systems using single-axis trackers, from SunPower and the SunSeeker from TTI.
including 25 MW of T0 trackers at the DeSoto Energy Center, Vertical single-axis tracker. These trackers rotate east to
15 MW of T20 trackers at Nellis Air Force Base in Nevada and west with an axis perpendicular to the ground. Because
19 MW of T20 trackers at the recently commissioned Greater their profile is not parallel to the ground, vertical trackers
Sandhill Solar Farm in Mosca, Colorado. Other notable have an easier time maintaining a consistent angle of solar
single-axis tracker manufacturers are Array Technologies, incidence when the sun is lower in the sky. This is of par-
First Solar (RayTracker), Patriot Solar Group, SunCarrier (a ticular benefit in northern latitudes, for example, between
division of a+f GmbH), and Thompson Technology Indus- 40° and 55°. However, unlike planar horizontal arrays, verti-
tries (TTI). cal field layouts must accommodate the c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 3 6

34 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
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PV Trackers

vertical tracker’s taller profile and spread units out to avoid The mammoth proprietary dual-axis tracker from Amonix
self-shading and unnecessary energy losses. As a result, supports a concentrated PV array rated at 53 kWac. Arrays
vertical single-axis trackers tend to have a relatively lower are constructed with galvanized steel and usually mounted
power density per acre. At the residential or small commer- on a single central pole supported by a concrete foundation.
cial scale, vertical single-axis tracking is typified by solutions Dual-axis arrays tend to be taller with increased wind and
like the Wattsun single-axis azimuth trackers from Array structural loading. These trackers also need to be spread out
Technologies. At the utility scale, SunCarrier’s massive verti- to alleviate shading, which decreases the relative power den-
cal single-axis trackers that rotate to follow the sun using a sity per acre compared to horizontal single-axis trackers or
circular rail system are capable of carrying 20 kW to 50 kW fixed-tilt mounting.
of PV per tracker.
Tilted single-axis tracker. In some cases, the axis of rotation
for a single-axis tracker is neither horizontal nor vertical, but Financial Considerations
is optimized at a fixed tilt somewhere in between, such as 20° Whether the use of a tracker makes financial sense can be
or 30°. Tilted single-axis trackers have some of the advantages boiled down to a simple question: Is the productivity gain
of horizontal designs, such as the ability to be densely packed worth the additional cost associated with a tracking system?
per land unit. These trackers are also capable of significant Yield versus cost. Solar Cells and Their Applications, Sec-
energy harvest improvements relative to horizontal trackers. ond Edition includes a relatively current comparison of
In a subcontract report for NREL (see Resources), Jeff Shingle- fixed-tilt PV mounting to single- or dual-axis tracker mount-
ton notes: “The tilted-axis design of [SunPower’s] T20 allows ing for utility-scale applications. The authors of Chapter
for a 6–7% increase in performance over horizontal-axis track- 9—Ron Corio and Michael Reed of Array Technologies and
ers, and approaches the performance of dual-axis trackers.” Lewis Fraas of JX Crystals—consider historical, current and
However, because the optimal tilt angle in the US is at least future PV module and system cost scenarios and conclude
20°, tilted single-axis trackers are subject to increased wind that single-axis trackers typically improve PV plant perfor-
loading compared to horizontal units. Structural require- mance by 24% over fixed-tilt mounting while incurring a
ments are higher as a result, meaning more steel and concrete cost increase in the 3%–5% range. For dual-axis trackers, the
are used relative to a comparable horizontal array. Since tilted authors assume yield improvements of 38% but estimate a
single-axis arrays can be 10 or 15 feet tall at the highest point, double-digit cost increase of 12% to 14%.
designers must consider shading issues, similar to those with These conclusions are fairly representative of the con-
vertical single-axis arrays, when doing field layouts. While the ventional wisdom among financiers, developers, and engi-
SunPower T20 is the primary tilted single-axis tracker used neering, procurement and construction (EPC) contractors
in North American markets, DEGERenergie manufactures 30° working in the US today. It is generally accepted that paying
tilted single-axis trackers in Europe. in the range of $0.15 more per watt to increase system perfor-
mance by 24% is a compelling argument in favor of single-axis
Dual-axis Trackers tracking. The dual-axis tracker sales proposition, meanwhile,
Tracking both the sun’s east-to-west azimuth and elevation off is greeted more coolly. Stakeholders are generally unwilling to
of the horizon maintains a more constant and accurate angle pay $0.45 per watt more in order to extract the additional yield
of incidence between the collector aperture and the sun. This that dual-axis tracker systems offer (14% in this example).
results in a higher capacity factor and specific yield compared While it may reflect commonly held opinions in the indus-
to fixed-tilt or single-axis tracker mounting, which may be try, the Corio, Fraas and Reed analysis is of limited value. For
desirable in certain flat-plate PV applications. In other appli- example, it unrealistically assumes a uniform total system cost
cations, dual-axis tracking is a design requirement. This is the for all three mounting options. In reality, a shift from fixed tilt
case when the PV technology in question relies exclusively to single- or double-axis tracking has complex and cascading
on direct normal irradiance as the fuel source. While low- cost implications. To undertake an accurate cost benefit anal-
concentration PV technologies, like those being developed by ysis is equally complex. Many financial variables need to be
Solaria, are designed to work with single-axis tracking, concen- quantified and compared, including increased costs for land,
trated PV designs, like the technology pioneered by Amonix, labor, materials and O&M, as well as the increased value of
require a tracking accuracy of within 1° to maintain consistent the energy revenue projections. These revenue projections are
power output, which only dual axis tracking can provide. in turn impacted by PV technology, inverter selection, mount-
Dual-axis PV tracking started simply enough, with pas- ing system, location, climate and the rate structure of the off-
sive tracker designs like those from Zomeworks. Modern taker, the utility purchasing the power.
designs, like the products from Mecasolar (see cover photo), Third-party verification. Industry veteran Chris Edgette,
can support more than 13 kW of flat-plate PV per tracker. director of StrateGen Consulting, stresses c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 3 8

36 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
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PV Trackers

LCOE equations for full project evaluations include the cited


“Tracking systems are by no means variables and the financial aspects of the investment, such
as debt versus equity financing, discount rates, deprecia-
designed and priced equally. Make sure to account tion, taxation and subsidies. To compare the LCOE between
tracker options, some of the metrics related to the project
for costly and time-consuming practices such as finance deal can be omitted.
The first thing to calculate and compare is the actual physi-
site grading, trenching, concrete pours, on-site cal area needed. For each product or mounting technology, a
different quantity of land is needed to accommodate a given
welding, hand-screwing and wiring when cost- project capacity. Fixed-tilt systems require the least land;
single-axis trackers require relatively more land; dual-axis
comparing total systems.” tracker systems typically require the most land.
Capital costs for material and labor are the next consid-
—Amy Holbrook, PV Trackers eration. According to Booth at Blue Oak Energy, “Because of
the increased space required to avoid self-shading between
module rows, there are more expenses in conductors and
other materials.” Trackers also require more structure per
panel and in most cases more significant foundations rela-
tive to fixed-tilt systems. Quantifying the difference in labor
the importance of undertaking a comprehensive, indepen- costs for different mounting solutions is another variable that
dent financial analysis for proposed PV tracker applications. needs to be addressed in LCOE analyses.
“Project owners spending millions of dollars on these large- Calculating how O&M costs are affected is another
scale PV systems would do well to spend $100,000 up front in important element of the LCOE calculation. This is compli-
order to properly perform due diligence on the advantages cated by the fact that tracker system designs are so varied.
tracking could have for their project,” he says. “In an indus- It can be difficult to compare one to the other with confi-
try renowned for lofty claims, taking manufacturers’ words dence. Some systems have hundreds more serviceable parts
for granted can kill a project. The industry is maturing, and than others. However, bigger, more monolithic components
there are enough unbiased independent resources to pro- may present other challenges. Denise Thompson, general
vide project owners with worthy input on which to base manager of TTI, cautions: “When considering a particular
their decisions.” model of tracker, pay close attention to the number of drive
Levelized cost of energy. The ideal way to roll up all of motors and controllers, and the electrical distribution sys-
the relevant financial inputs into an apples-to-apples com- tem required to meet the needs of these components.”
parison is to use a levelized cost of energy (LCOE) calcula- Energy production modeling is vitally important when
tion for each type of array and compare the results. Typical determining the LCOE for a specific set of design assumptions.

Figure 1 The power curve for any PV 100


array mounted on a tracker is broader 90
Amonix = 8.8 kWh/kW
Output power as percent of rating (%)

than that for a fixed array, and thus


80
is deemed to add better shoulders
to the curve. This figure shows the 70
Single axis =
relative power curves for flat-plate PV 60 7.2 kWh/kW
mounted at a fixed tilt, flat-plate PV
50
mounted on single-axis trackers and
Amonix concentrated PV mounted on 40
dual-axis trackers. Fixed Flat Plate = 5.0 kWh/kW
30

20

10

0
0 8 10 12 14 16 18

Local time (h)

38 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
(See “Production Modeling for Grid-Tied PV Systems,”
April/May, 2010, SolarPro magazine.) It is essential to take
the site’s climate into account, as well as other regional sensi-
tivities like the availability of time-of-use metering. Amy Hol-
brook, marketing manager at PV Trackers, recommends that
solar professionals take the time to study the cost benefits
of tracking systems: “When customers are interested only in
up-front cost, we know they have not researched the financial
benefits of tracking. In addition, it is critical to compare total-
system costs. Tracking systems are by no means designed and
priced equally.”
Bankability. Concurrent with the LCOE analysis, when
specifying a tracker the probability of financing a project
must be considered. The term bankability is used in the indus-
try by project financiers and others to describe a project’s or
product’s ability to be financed. A bankable tracking system is
one that has passed the financier’s due diligence process and
is considered a viable long-term investment. The bankability
of a tracker system is also a function of the EPC contractor
installing it. Tyroan Hardy, vice president of customer applica-
tions at Solaria, notes: “Securing competitive bids with viable
EPC contractors is a concrete means of balancing cost with
performance during the construction of a tracking project.”
Many consider First Solar’s recent acquisition of Ray-
Tracker as a validation of PV trackers in general. RayTracker
is a manufacturer of horizontal single-axis trackers that fea-
ture an architecture of distributed actuation, using many
small actuators in place of a single large motor. While Ray-
Tracker has deployed its products on less than 5 MW of PV
globally, First Solar has a proven track record for simplify-
ing BOS concepts and driving down the costs of its offer-
ings. Adding trackers to that suite of offerings is a significant
statement about the bankability of trackers.
To find bankable solutions, developers specifying track-
ers with new projects can start by reviewing installations
where trackers are already deployed. According to Eben
Russell, director of utility sales for Array Technologies, “As
more and more projects make it through the due diligence
process, get built, and start establishing an operating his-
tory, the easier it is becoming to get new projects approved.”
Array Technologies, Conergy, Solon and SunPower, for
example, all have large-scale, single-axis tracking systems
installed and operating in the US. In Europe, there are at
least 20 brands of utility-scale single- and dual-axis trackers
installed, including ADES, DEGEREnergie, Mecasolar, OPEL
Solar and SunCarrier.
Production modeling. The best way to consider the energy
production benefits of tracking for a proposed site is to use
typical meteorological year (TMY) data and model system pro-
duction with software products like PVSyst, PV*SOL or SAM.
For example, PVSyst can provide a quick apples-to-apples com-
parison between the simulated performances for a 1 MWdc

solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o 39
PV Trackers

Weekday Schedule

12 AM

10 AM
11 AM
12 PM

10 PM
11 PM
1 AM
2 AM
3 AM
4 AM
5 AM
6 AM
7 AM
8 AM
9 AM

1 PM
2 PM
3 PM
4 PM
5 PM
6 PM
7 PM
8 PM
9 PM
Jan 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 6 6
Payment Allocation Feb 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 6 6
Factor Mar 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 9 9
Period 1: 2.2049 Apr 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 9 9
Period 2: 1.12237 May 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 9 9
Period 3: 0.68988 Jun 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3
Period 4: 1.05783 Jul 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3
Period 5: 0.93477 Aug 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3
Period 6: 0.76384 Sep 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3
Period 7: 1.14588 Oct 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 6 6
Period 8: 0.84634 Nov 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 6 6
Period 9: 0.64235 Dec 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 6 6

Figure 2 PG&E, a public utility serving parts of northern and southern California, compensates wholesale electric generators
at different rates at different times of the day and week. As illustrated in PG&E’s weekday schedule, the multiplier or payment
allocation factor is highest for summer afternoons. Designs with PV trackers take better advantage of these premium rates.

dual-axis tracking polycrystalline PV system in Los Angeles between regions with the best solar resource and regions
or in Miami. The results, which consider the relative latitude with the best solar markets. Utility rates or rate structures
and weather, show that on average the Los Angeles site would are also relevant, as illustrated by the successful FIT pro-
harvest 8% more energy annually, smog factors included. The grams in Germany and Ontario, Canada—regions not known
software can also model the increased production for single- or for an abundance of direct sunlight.
dual-axis tracking for a given site versus fixed-tilt racking. Rate structure. It is easier to make the case for a tracking
While production models are needed to evaluate any system’s additional capital expenditure in regions where
proposed tracker project, there are some general rules the utility pays time-of-use rates for the power generated by
that apply. For example, the benefits of horizontal single- a PV plant and sold to the grid. Because utilities are starv-
axis tracking increase the closer the site is to the equator. ing for energy generation capacity at certain times of the
While this geometry is still very effective at 35° north lati- day and year—namely, hot summer afternoons—they pay
tude, its benefits taper off for sites farther north, even for wholesale generators a higher multiple c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 4 2
tilted single-axis trackers. According to Booth
at Blue Oak Energy, “The increased effects Scheduled mainte-
of single-axis tracking are marginal for sites nance The motors,
located above 45° degrees latitude.” As a result, drives and actuators
dual-axis tracking may be a better approach used in PV tracker
for northern sites. The benefits of tracking designs are gener-
are most apparent in regions with high, direct ally robust, reliable
normal irradiance. When both of these factors and simple. The key
C ou rt es y B l u e Oa k E n e rg y

are considered, it becomes clear why regions to controlling O&M


like the Southwest—which is located at the costs is adhering to
southern extreme of the mid-latitudes and the manufacturer-
experiences a lot of direct sun—are generally recommended
considered ideal for PV tracker applications. preventative mainte-
Of course, anyone in the solar industry nance activities and
realizes that there is not a direct correlation service intervals.

40 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
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PV Trackers

of the base contract rate in the power purchase agree- Trackers invariably have a lower GCR than fixed-tilt
ment (PPA) for the energy they provide during these criti- mounts, and the GCR for double-axis tracking is lower than
cal times. Since tracking arrays face the sun continuously for single axis. According to metrics published by SunPower
throughout the day, they generate more power and harvest in several white papers, a typical dual-axis tracking system
more energy when the grid needs it most. might need a GCR of 0.20 to reduce power loss due to self-
The added energy that PV trackers can harvest is illus- shading to 2% or less. By comparison, a single-axis tracking
trated in Figure 1 (p. 38), which shows relative power curves system might be installed with a GCR of 0.35, while a 0.55
representative of fixed-tilt mounting, single-axis tracking ratio might be possible with a 20° degree fixed-tilt array.
and dual-axis tracking. Now match the afternoon shoulder Operations and maintenance. The increased costs result-
in Figure 1 to the afternoon rate schedule in Figure 2 (p. 40). ing from the presence of moving parts is almost always the
This weekday time-of-use chart for the Pacific Gas and Elec- poisoned arrow in the quiver of PV tracker naysayers. Their
tric Company (PG&E) conveys visually how a time-of-use logic is that if it moves, it breaks. Why pay more for some-
compensation schedule may allow for the majority of the thing that breaks more often?
annual financial revenue from a tracked PV system to be Understanding the interrelated elements of any solar
generated during summer afternoons. plant’s O&M program is a great way to assess the mainte-
Relative power density. When comparing different PV tech- nance needs for PV trackers relative to a stationary array.
nologies, relative power density is synonymous with conver- The two cost elements of any PV project’s O&M program are
sion efficiency. When comparing mounting options, however, preventive (scheduled) maintenance and variable (unsched-
peak capacity per acre is also a function of acceptable field uled) maintenance. For trackers, the preventative elements
layout, which must account for self-shading between rows. are critical.
According to Michael Reed, residential sales manager for According to Adam Burstein, president of Next Phase
Array Technologies: “Improper spacing of trackers is a com- Solar, a company that provides PV O&M services, being pro-
mon mistake that can be avoided simply by performing a active is the key to managing an investment in PV trackers.
shading analysis.” “There are several important practices for maintaining high
The ratio of land to solar aperture for a PV plant is tracker availability,” he says. “The first is a strong preven-
described by the term ground coverage ratio (GCR). The tive maintenance program, in which field personnel visually
higher the GCR, the higher the peak generating capacity inspect the tracker mechanism periodically and perform
that can be installed per unit of land. GCR for an array that mechanical and electrical maintenance on the controller,
is mounted horizontally and monolithically is 1.0, meaning actuator and so forth. The ability to detect field issues before
100% of the available area is covered with PV. Other mount- they result in an emergency outage is the best approach to
ing options require spacing in order to avoid unacceptable reducing downtime and operational costs.”
energy harvest losses due to self-shading from row to row or A strong preventative maintenance plan has ripple
tracker to tracker. effects for a project’s viability beyond the obvious. Project
financiers engaging with an owner in a PPA contract want to
know how their investment is going to be managed after the
wine and cheese gathering for dignitaries celebrating system
startup. A preventative maintenance plan presented by a
“Keeping an inventory of spare parts also viable and experienced O&M services provider can improve
the project’s chance of getting funded.
plays a key role in reducing tracker downtime. The utility on the hook for buying the power is also con-
cerned. Russell at Array Technologies welcomes scrutiny
Understanding which components are most likely from utilities. “As PV projects become larger, they are hav-
ing a greater impact on the grid,” says Russell. “Utilities are
to fail and which have long logistical lead times beginning to require that the power from PV plants be gen-
erated more consistently throughout the day, which makes
helps prioritize which parts and how many to trackers a necessity.”
System monitoring can also be used to facilitate O&M
keep on hand, without holding the liability of a activities and ensure system uptime. Holbrook at PV Track-
ers acknowledges that the main challenge to the general
large inventory.” acceptance of tracker systems is a fear of moving parts.
“We have addressed this issue at our company by develop-
—Adam Burstein, Next Phase Solar ing a customer web portal and tracker c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 4 4

42 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
www.astronergy.com

5
PV Trackers

monitoring service,” she says. “Each of our sites has wireless In reality, as pointed out by Ron Corio and his coauthors
Internet connectivity and web cameras that allow the track- in Solar Cells and Their Applications, Second Edition, electric
ers to be visually and mechanically monitored at all times.” motors are commonplace and reliable; there is an existing
If something breaks, the monitoring system makes sure the O&M infrastructure for them; and PV tracker applications
plant operator is immediately notified. have a low duty cycle. “Note that solar trackers only turn one
Rounded cost estimates for O&M costs are extremely revolution per day. This equates to 7,300 revolutions in 20
variable. Sources for O&M estimates include utility program years. By analogy, with a simple wristwatch, this equates to
information, Wall Street market analysis, EPC contractors the number of revolutions the second hand on a watch will
and O&M companies. O&M costs depend greatly on who is make in 5 days.”
performing the work (whether prevailing wages are appli-
cable), the location of the project (O&M in India is going to
be more affordable than O&M in California or New York) and Specification and Deployment
the number of serviceable components for a project. Roll it Typically, integrators look to a third-party manufacturer
all up and a safe estimate for annual onsite O&M costs is in to provide trackers for their projects. The search to match
the $12/kWp to $25/kWp range. an ideal tracker to a project is not an easy one. A conserva-
Since relatively few of the very large systems currently in tive assessment is that there are more than 20 solar tracker
development are on the ground and running, gauging the valid- manufacturers active in North American markets. Many of
ity of O&M numbers is difficult. As a result, the market has gen- these companies offer multiple tracker products and prod-
erally approached this problem conservatively. Nearly all of the uct lines. A few of the notable flat-plate solar integrators,
subject matter experts interviewed for this article commented like Solon and SunPower, have proprietary trackers in their
that O&M cost assumptions are too high. According to Thomp- quiver of products. Similarly, almost every concentrated
son at TTI, “The biggest myth around trackers is that O&M PV or high-concentration PV manufacturer has a high-
costs are significantly higher than fixed systems.” performance tracker of its own design. c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 4 6

German
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44 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
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PV Trackers

“The larger the project, the flatter the site, the better the soil is for Making an informed decision
may first require filtering out the
setting posts, and the closer the site is to the equator, the more the track- hype. Marketing messages from
tracker manufacturers focus on
ing will positively impact PV plant ROI. With that said, we have shipped the hook—an exponential increase
in kilowatt-hours—while leaving
trackers to Canada for installations on sites with solid bedrock, and the out the fine print about the con-
straints under which this increase
ROI gain over fixed-tilt still made sense.” is possible. As the tracker market
has expanded rapidly over the last
—Eben Russell, Array Technologies decade, innovative product-design
revisions have successfully loos-
ened many of the constraints that
historically held back the market
Even after all of these proprietary solutions are filtered out, acceptance of trackers. Products have been revised with
this still leaves a long list of tracker solutions and suppliers an eye to making installations easier, faster and less expen-
for system developers, financiers, designers and integrators sive. Manufacturers have accomplished this in part by add-
to choose from. ing value, such as factory preassembly, c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 4 8

Avoiding Common Mistakes


N o one knows the potential pitfalls of PV trackers like the
product manufacturers and their applications engineers.
Here is a summary of common mistakes that these experts
extra work. We also have other recommendations relating to
trenching and the order of different operations.”
Foundation misalignment. The key to avoiding a host of
caution against. near and long-term problems is to set foundations correctly,
Going it alone. Thorough communication with product according to Eben Russell, director of utility sales for Array
manufacturers and engineers is critical to success. According Technologies. He notes: “With the posts set correctly, con-
to Raúl Sanz, CEO at Mecasolar US, very few professional structing the rest of the tracking system is no more difficult than
developers and engineering services companies have done an 8th grade shop project. How can post installation mistakes
the research necessary to truly understand the tracker world. be avoided? Use an experienced geotech and foundation engi-
“Matching PV system design requirements with the tracker neering firm before you begin so that you have a clear under-
design, setting layouts and understanding O&M implications standing of what challenges may lie beneath; set target plates
requires active communication with your technological part- accurately; measure twice, set once; and work methodically
ner,” he says. with the correct equipment for the job.”
Tom Herron, systems engi- Array shading. Performing a shade
neering manager at PV Trackers, analysis and working with the manufac-
points out that manufacturers are turer on plant layout should ensure that
continuously working to improve losses due to self-shading are within the
Co u r t es y A r r ay Tec h n o l og i es

the installation experience for project design tolerance. The goal is to


their customers. “We can help optimize both energy harvest and land use
integrators organize their instal- for best return on investment. Because
lations into work packages that trackers are typically ground mounted,
allow projects to move forward as potential shading from other obstructions,
smoothly as possible,” he says. like adjacent buildings or distant topog-
“For example, we have a system raphy, needs to be taken into account.
for how to mark the locations of Wendy Beach, communications manager
our trackers in the field that mini- Alignment Ganged tracker designs like this at Array Technologies, warns: “Avoid locat-
mizes the surveyor’s time. When DuraTrack HZ from Array Technologies ing trackers in areas that will be shaded
this system does not get commu- require careful alignment of foundation posts. within a short time from growing trees or
nicated to the surveyor, it creates A single motor can drive 350–650 kWp. land development.” {

46 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
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PV Trackers

to the overall system integration wherever possible. Regard- to grade versus when to increase the vertical column height
less, tracker systems still require a relatively aligned set of and potentially the footing,” says Booth. “There is a delicate
variables in order to deliver on their promised performance. economic balance to achieve when laying out a tracking sys-
Site evaluation. When asked about the ideal set of cir- tem on any given property.”
cumstances for PV tracker deployment, the subject matter The variety of tracking manufacturers, designs and solu-
experts interviewed for this article most commonly pointed tions means that solar tracker applications are not limited
to ground-mounted applications. According to PV Tracker’s to large, flat parcels of land. According to Tom Herron, sys-
Holbrook, “Tracking is always a better solution than fixed- tems engineering manager at PV Trackers, the availabil-
tilt systems for ground-mount applications; however, differ- ity of technical solutions for suboptimal terrain is often
ent styles of trackers are appropriate for different purposes.” overlooked. “Dual-axis trackers are often easier to install
Clearly, some tracts of land are better suited for tracker in rolling or mildly sloped landscapes than are single-axis
mounting systems than others. In general, trackers are often trackers that require straight, level support placement,” he
deployed on large tracts of land that are flat and relatively says. While larger turret-style dual-axis trackers may accom-
inexpensive. Obviously, soil conditions also matter. While modate installation on sloped topography, it is not always
PV trackers can be installed on ballasted foundations, they possible to cost-effectively deliver and pour 10 cubic yards
are typically installed using driven-steel piles or ground of concrete per foundation on a sloped site. Alternatively,
screws. Therefore, soil conditions that accommodate these smaller dual-axis designs from PV Trackers that use helical
foundation types are ideal. pier foundations could be considered.
In practice, site boundaries, topology or soil type gener- Another variable to consider when evaluating a poten-
ally present design challenges. According to Booth at Blue tial tracker site is whether it offers unobstructed views of
Oak Energy, it is important to pay careful attention to the the horizon. In order to harvest additional energy in the
financial implications of different technical approaches to morning or evening, the east and west horizon need to be
these problems. “One of the primary challenges in dealing visible from the array field. (See “Avoiding Common Mis-
with trackers over topographical features is to know when takes” p. 46.) c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 5 0

48 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
PV Trackers

C o u r t e s y P re c i s i o n S o l a r Te chno l o g i e s
Backtracking When the sun’s elevation angle is low in the sky, early or late in the day, self-shading between tracker rows has
the potential to dramatically reduce system output. Backtracking rotates the array aperture away from the sun, eliminating
deleterious effects of self-shading and maximizing ground cover ratio.

Field layout. Single-axis tracker groupings, typically called desired attributes of single-axis tracking. However, this also
blocks, consist of the central motor arm that actuates the means that most single-axis trackers have a ganged or inter-
drive member, the linkages to each row of steel tubes, the connected architecture, which can also be a constraint.
modules supported on these tubes and the BOS components Tracker blocks designed using the Duratrack HZ from
required to deliver power from the block to the inverter. The Array Technologies or the SunPower T0 c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 5 2
quantity and length of rows per tracker motor is a function
of the module type, module size, wind speeds and soil condi- DEGERconecter The tracker controller used by DEGERen-
tions for a particular site. The product manufacturer’s sys- ergie operates according to a principal of maximum light
tems engineers can characterize a relatively standard block detection, which ensures that each tracker is directed at the
for their tracker design. Once they receive site-specific wind brightest point in the sky at all times.
and soil information, they can validate the block design and
tweak it if needed. An optimal site allows for the size and
shape of the tracker block to be consistent across the PV
power plant. Typical tracker blocks of this type tend to be
about 250 feet long north to south and 350 to 400 feet wide
east to west. Thus, a site that is rectangular or square allows
for the maximization of steel rows per motor unit.
While single-axis trackers can be installed on sites with
aberrant geometry relative to the product architecture, there
will be a corresponding increase in capital expenditure due to
Co u rt es y DEG E R en e rg i e

the need for more tracker motors. If a well-shaped site results


in a standard block of 250 kWp per tracker motor and a poorly
shaped site results in 100 kWp per tracker motor, the designer
is paying for motor capacity they are not utilizing and cre-
ating more failure points and critical maintenance points.
The centralized nature of the motor is generally one of most

50 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
Inverters and
 igure at left
F
Ut alissen dignibh esse

Photovoltaic String
tem
dipsumsan velisse
zzriliquis alit lore facidui
ver
etum zzrillan hendignit,
irit augait luptat faccum

Power
iliquatue facilit aliquis
molore.

Shade-Tolerant Maximum
Optimal
Point Tracking: Toward
Maximum
Harvest Efficiency and
ROI
Paper
December 2010 / White

by Dr. Andrew Swingler


C o u r t e s y P V Tr a c k e r s PV Trackers

Design flexibility Design flexibility with trackers may be limited. While these dual-axis devices from PV Trackers were able to
accommodate this ungraded, sloped site, they also use a relatively expensive central controller, which is not well suited to proj-
ects with less than 20 trackers.

typically have to be installed on a site with a slope of 5° or less.


This is due to the geometry involved in turning the array rows “Tracker capacity is limited by area and not
and the interconnectivity between the steel structures that
make up the tracker blocks. The distributed actuation archi- power. So the cost per watt for the tracker is higher
tecture touted by First Solar’s RayTracker is a design response
to this shortcoming. Because each individual row has its own for low-efficiency modules than it is for high-
actuator, RayTracker can be installed on a site with a greater
slope than other horizontal single-axis trackers. efficiency ones. As a result, the lowest-cost panel
Distributed tracker actuation may also use distributed
control systems. Frank Middleton, the vice president and does not typically produce the lowest-cost system.”
COO of OPEL Solar, believes this is a natural evolution
because it minimizes the size and impact of a single point —Tom Herron, PV Trackers
of failure. He notes: “There is a school of thought regarding
tracking systems that ‘bigger is better.’ It assumes, for exam-
ple, that trackers with common control are more depend-
able than trackers with distributed control. If one looks at and astronomical data. It is capable of very precise back-
the trend in almost all other industries, it has been in the tracking, which is a technique used to maximize GCR while
opposite direction. Computers are a good example, pushing minimizing self shading. Light-sensing controllers, however,
intelligence away from the core onto the nodes.” track in the direction that the light sensors indicate will
Control systems. Tracker controllers generally fall into produce the most power at any given moment in time. This
two categories: astronomical or light sensing. Astronomical allows the tracker to utilize incidental light from snow, scat-
tracking uses computers or programmable logic controllers tered clouds or overcast skies.

52 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
Electrical considerations. Different trackers lend them-
selves to different inverter architectures. For example, single- “In the same way that the price of PV
axis tracker blocks are generally grouped together to form
an inverter block, the size of which is based on the inverter panels continues to drop, design improvements
capacity. The inverter is typically located somewhere in the
middle of this group of tracker blocks. This minimizes varia- in the tracker space have resulted in more cost-
tion in the length of the dc feeder conductors from the field-
mounted combiner boxes. Therefore, large central inverters competitive products.”
tend to be preferred for large-scale, horizontal single-axis
tracker arrays. —Frank Middleton, OPEL Solar
Since dual-axis and tilted single-axis arrays are more dis-
persed, there is more opportunity to optimize designs around
alternative inverter architectures. PV systems designed with
dual-axis trackers may invert dc to ac at each tracker, thus or irregularly shaped parcels of land may not be appropri-
minimizing the dc wire run from the array to the inverter ate for PV trackers. Trackers may also not be appropriate
and minimizing voltage drop. Because individual subarrays for undulating terrain or land that cannot be graded. While
each track the sun independently, a data reporting system is some manufacturers have tracker products available specifi-
needed that monitors each subarray in order to accurately cally for roof- or carport-mounted applications, most track-
analyze system perfomance. ers are designed exclusively for ground mounting.
Limitations of use. With the right set of circumstances, Extreme weather or climate may also effectively limit the
the benefits of tracking are not only compelling, but they applicability of trackers for certain sites. While design wind
may also prove essential to project viability. However, even speed ratings vary by manufacturer, product and geometry,
tracker manufacturers admit that there are limitations to it is generally advisable to avoid specifying trackers in areas
their successful deployment. For example, expensive, small with high winds, especially hurricane zones. Both single- and

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solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o 53
PV Trackers

dual-axis trackers have an emergency mode that stows mod- optimize total system cost and performance by streamlining
ules at a horizontal plane to the ground when an on-site planning, construction and installation.
weather station logs wind speeds that could damage the sys- It is worth noting that this effort is clearly well under way.
tem. Trackers may also not be appropriate in locations that For example, Suntech Power has launched its Reliathon plat-
commonly experience very high snowfall, although the fact form, which was designed using a whole-system approach. The
that the array aperture rotates can help shed snow and avoid system features 270 W modules that self-align when mounted
persistent shading of the cells. on the tracker. In addition to providing integrated wire man-
Systems located close to salt water may need to be weath- agement, Reliathon eliminates module frame grounding with
erized beyond the norm. Steel parts may require additional a special frame-to-frame connection. With a similar end in
galvanization; welds may need special treatment; gears and mind, SunPower has developed the Oasis power plant, which
exposed joints may require protective boots. Very hot and is optimized around 1.5 MW power blocks. The Oasis system
very cold climates may also require special consideration. includes every part needed to deploy and operate these power
Product specification may mitigate these limitations, since blocks and is scalable to 500 MW.
some manufacturers do offer extreme weather packages Though every part of a PV power plant invariably has to
for their products. Even if the application engineering for stand before the cost-cutting guillotine and justify its value,
a product accounts for these environmental concerns, the few components have the potential to increase plant pro-
site’s preventative maintenance program should also incor- duction like PV trackers. If the race to grid parity is a sprint
porate appropriate responses. and not a marathon, solar will clearly need its fastest horse
to win.

Keeping On Track g C O N TAC T


The future of tracker systems depends on whom you ask. Stephen J. Smith Jr. / Solvida Energy Group / Berkeley, CA /
StrateGen’s Edgette sees trackers playing less of a role in the [email protected] / solvidaenergy.com
future. “The continual fall of PV module prices will mean
less utilization of trackers,” he says. “For areas with the right
soil and snow load metrics, cheap PV means modules can be Manufacturers
installed flat, or near to flat, maximizing kilowatts per acre ADES / +34.976.571.193 / adessolartracker.com
and minimizing structure and engineering costs.” Edgette Amonix / 562.200.7700 / amonix.com
predicts that over the next 20 years trackers will slowly Array Technologies / 505.881.7567 / arraytechinc.com
disappear from the PV landscape, starting with dual-axis Conergy / 888.396.6611 / conergy.us
devices then followed by single-axis designs. DEGEREnergie / 602.437.0577 / degerenergie.de/english
PV tracker manufacturers are more confident, point-
First Solar (RayTracker) / 877.850.3757 / firstsolar.com
ing to the fact that innovation and economies of scale con-
Mecasolar / 916.374.8722 / mecasolar.com
tinue to drive down the costs. Raúl Sanz, CEO at Mecasolar
US, does not dispute the fact that module prices have a OPEL Solar / 203.612.2366 / opelinc.com
direct impact on tracker viability, but he believes track- Patriot Solar Group / 517.629.9292 / patriotsolargroup.com
ers can remain competitive regardless. Sanz states: “Our Precision Solar Technologies / 505.281.0399 / tapthesun.com
R&D department is engaged in a continuous process of Solon / +49.30.81879.0 / solon.com
redesigning products to reduce cost. If we add to this the SunCarrier / 720.873.8900 / af.net
fact that the modules are becoming more and more effi- Suntech Power / 866.966.6555 / suntech-power.com
cient and that energy policies tend to reward systems that
SunPower / 800.786.7693 / sunpowercorp.com
are most effective at generating energy, then we find that
there is a point of equilibrium at which using trackers is TTI / 415.446.0103 / www.thompsontec.com
definitely the best option.” Zomeworks / 800.279.6342 / zomeworks.com
The good news for manufacturers of PV trackers is that
the general trend toward larger and more efficient PV mod- Publications
ules definitely helps their cause. Since the price per watt for Solar Cells and Their Applications, Second Edition, Edited by Lewis Fraas
trackers is based on tracker area, as PV technologies become and Larry Partain, Wiley, 2010
more efficient, the price per watt for trackers goes down. “One-Axis Trackers—Improved Reliability, Durability, Performance and
However, the price of PV has also fallen so much that track- Cost Reduction,” J. Shingleton, NREL (Subcontract Report 520-
ers have become a larger percentage of total system costs. 42769), 2008
This underscores the importance of a concerted effort to

54 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
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P
g ua r a n t ee
erformance guarantees are competing ideas about what con-
widely used in the com- stitutes a good PV performance
mercial solar industry, yet guarantee, and the debate is often
they are frequently misunderstood. Their purpose, heated. A complex team is required to deliver a large-scale
however, is no mystery. To finance and construct solar project (see sidebar, p. 57). Each involved party—
a large-scale solar project, there has to be a risk-mitigating owner, developer, contractor, sponsor and financier—has a
mechanism in place to reassure investors, which include distinct point of view. Creating a successful PV performance
large banks and institutional investors. A PV performance guarantee is both a multidisciplinary exercise and a balanc-
guarantee contract is the tool used to give the at-risk owner ing act. It requires both a technical and holistic understand-
confidence that the system and investment will perform ing of the factors that affect PV system performance and
as expected. reliability. It requires financial vision. It requires complex
The starting point of the agreement is determining the contracts. Given thoughtful and thorough understanding
appropriate contract terms and conditions. There are many on the part of all stakeholders, a PV performance guarantee

PV Performance Guarantees:

Managing Risks
& Expectations By Mat Taylor and David Williams

56 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
can help make a good project happen and keep it operating While we provide some concrete examples of what might be
properly for the life of the system. considered best practices for PV performance guarantees, our
In our current positions, working in project development intent is not to define a one-size-fits-all solution—which would
and construction, we represent two of the protagonists in the not be realistic—but rather to elevate the general level of dis-
PV performance guarantee debate: the project developer and cussion and understanding across the industry.
the engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) contrac-
tor. We attempt to represent other points of view in this article
as well. Together we provide some background and context for Why Performance Guarantees? Why Now?
understanding this complex topic. We define essential concepts In the construction industry, there are availability guaran-
and consider their practical implementation. We describe the tees, operations and maintenance (O&M) contracts and
current market expectations of the main parties at the negoti- product warranties in abundance. However, PV perfor-
ating table and examine the obvious tension between the inves- mance guarantees are somewhat unprecedented. What is
tors’ wishes and the EPC contractor’s abilities in some detail. unique about PV performance guarantee structures is that
they percolate a contractor’s responsibility through a long-
term financial arrangement. They do so because PV systems
must predictably perform for many years in order to meet
the financial expectations for the project.

Protagonists in the PV
Performance Guarantee Debate
The following parties are typically involved in the deploy-
ment of large-scale solar projects using PV performance
guarantee contracts.
Owner: The owner, or purchaser, is the party who
eventually runs, operates and derives revenue from the
project. Because revenue is used to service debt, pay
investors and so on, the clearest definition of owner is the
person or people who coordinate and run the project from
start to finish.
Developer: The developer, who may also be an
investor, helps make the project happen by coordinating
commercial and construction contracts. The key distinction
between the owner and the developer is the latter’s direct
tie to project design and construction.
Contractor: The engineering, procurement and
construction contractor designs and constructs the project
and is the main holder of project risk with respect to the
performance guarantee. In most cases, the EPC contractor
is the guarantor in contract language.
Sponsor: The sponsor is either the developer or the
EPC contractor. The sponsor’s role is to negotiate and
enforce the performance guarantee.
Financier: The financier provides most of the money
for the project and the framework for the PV performance
Co u r t e s y A n d y S n o w

guarantee contract. Typically, the financier builds the lan-


guage of the guarantee to help ensure a cash flow through-
out the project life cycle. This role can loosely be defined as
the project debt and equity provider. {

solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o 57
PV Performance Guarantees

There is significant competition between project devel- Cost of coverage. The true cost of creating and maintaining
opers in search of investment partners. This means that a performance guarantee is not always disclosed in the EPC
developers seek to prepare a project with the strongest level contractor’s price for services. There are few risk-analysis
of guaranteed revenue in order to increase the likelihood of tools or industry precedents available, so parties on all sides
selling the project to debt and equity investment companies. of the negotiating table are most likely guessing. The costs
To achieve this, developers tend to ask EPC contractors for are sometimes rolled into the overall profit margin associ-
comprehensive guarantees. A strong performance guarantee ated with the EPC contractor’s portion of the project. When
can centralize the responsibility for meeting many of the per- this is the case, it may appear from an accounting point of
ceived challenges associated with a big project and make the view that there are hidden costs in the project proposal. This
whole project more attractive to investors. Large-scale solar can be a problem for the owner because hidden costs can
is big business, and performance guarantees are big business negatively impact the project’s ROI.
by association. Almost all large-scale PV projects have perfor- However, too much coverage can also reduce a project’s
mance guarantee contracts. ROI. In this case, the owner is getting too comprehensive a plan
From the developer’s point of view, it is easier to ask the to cover the project’s needs. One of the challenges is that big
contractor for a strong guarantee than to convince equity or EPC providers are not organized to solve the small-scale and
debt partners that a comprehensive guarantee is unnecessary. relatively high-frequency problems common to large-scale PV
systems. Finally, monitoring, maintenance and reporting are
not typically central to the business of an EPC contractor. Forc-
ing EPC contractors to take on these risks can be expensive and
From the developer’s point of view, may set the project up for financial failure.
it is easier to ask the contractor for a
strong guarantee than to convince The True Cost of Performance Guarantees
equity or debt partners that a compre- Pricing a performance guarantee can be very difficult. The
challenge is to understand the risks and consequences of the
hensive guarantee is unnecessary. system failing to perform. While large integrators may be able
to contractually limit their liability, they may also be forced by
the owner for commercial reasons to help resolve problems.
After all, the core business of the investor or owner of a large- A classic example is when a large integrator sells a project to
scale PV system is rarely the generation of solar power. There- an independent power producer (IPP) or non-utility genera-
fore, the EPC contractor is asked to address the performance tor, a transaction that may happen soon after the system is
risk to help ensure that the system is operational for the long commissioned. The site host or energy off-taker may later tell
term. At the core of any successful guarantee is the idea that the EPC contractor that the system is not c o n ti n u e d o n pa g e 6 0
the project must be successful for its lifetime. It may sound
Brand recognition One challenge for contractors providing
simple, but very few construction projects have as much at
performance guarantees is that even if they are able to limit
stake. One of the keys to a successful guarantee is balancing
their exposure contractually, they may ultimately feel obligated
the level of coverage with the cost of coverage.
to go beyond those minimum requirements to protect their
Level of coverage. It is difficult to generalize about the level
reputation and brand.
of coverage that is sufficient for debt and equity providers.
Each unique deal requires an individual analysis. However,
investors are generally hesitant to pursue projects that are
perceived as risky. The challenge is to provide sufficient risk
mitigation while still finding room for all of the stakeholders
to make money.
Wrapping the necessary risks while providing a reasonable
Co u rt es y C u p er t i n o E l ec t ri c

profit is harder than it sounds. The recent economic slowdown


has substantially increased competition for large-scale solar
development projects. The combination of investors’ growing
risk aversion and strong competition for PV projects is shifting
the market to where investors insist on very robust guarantees.
EPC providers are often left with the dilemma of either offering
a strong performance guarantee or simply not doing the job.

58 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
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PV Performance Guarantees

performing as expected and service provided by the IPP is not However, the math looks quite different if the equity inves-
fulfilling the customer’s expectations. Regardless of whether tors get $80 from the bank, and the bank asks for a $4 return.
this claim is valid, the EPC provider may feel obligated to help In this case, the bank gets a 5% return, which may be per-
fix a system that it is no longer contractually responsible for. fectly acceptable provided it is guaranteed to get its money
Consequently, some EPC contractors offer only a 100% back first. After the debt is serviced, the equity investors get
guarantee. They may feel that they cannot effectively limit the remaining $6. However, the equity investors put in only
Debt
their (bank
liability financing)
because their reputation50%
is at stake. For exam- $20 ($100 – $80 from the bank), which means they are get-
ple,Tax
if a equity
project is extremely
30% underperforming, the value of ting $6 in return for a $20 investment—a 30% return. In this
any damage to the company’s brand may potentially be larger manner, the equity investors are putting in less money and
thanSponsor equity (owners)
the cost obligated 20%
by the guarantee. Therefore, the con- making a higher internal rate or return. In the US today, it
tractor provides comprehensive coverage regardless of any is unlikely that PV project returns will be adequate for proj-
contractual obligation. This does not come free. In fact, larger ect sponsors without placing debt and increasing the equity
EPC contractors may be forced by their internal structures returns.
and accounting methods to provide and charge for these Bank financing requires a lower rate of return because
larger guarantees. this debt is senior to sponsor equity, meaning it gets paid
off first, and is therefore less risky. This makes debt prices
Risk Assessment less. Banks also take a much lower risk position by ensur-
The concepts of risk and risk mitigation are fundamental to ing that there are cash reserves and high debt service cover-
the structure of PV performance guarantees. Risk is what age ratios. Especially in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis,
shapes the language of performance guarantees and deter- banks are hesitant to assume unknown risks. Therefore, the
mines their inherent obligations. To illustrate the intricacies bank must have another entity provide adequate coverage to
of performance guarantee negotiations, we provide three per- ensure system performance.
spectives on the risks associated with PV projects—the finan- The project developer tends to be a smaller, less established
cier’s, the project developer’s and the EPC contractor’s. player compared to the bank or the EPC contractor. Therefore,
The financier. Photovoltaic projects in the US are unique the contractor is the natural performance guarantor for the
because they require some- bank. A large balance sheet
one to monetize tax benefits and the proven ability to fix
to make the projects work. problems over a period of 5
This requires three distinct or more years are essential.
types of investment: debt Someone must provide a solid
(bank financing), tax equity Sponsor and convincing story about
and sponsor equity. A typi- equity the performance of the sys-
cal utility-scale PV project is (owners) tem to maximize the amount
financed using 50% debt, 30% of debt and increase the
tax equity and 20% sponsor Debt equity returns. The strength
equity, as shown in Chart 1. and the structure are highly
Note that debt and tax equity
(bank deal-dependent. While the
represent substantially more Tax financing) bank may not be able to give a
of the total capital input. This equity specific example of the terms
amount of money reduces required, it knows a good per-
the amount required from formance guarantee when
the equity investors, (those presented with one.
investors with an ownership The developer. The pho-
stake in the project), and tovoltaic project developer
increases their returns. is responsible for bringing
As an example, imagine together the five essential
a project that costs $100 and project pillars: real estate,
returns $110. If the project Chart 1 Large-scale PV systems in the US are typically interconnection, power take-
is financed with sponsor financed using 50% debt (bank financing), 30% tax equity off, permitting and financing.
equity, the equity investors and 20% sponsor equity. Because they are able to put In the process, the developer
get $10 on a $100 invest- up less money, the equity investors are able to make the attempts to assemble a com-
ment, which is a 10% return. higher ROI required to make projects viable. prehensive continued on page 62

60 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
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PV Performance Guarantees

package that has a high chance of success with financiers. almost certainly fails to find bank financing. A project with-
While large PV projects have some inherent risk, the devel- out debt is simply not viable.
oper is in a position to apply low-risk bank philosophy to The EPC contractor. As a rule, EPC contractors are inti-
mitigate it. mately familiar with evaluating contracts as they pertain to
The developer generally finds it easier to work with the
EPC contractor than with the bank. Bank financing tends to
be somewhat binary: yes or no. EPC contractors, however, From the EPC contractor’s point of view,
have a level of flexibility. They are motivated to find a perfor-
mance guarantee that works. After all, if there is no guaran- a PV performance guarantee must be
tee, there is no project. In addition, EPC contractors are in structured so that a relatively simple
a good position to own the performance risk. They design,
build and commission the project, which limits or controls approach can be taken to assess
their exposure. the risk it is contractually obligated
Performance guarantees need to be provided by an EPC
contractor with sufficient experience and a sizable balance to assume.
sheet. In European PV markets, EPC contractors provide
very strong guarantees. This is in part due to the large size of
European EPC providers; they can afford to provide strong getting things built. However, measuring plant performance
guarantees. It is also true that EPC contractors are provid- over a long period of time and assuming responsibility for
ing increasingly comprehensive performance guarantees as the possible associated damages is far from the norm.
a means of differentiating themselves from the competition. The typical EPC contract has a definite beginning and
While financiers are not always clear about a guarantee’s end. For large-scale solar projects, this duration is usu-
requirements, a project without a performance guarantee ally a little over a year. PV performance c o n ti n u e d o n pa g e 6 4

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PV Performance Guarantees

guarantee structures ask the EPC provider to extend con- the constraints of the plant monitoring data. For example,
tractual obligations for several times that duration. EPC con- most PV systems have a monitoring system that has tech-
tractors are accustomed to designing solar farms, building nical restrictions on the type, accuracy and granularity of
them, proving that they operate properly and then moving the data collected. This can directly affect the ability to cal-
on to another project. In fact, all of the business structures culate or prove system performance, or the methods used
for an EPC contractor—from design work through commis- to do so. When making decisions about what to measure
sioning—are organized in this manner: beginning (the notice and how, it is advisable to get input from all team members
to proceed), middle (the work), and end ( final payment and responsible for these activities in order to accurately weigh
turnover). The PV performance guarantee is a distinct depar- the cost and benefit of monitoring, reporting and measure-
ture from this simple, predictable model. ment validation. The degree to which a plant must be mea-
While EPC contractors are not afraid of risk, they may not sured is analogous to the expectations of the performance
know how to evaluate or estimate it well. When this is the guarantee. Nearly constant monitoring is required to keep
case, they are likely to evaluate project risk on the high side. everyone informed with the appropriate data. The owner,
EPC contractors can mitigate risk associated with system developer and contractor must know how the asset is per-
design and construction, but they cannot control the weather. forming in order to mitigate having to pay damages.
Therefore, contractual conditions that assess damages based The duration of the guarantee can help reduce the admin-
on climate data are often unacceptable to them. istrative and payment risks associated with proof of perfor-
From the contractor’s perspective, there is a nearly incal- mance. The longer the term, the more flexibility there is to
culable risk associated with quantitatively comparing site- cure or fix the problem; however, a longer term also broad-
measured system output data with historical data. In other ens the contingent liability. It should be clear who requires
words, they avoid putting themselves in the position of hav- or prepares documentation to determine if and how payout
ing to hit a MWh goal irrespective of the weather. They do not for damages is to be made. The beneficiary of the guarantee
want to do this because they cannot predict the weather. If the is typically the system owner but not always. Sometimes a
assessed liquidated damages have anything to do with a less third-party investor is the downstream beneficiary.
sunny year than normal, then a prudent
EPC contractor is probably going to pass 0.9
on the project. From the contractor’s point
of view, a PV performance guarantee must
be structured so that a relatively simple 0.8
approach can be taken to assess the risk it
is contractually obligated to assume.
0.7
Performance Ratio

Concepts and Calculations


The complexity of PV performance guar- 0.6
antee approaches can sometimes over-
shadow the intent of the agreement.
Performance guarantees should not be
0.5
structured to sell projects; they should
be structured to ensure that systems
work as intended. It is critical that all
0.4
parties understand their responsibilities.
In other words, it needs to be clear what
risks are being mitigated and by whom.
0.3
The keys for successful negotiations are
establishing clear rules, formulae and Feb. 12 Mar. 1 Mar. 11

responsibilities; determining conse-


quences of nonperformance; and limit- Performance ratio Because a PV plant’s performance ratio is compensated
ing liability. As a general rule, the parties for variables like irradiance, it is useful for comparing systems built in different
closest to the risk should be responsible locations or using different technologies. It can also be used to identify potential
for the risk. instances of or trends toward underperformance, whether occurring suddenly—as
It is also important to understand shown here—or developing incrementally over time.

64 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
Determining meaningful measures of performance A good performance guarantee helps
is one of the most challenging aspects of contract nego-
tiation. While there are many standard assumptions and identify and fix problems: When a PV
models, the global financial markets have continued to tai-
lor the required measures of performance for each set of system fails to perform as expected,
underwriting needs. These underwriting needs are specific
to local incentives, feed-in tariffs or tax equity. For the US, there can be mutual agreement about
performance guarantees are generally governed by the need
to leverage the 5.5 years of potential tax recapture allowed
the cure, and action can be taken to
under the Investment Tax Credit and ensure acceptable debt get it fixed.
service levels.
One of the first steps in contract negotiations is to estab-
lish some common definitions. These definitions ultimately
determine the basis of measurement, which can be thought expressed as MWh/MW. Specific production is a good way
of as the hardware, software and numbers that need to be to compare various PV technologies because it basically
gathered in order to fulfill the performance guarantee. The predicts the system output of a specific technology within
most commonly used terms or concepts are specific pro- a given climate. In any case, the predicted result is typically
duction, performance ratio, temperature compensation and based on hourly PV simulations using known system design
irradiance compensation. parameters. The actual production measurement in the field
Specific production. The specific production or specific yield can be taken at many points throughout the system, but it
of a system is a modules-to-meter performance metric. It is is typically taken at the production meter, which is located
the ratio of energy produced by the system (MWhAC) to the at or near the point of common coupling or utility intercon-
nameplate rating of the modules (MWDC-STC), which is usually nection point.

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PV Performance Guarantees

The basic formula for specific production is shown in production goal usually indicates a poorly performing sys-
Equation 1: tem, but it does nothing to help identify or fix problems.
Understanding these limitations is key to properly using
Specific production = MWhAC ÷ MWDC-STC (1) this index.
Performance ratio. The most widely used and accepted index
As long as the methods used to determine the numera- of PV system performance is the performance ratio. This ratio
tor and denominator are mutually understood, this index separates out the uncertainty and variability of irradiance
can be a very good starting place for PV performance and is intended to normalize out weather factors to produce
guarantee negotiations. Of course, specific production is a consistent measure of system performance. It is therefore a
only an indication of relative system performance and useful equivalent for comparing PV plant performance regard-
depends on a host of parameters. Failing to reach a specific less of technology or location. As such, it is c o n ti n u e d o n pa g e 6 8

Guidelines for a Successful Performance Guarantee


General recommendations: n Keep in mind that managing a PV performance guaran-
n Write the terms and conditions with input from all parties. tee takes time and money; clear and simple structures
n Establish a mutually agreeable basis for measurement work best.
that identifies the data to be measured, as well as the
hardware and software required. For the financier:
n Identify the monitoring hardware and software needed to n Take time to understand the terms of the warranties for
ensure equitable measurement. major components.
n Establish co-ownership of plant metrics. n Be willing to pay for the performance guarantee because
n Design the PV performance guarantee contract to ensure it adds value.
that performance is maintained over the project lifetime. n Remember that performance guarantees are intended
n Establish firm dates and durations for O&M and guaran- to ensure that systems perform, rather than to provide a
tee phases. mechanism for collecting payout damages.
n Understand that ultimately it is the knowledge, experience
Monitoring It is important
and solvency of the EPC and O&M contractors that is
that all parties engaged in a
being counted on to keep the system producing.
performance guarantee are in
agreement about what data is
For the EPC contractor:
to be collected, how it is to be
n Understand the terms of the warranties for major com-
collected, and what the limita-
ponents and fold them into the PV performance guaran-
S h aw n S ch re i n er

tions are due to measurement


tee contract terms in full; do not promise more than the
accuracy or method. A recali-
manufacturers do.
bration schedule should also
n Only agree to back up agreements from the manufactur-
be part of the agreement.
ers within the scope of the supply agreement and make
sure to have the contractual authority to insist on correc-
For the developer or owner: tive action.
n Keep the end in mind: It is essential to understand the n Perform accurate, detailed system simulations and agree
true risks that need to be managed; those closest to the with the client on the contract terms based on the mod-
risk should manage the risk, and that may very well be eled system.
the owner. n Do not guarantee the weather; be careful to avoid
n Do not ask for a performance guarantee for its own sake; contracts that quantitatively tie damages to historical
it is essential to structure agreements to solve problems, weather data.
such as plugging gaps in coverage. n Pursue an arrangement that incentivizes meeting and
n Negotiate with the financier to find a balance for the own- exceeding performance expectations by trying to write
ership of risks. incentives into the contract. {

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PV Performance Guarantees

usually expressed as a percentage calculated as shown in Irradiance compensation. The next challenge is to deter-
Equation 2: mine the measurement and verification methods used to
account for variable site irradiance. Standard test condi-
PR = (EACTUAL ÷ EIDEAL) x 100% (2) tions, of course, are based on an irradiance of 1,000 watts
per square meter. In the field, the available solar power
where EACTUAL is the amount of energy that passes through the (irradiance) in the plane of the array is variable between
custody meter over a given period of time, and EIDEAL is the 0 and perhaps 1,200 watts per square meter and is con-
amount of energy that would be ideally expected, after correct- stantly changing.
ing for temperature and irradiance. While this complicates performance verification,
Like an availability guarantee, which promises system or expected PV system output power is directly proportional
component uptime, a performance ratio guarantee requires to solar irradiance, which is the input-power source. There-
a high level of service response. When both are provided as fore, as measured solar irradiance in the plane of the array
part of a performance guarantee contract, the EPC contrac- changes, the output power of a PV plant should change pro-
tor ensures that the components work as described and that portionally. This means that the temperature- and irradi-
the system performs at the guaranteed level of effectiveness. ance-corrected expected PV system output power (PEXPECTED)
The addition of an availability guarantee to a performance can be derived from the temperature-corrected nominal
guarantee means the PV performance guarantee sponsor plant power (PTC), as calculated in Equation 3, by multiply-
(the EPC contractor or developer) takes a more active role ing the latter by the normalized solar irradiance, as shown
in plant management, helping to ensure total system perfor- in Equation 4:
mance even in the event of major component failures. This
layered approach works well if there are several sub-metered PEXPECTED = PTC x (GPOA ÷ 1,000 W/m2) (4)
production obligations or if the overall project includes sys-
tems across several sites. where GPOA equals the measured solar irradiance in the plane
Temperature compensation. Typically, the sponsor and the of the array.
bank take the weather risk. More sophisticated contracts When managing a large PV asset, verifying power instan-
attempt to account for the performance risk associated with taneously is generally less informative than verifying energy
higher-than-average annual temperatures. While this is a more production over time. For example, one might want to char-
thorough method of assessment, a drastically different aver- acterize the daily, monthly or lifetime performance ratio for
age temperature profile is unlikely during the term of a per- a PV power plant. As shown in Equation 2, this is a func-
formance guarantee. Temperature fluctuations are typically tion of the actual energy measured at the revenue meter and
within a few degrees Celsius. Therefore, the risk of temperature the ideally expected amount of energy after temperature
is inconsequential compared to the weight of solar irradiation. and irradiance compensation. This can be accomplished in
It is often expedient to simplify the documentation and limit two steps: determining the available irradiation and solving
metrics to include only solar input. for the temperature- and irradiance-compensated ideally
While temperature compensation tends to add complex- expected energy.
ity, module suppliers and EPC contractors wanting to limit The first step is to determine the irradiation, the solar
risk may insist on it. In fact, some guarantors take a funda- energy, available at the point of measurement. In Photovol-
mental position to not guarantee weather impacts. If this is taic Systems Engineering, Robert Messenger and Jerry Ven-
the case, Equation 3 can be used to calculate the temperature- tre explain, “Since energy is power integrated over time,
corrected nominal plant power (PTC): irradiation is the integral of irradiance.” In this context,
the verb “to integrate” is just a fancy way of saying “to sum
PTC = [1 + γ x (TMOD – 25°C)] x PSTC (3) up.” In other words, available solar energy is the sum of
all the little bits of solar energy, which might be measured
where gamma γ is the thermal coefficient of power from the in 1-second, 1-minute or 15-minute increments, added up
module specifications, TMOD is the module temperature and over some interval (hour, day, month, year, etc.). While this
PSTC is the system capacity value at standard test conditions. can be expressed as a sum equation, the integral is shown
Calculating the system capacity value can be as simple as using in Equation 5:
the nameplate dc system capacity. However, some procure-
ment contracts allow for a wide variation in module power
tolerance. Therefore, flash-test data or other factory or field
H= ∫G POA
dt (5)

measurements may more accurately reflect the size of the gen- In this formula, H equals the irradiation or solar energy
erator installed. at the point of measurement. As was c o n ti n u e d o n pa g e 7 0

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PV Performance Guarantees

the case in Equation 4, GPOA is the irradiance or solar power obviously important to choose units and metrics that match
in the plane of the array. This needs to be multiplied by an the measurement equipment and resolution of data.
increment of time in order for power to result in a unit of These formulae help to give guidance as to who should
energy. This increment of time is shown in the equation as dt, hold the risk, the EPC contractor or the project sponsor.
which represents a change in time, the smallest increment The key to using these equations is to know their limita-
being measured. It is most common for this to be a 15-minute tions, which are a function of overall project design and
interval, as this simplifies the math and data collection. measurement accuracy. The results are not intended to be
The irradiance in the plane of the array is averaged over exact, but rather to be very close approximations given the
a 15-minute interval, and then all of these tiny 15-minute instrumentation options. Furthermore, accurately measur-
bits of energy are added together to determine the total ing and correcting for temperature and irradiance is a pow-
irradiation in the plane of the array over a longer interval erful tool for determining system health. When combined
of time. with other plant measurements, temperature and irradi-
The second step is to use the solution from Equation 5 to ance information are useful as both troubleshooting and
solve for the temperature- and irradiance-compensated ideally revenue-estimating tools.
expected energy (EIDEAL), which might look like Equation 6:
Guidelines for Measurement, Accuracy and Proof
EIDEAL = (H ÷ 1,000 W/m2) x PTC (6) Measurement is the backbone of a solid performance guar-
antee. Sometimes the performance of the meter and data
Dividing the solution found in Equation 6 into the actual acquisition system can be more important than the actual
measured energy over an identical period of time determines system performance. If it matters to the contract, and if it
a PV system’s performance ratio, as described in Equation 2 determines assessed damages, then it has to be measured
(p. 68). This index allows for the comparison of PV plants and reported accurately and often. Good plant measure-
across different sites, regardless of the PV technology. It is ments lessen the challenges associated c o n ti n u e d o n pa g e 7 2

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PV Performance Guarantees

scheme of things, performance guarantees


should prevent a PV system from persis-
tently underperforming. Small differences
between expected and actual output val-
ues are hard to justify, especially when it
comes to assessing damages. A good per-
formance guarantee helps identify and
fix problems: When a PV system fails to
perform as expected, there can be mutual
agreement about the cure, and action can
be taken to get it fixed.
Administration. Performance guarantee
mechanisms always require documen-
tation and proof for damage payment.
Unfortunately, this documentation and
proof process may incur excessive admin-
istrative costs. It is not uncommon for the
cost of annual reporting to exceed actual
damages. Some of these guarantees with
cumbersome administrative requirements
have clearly been negotiated with busi-
ness development teams in isolation from
F re d S p e i s e r

the execution teams that do the actual


work. These counterproductive guarantee
terms seem to be extending further into
Production modeling The performance assumptions underlying performance the future, which can create decades of
guarantee contracts must be supported by accurate and detailed system simu- form filing that has little to do with keeping
lations that all stakeholders have reviewed and agreed on. systems operational.

with verifying that performance guarantees are met or


enforcing the contract terms when they are not. Deciding on the Details
Instrumentation and accuracy. All performance guarantees In Part 2 of this article, we outline the major approaches to
have to be definitively measurable. The value of the measure- proof of performance. These different warranty or guarantee
ment is directly proportional to all parties’ confidence in how it approaches ultimately determine what PV system perfor-
is measured. Instrumentation and accuracy should be explic- mance measurements are required. We discuss the hard-
itly addressed in the contract documents. A rigorous recalibra- ware required for the collection of plant metrics, as well as
tion schedule is also vitally important to the agreement to help how the variables being measured actually impact plant per-
mitigate measurement errors. formance and the verification thereof. We also examine the
Measured quantities. All parties have to agree on the basic elements of a typical performance guarantee and what
measured quantities that ultimately represent the contract to look for when evaluating guarantee structures.
terms and conditions. If a contract specifies dc losses, for
example, then the equipment needs to be in place to reli-
ably and accurately measure the compliance of the dc sys- g C O N TAC T
tem parameters. If there is an inverter efficiency guarantee Mat Taylor / Quanta Renewable Energy Services / Greenwood Village, CO /
in place, then third-party monitoring of dc input and ac quantarenewable.com
output at the inverter is required at additional expense.
David Williams / dissigno / San Francisco / [email protected] /
Identifying low performance. The PV performance guar-
dissigno.com
antee terms must ensure that all relevant aspects of plant
performance are quantifiable so that any deliberation as Resources
to the claim of low performance can be assessed immedi- Photovoltaic System Engineering, Roger Messenger and Jerry Ventre,
ately, beyond a reasonable doubt, and the magnitude of CRC Press, 2000
the shortfall can be specifically quantified. In the grand

72 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
Turning on the

Heat Solar Thermal System Commissioning


By Justin Weil and Patrick O’Boyle

L
ow natural gas prices
and lack of public aware-
ness of solar thermal
technologies are the two
most oft-cited barriers
to significant expansion of the indus-
try within the US. Unlike photovolta-
ics, which is relatively well known and
certainly well publicized, solar thermal
continues to be an esoteric segment of
the solar technology spectrum.
While the activities of the solar thermal industry can-
not impact the price of natural gas, the technology’s public
profile can be greatly improved with the deployment of high-
performance solar heating systems that meet customers’
expectations. Professional commissioning ensures long-lived,
reliable and efficient installations. These systems, along with
public outreach and education, are the keys to widespread
solar thermal application awareness and acceptance.

The Importance of Commissioning


Picture the solar thermal installer in a mechanical room,
deep in the bowels of a massive commercial building. After

74 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
months of hard work, a new solar heating system is nearly
complete. The copper pipes have long since been roughed in,
insulated and jacketed. Long banks of flat-plate collectors
fill the roof, mounted on a properly engineered, secured and
flashed racking system. In the mechanical room, the solar
storage tanks are strapped in and full of water. The pumps,
flow meters, sensors, and control and monitoring systems
are wired up and plugged in. Commissioning, the official
start-up of the new system, is the last major procedure to
complete. Considering the overall scope of a project, com-
missioning does not take a significant amount of time, but
doing it right is vital to the performance, longevity and value
of the system.
As with solar thermal system design, project commission-
ing requires various levels of sophistication. For a residential
application, it may be a simple procedure, while an industrial
project may take several days. Residential domestic hot water
systems, generally comprising four or fewer collectors, are the
least complicated. Commercial and industrial systems that
provide heat for applications such as process heating can
include hundreds of collectors. Commissioning these systems

S h a wn S ch rei n er (2 )

System scale Commissioning procedures and documenta-


tion become more complex as project size increases. Com-
mercial and industrial systems, such as this 40-collector
installation (two arrays shown) by SunWater Solar, can take
multiple days to commission and require customized, project-
specific commissioning protocols and documentation.

solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o 75
Turning on the Heat

is complex and time-consuming. Combi systems that provide commercial system, a commissioner climbed to the roof to
heat for multiple loads and processes are typically the most check the collectors. He found that solder joints on several
difficult to commission. The wide variety of system types and air vents had failed and that a drain valve had been left open.
elements means that a separate commissioning procedure The roof was badly stained, and the propylene glycol was a
must be developed for each application. total loss, having been discharged into the storm drain. The
Some elements are common to commissioning each of system had been pressure tested and precommissioned 4
these system types. In this article, we focus on the systems months before that, but had been drained and left to stag-
that we most often commission: commercial-scale active nate while the building construction was finished. By the
closed-loop glycol systems that provide domestic hot water time the second and final commissioning took place, numer-
to the facility. In the end, the goal is the same: to ensure that ous weaknesses in the system became apparent.
the solar thermal system remains in use for decades to come Leaving a tank empty. While commissioning a commercial
and performs optimally. After commissioning, the system is system, the commissioner failed to ensure that there was
no longer a work in progress, but a work completed. water in the solar storage tank. He therefore did not realize
that a clog in the piping was preventing water from entering
Worst-Case Commissioning Scenarios the tank. When the system was turned on, heat came from
Failure to commission solar thermal systems properly can the solar collectors and the commissioner figured he was
have drastic consequences including property damage, done. Unfortunately, the domestic-side pump was burned
injuries and delays in payment. Failed commissionings also out by the next day.
damage the reputation of the installer, the technology and Leaving water in collectors. One two-collector residential
the industry as a whole. Over the course of many years in system installed in a high-altitude location was commis-
the solar thermal business, professionals have encountered sioned with water and left unused for several weeks until
all manner of commissionings gone wrong. Before we tackle the project could be completed. An unexpected cold snap
specific procedures and approaches, here are some real- hit in late spring, and sure enough, the water froze. Not sur-
world examples where proper system commissioning would prisingly, the system was nonfunctional. When installers
have saved installers time and money, and, in one case, responded to the service call, they discovered that the col-
would have prevented an injury. lectors and copper piping had cracked and broken.
Leaving a system manually on. One case involved a large Each of these scenarios could have been avoided if
commercial system with an unpressurized storage tank. At detailed, well-organized commissioning procedures and
start-up, the system seemed to be functioning properly. The documentation requirements had been in place.
pumps were on and appeared to
be operating normally during the Who Commissions?
sunny day that the commissioning Solar thermal systems are
took place. In reality, one of the sen- mechanical in nature and can
sors had failed and the system con- be very temperamental, espe-
trol was programmed incorrectly, cially just after installation. An
bypassing the high temperature c o n t i n u e d o n pa g e 7 8

setpoint limit. The result was that


the pumps were locked in the On Commissioning team The
position. After the installer left for installation foreman typically
the week, the unpressurized stor- commissions solar thermal
age tank began to overheat. It got systems. For commercial
so hot that the mechanical room applications, it is common to
turned into a steam room. When a have two individuals on site.
maintenance man grabbed the door The primary commissioner
handle to enter the room later that works in the mechanical room,
week, he suffered second-degree and a second team mem-
burns to his hand. The room’s walls ber is stationed on the roof.
were destroyed and the entry door Here, Sean Speagle, project
S h a wn S ch rei n er

was warped from the heat. manager from SunWater Solar,


Skipping a final pressure test. After visually inspects pipe jacket-
pumping 100 gallons of a propyl- ing and roof flashing details.
ene glycol mix into an 80-collector

76 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
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Turning on the Heat

experienced professional who knows what to expect should For new construction projects, the first commissioning
be in charge of a system’s commissioning. Commissioners occurs soon after installation is complete. Commissioners
should be competent, unhurried and completely prepared pump water into the system and run through the checklist
on commissioning day. Taking the time to make sure that of commissioning procedures to ensure that all system com-
everything is perfect pays dividends in the reduction of ser- ponents are functioning properly. After this initial testing is
vice calls alone. Mistakes or overlooked items during commis- complete, water should be drained from the system, air vents
sioning can damage the system, incurring additional costs. should be opened and collector temperature sensors should be
The installation team foreman usually commissions solar removed. Draining and venting the system is critical. If occu-
thermal systems, although engineering firms and consult- pants do not move into the new building for weeks or months,
ing companies sometimes employ commissioning agents any fluid left to stagnate in the system can cause problems. Gly-
to handle the procedure. Ideally, the commissioner should col, if left to cook in a stagnant system, may break down, greatly
already be familiar with the system, including both design reducing the time before the fluid must be replaced. Sensors
and installation details. During the current solar thermal and air vents can also fail from overheating if left operational
renaissance, however, this is not always the case. Most inde- on a stagnant array.
pendent commissioning agents rely on
the integrator to provide commissioning
guidelines, checklists and confirmation of
their findings.
One person is usually sufficient to com-
mission a residential system, but for com-
mercial and industrial systems, there should
be at least two individuals on site. While
the primary commissioner remains in the
mechanical room, the second person is sta-
tioned on the roof, where he or she can check
for leaks, open and close ball valves, balance
flow through the arrays, vent air, listen for
the sound of fluid moving through the collec-

S h a w n S c h re i n e r
tors and make adjustments as needed. The
commissioning team should remain in voice
communication via radios or cell phones as
the procedure is carried out.
It is always best to commission a solar
thermal system on a sunny day. Heat Existing systems For both new and retrofit commercial-scale applica-
exchange occurs best when the system is tions, the integrity of the gas or electric water heating equipment should
working at maximum capacity and liquids be verified by a mechanical/plumbing contractor before the solar thermal
are moving freely through the system. Just system is commissioned.
as it is easier to diagnose a sick patient
when the illness is most intense, powering up a solar ther- At the second commissioning of a system built for new
mal system on a sunny day allows the commissioner to put construction, the fluids are refilled and everything is checked
the system through its paces under strenuous conditions. again. At this point, the system is fully operational. Commis-
However, collectors should be filled early in the day before sioners can walk away knowing that the system has been
they get too hot. double checked and is now providing occupants with solar-
heated water.
Commissioning Schedule
Solar thermal commissioning, particularly of a commer- Tying into Existing Equipment
cial or industrial system on an occupied building, should Except for stand-alone applications, all solar thermal sys-
be timed according to when hot water is needed. Commis- tems are supplementary in nature since they feed solar-
sioning can occur soon after the system is installed. New heated water to existing equipment. That equipment may
construction projects, however, may require two commis- be as basic as a 40-gallon electric water heater in a home-
sionings: one to ensure that the system is operational and owner’s basement, or as complex as a series of indus-
the second to enable the system to start heating water. trial boilers heating tens of thousands c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 8 0

78 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
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Turning on the Heat

of gallons of water a day for a factory. Regardless of its size Glycol: The Point of No Return
or complexity, the existing water-heating system must be Propylene glycol, or solar fluid, as it is often called, is the life-
functioning properly before commissioning a solar thermal blood of active closed-loop glycol systems. Due to the cost
system that is connected to that equipment. of glycol and the care that must be taken when handling it,
Unlike PV systems that tie into the electrical grid, a solar charging a system with glycol is best done once and done cor-
thermal system ties into a complex mechanical system and rectly. Commissioning a closed-loop system needs to be car-
its related equipment. It is much harder to troubleshoot ried out in the proper sequence (see page 86). Once glycol is
problems on the solar thermal side if there are doubts about pumped into the system, there is no going back without con-
the integrity of the existing water-heating equipment. siderable difficulty and likely extra expense.
If you are unsure about the equipment that the system Glycol should not be added until system installation is
is integrating with, get an expert to verify that it is function- complete, including wiring of electronic components. The
ing properly. At the very least, check the existing system for domestic hot water side must be running and fully tested.
leaks, check the controls for faults, confirm the flow of exist- The solar tanks must be full of water and all piping must
ing pumps and test the system under a load before the solar be thoroughly flushed and disinfected if required. Most
thermal system is commissioned. importantly, commissioners must be 100% confident that
For new construction projects, it is best to have the gas or the system is free of leaks. Air or water should already have
electric water-heating equipment commissioned and opera- been used to pressure-test for leaks in the solder joints
tional several days before the solar thermal system is brought and other connections. Nothing spoils a commissioning
on line. Allowing the mechanical and plumbing contractors to like glycol leaks, which can be expensive, considering the
commission their systems enables them to sort out any kinks $20–$40 gallon cost of the fluid. Finally, pools of leaked
without the distraction of the solar heating system. It also mini- glycol cooking on a sun-baked roof leave behind stains
mizes finger pointing if their systems perform inadequately and sticky puddles of congealed goo that are not fun to
and the building is not getting sufficient hot water. clean up.

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80 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
Point of no return Commissioning an active closed-loop
glycol system needs to be methodically carried out in
the proper sequence. Once glycol is added to the system,
there is no going back without considerable difficulty
and expense.

Before reaching this point of no return, commissioners


should double check that they are using the manufacturer-
recommended glycol type and that it is diluted properly. A
50/50 glycol-water mix is standard, although increasing the
water content to 60% or even 70% is permissible in areas
where freezing temperatures are extremely rare. Follow the
manufacturers’ temperature-to-ratio chart and make a mix
that suits the climate. You will need a glycol tester in order
to achieve the proper mixture ratios when combining glycol
and water. Be sure to check the final mix by removing a small
amount from the collector loop after charging is complete.
Open-loop or drainback systems do not require this point-
of-no-return warning that closed-loop glycol systems do.
The systems can be easily emptied and recharged if neces-
S h a w n S c h re i n e r

sary. The water from an open-loop or drainback system,


unlike glycol, can simply be directed down a floor drain and
the system can be refilled if leaks or other problems are dis-
covered during commissioning.

solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o 81
Turning on the Heat

Equipment for Commissioning


C ommissioning must be well planned, and part of that
planning process is making sure that the commission-
ers are armed with all the necessary equipment. The follow-
Digital multimeter (DMM) with ac voltage and ohm
functions. A DMM is required to test and verify pump and
control voltage and sensor resistance values.
ing checklist is valid for residential, commercial and industrial
systems, and includes specific items for commissioning Voltage detector. Handy for quick checks, a voltage
active closed-loop glycol systems. detector can determine if power is being supplied to various
electrical components in the system.
Charging station. The central tool in commissioning a
propylene glycol system, the charging station allows you to Circuit setter/pressure differential read-out kit. This kit
pump a system full of a glycol mixture and purge unwanted allows you to balance the flow on systems that have circuit
air. Have extra hoses and buckets on hand in the mechani- setters.
cal room to direct water down drains or into jugs and catch
leaking or spilled fluids. Temperature meter with pipe sensor attachment. This
tool makes it quick and easy to get a temperature reading
Glycol. The food-grade propylene glycol that flows through on any pipe in the system.
active closed-loop solar thermal systems is typically diluted
with water to reach a 50/50 solution. Hand tools. At a minimum, you need wrenches to tighten
hoses and screwdrivers for opening control panels.
Glycol tester. This tool is vital when diluting propylene gly-
col with water. The tester provides an accurate reading on Ladders. Stepladders are handy for getting above a wall-
the glycol-to-water ratio, a metric required on the commis- mounted pumping station or checking the solder joints on
sioning checklist. ceiling-mounted pipes. Extension ladders may be required
for roof access.
Camera. Take pictures of everything, especially equipment
or installation details that present problems during the com- Harness. Safety equipment is usually required for anyone
missioning. Thorough documentation gives you a leg up if working on the roof of a commercial building and is definitely
further troubleshooting is required. needed when working on pitched roofs. {

System piping
The Commissioning Procedure During commission-
A solar thermal system generally lasts 25 years or longer, start- ing, piping should
ing the day it is commissioned. Methodically completing and be visually inspected
documenting each step of the commissioning process out- and pressure-tested,
lined here helps ensure that the system functions properly and the results should
and meets your customers’ expectations for years to come. be documented and
Various types of documentation must be on hand during included in the com-
commissioning. First, and most important, is the commission- missioning report.
ing checklist, which serves as a step-by-step guide to starting Items on the checklist
up the system. Even the most seasoned solar thermal installer include collector-to-
needs such a checklist. Companies that frequently commis- collector connec-
sion systems usually keep separate checklists for residential, tions, pipe support,
commercial and industrial systems, as there are procedural jacketing and valve
variations for each system type. Original and as-built design location, orientation
S h a wn S ch rei n er

documents, and equipment specification and installation man- and direction.


uals should also be on-site during commissioning.
Perform a visual check. Begin the commissioning process by
looking over the entire system, from the c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 8 4

82 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
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Turning on the Heat

roof to the mechanical room, to make sure that all work has and correct roofing practices were used for the
been completed properly and according to the system design. building’s specific roofing system.
It is useless to begin the commissioning process if something is ❏ Confirm collector orientation and angle per design.
clearly wrong and the system cannot be started up.
Verify the system’s electrical wiring.
Review the system piping. ❏ Confirm that all system wiring is per design.
❏ Check that all piping, gauges and valves are per ❏ Check that the system has overcurrent and
design. surge protection.
❏ Check that the pipes are supported properly. ❏ Check that wire sizes are correct.
❏ Check the pipe insulation and jacketing. ❏ Confirm that a sufficient motor starter is installed
❏ Check that pipes are labeled correctly. for systems with 3-phase pumps.
❏ Check that the valves and gauges are installed in the ❏ Check that all wiring is terminated correctly, includ-
proper location, orientation and direction. ing polarity.
❏ Check that pressure and temperature relief valves are ❏ Check that the required conduit is used and properly
installed in the proper locations to protect the supported.
components if conditions exceed maximum ❏ Check that the sensor wiring is secure and protected
operating ranges. from UV.
❏ Check the collector connections.
Pressure-test the system. The installers should have pres-
Evaluate the roof work. sure-tested the system with air or water prior to commis-
❏ Check that the collector mounting is complete and sioning. The 2009 Uniform Plumbing Code requires that piping
that all hardware is tightened. be hydrostatically tested to 100 psi or twice its operating
SolarPro_plpDPWJJul11 hr.pdf 1 3/25/11 9:24 AM
❏ Check that mounting and piping is properly flashed pressure, whichever is greater. It is wise c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 8 6

Made in the USA

84 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
Toll-Free 1-855-SOLDIST (765-3478)
www.soldist.net

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Turning on the Heat

Glycol Charging Sequence


1. Fill the domestic-water side of the heat exchanger. For 7. Close the charging-diversion valve, which is typically a
systems that use heat exchangers immersed in the tank, ball valve between the two charging ports that forces the
be sure the tank is full of water. For systems with exter- water through the loop.
nal heat exchangers, be sure the water side of the heat 8. Fill the charging pump reservoir or insert charging hoses
exchanger is flooded. into the bucket or barrel containing glycol.
2. Precharge the solar loop expansion-tank pressure per 9. Turn the charging pump on.
the design specifications. 10. Turn the collector loop pump on.
3. Close all the drains and air vents on the roof. 11. Continue to fill the reservoir with glycol mix as needed.
4. Calculate the amount of glycol needed. Add the volume 12. If the system has multiple arrays, close all arrays but one
of fluid in the piping, in the collector field (consult manu- and allow the glycol to flow for 2 minutes or until air is
facturer) and in the heat exchanger, or fill the system purged. Proceed similarly through all arrays. Once each
with water and measure the volume when drained. (The array has been fully charged, open one array at a time
latter option should be used only if the system design until all arrays are open.
allows it to be drained completely.) 13. Allow the system to flow until all air is purged. Manually
5. Mix the required amount of glycol (if not using a pre- bleed off air periodically throughout the commissioning
mixed product). Use purified water if the tap water in the process.
area is suspected to be of poor quality. If water quality is 14. Close the charging port that is returning to the reservoir.
unknown, it should be analyzed by a qualified water- 15. Continue to inject glycol into the loop with the charging
testing provider. pump until the desired pressure is reached.
6. Connect the charging pump to charging ports on the 16. Close the final charging port.
collector loop so that the charging pump is flowing in the 17. Immediately turn off the charging pump. {
same direction as the collector-loop pump.

to pressure-test again on commissioning day, especially if the


system has been unused for a period of time.

Follow the correct glycol charging sequence. Detailed, step-by-


step instructions for glycol charging are included in the above
sequence. If you are charging the system on a warm day, be cau-
tious not to close off an array full of liquid for any longer than
is necessary. If the fluid in the array boils, the pressure can sky-
rocket and damage the system, perhaps blowing off pressure-
release valves.

Verify system control.


❏ Test sensors by using a temperature meter to mea-
sure temperature at the sensor location. Confirm
that it matches the sensor reading on the control.
Using an ohmmeter at the solar control, test the
resistance through the sensors. Look at a resistance-
to-temperature chart and confirm that the mea-
sured resistance matches the actual temperature
where the sensor is located.
Control verification Temperature sensors should be ❏ Verify that the control functions or relays are operat-
S h aw n S c h re in e r

tested and the reading should be compared to the ing correctly. Is the system operating when the design
reading at the control unit. All control functions and differential is met? Change the high-temperature
relay operation should be verified, and system control limit to below the current temperature of the storage
programming reviewed and documented. tank and confirm that the c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 8 8

86 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
Solar Power
Management TM

More Than Monitoring

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OPERATIONS
UTILITY CENTER
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1-866-459-4102

solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o 87
Turning on the Heat

pumps turn off. You might need to artificially heat


or cool sensors to confirm they are operating
properly.
❏ Program the system control to achieve the desired
sequence of operation per design.
❏ Record all settings.

Check and record flow rates.


❏ Check the collector pump-loop flow.
❏ Check the domestic pump-loop flow.
❏ Calibrate the arrays if they are fitted with cir-
cuit setters or flow meters. When balancing
arrays, it is important to note that the fluid flow
changes as each array is balanced. Restricting
one array often adds more flow to another. Refer
to the balancing valve manufacturer’s instruc-
tions for directions. It may take several passes to
correctly balance the arrays.

Calibrate valves and sensors.


❏ Calibrate the tempering valve and record
the setting.
❏ Calibrate the temperature and pressure sensors
as required.

Check labeling, postings and owner’s manuals. One of the most


common causes of a solar thermal system’s premature death

S h a w n S c h re i n e r
is the facility’s service technicians’ failure to understand how
the solar thermal system integrates into the existing water
heating system. In extreme cases, this can lead to the solar
system being bypassed and rendered useless. Proper label-
ing, along with posting product information, solar contractor Labeling In glycol-based systems, labels reading
contact information and schematics, greatly reduces this risk. Propylene Glycol should be affixed to the solar loop. In
A system diagram must be posted near the solar equipment, addition, many building departments require labeling on
along with a valve chart and shutdown procedures. All dia- the heat exchanger that indicates whether it is single or
grams should be laminated. Pipes and each piece of equip- double walled.
ment should be labeled per the schematic. Valves should be
labeled per the valve chart. Owner’s manuals should be posted connectivity, which can involve the installation of a router
and easily located. and Ethernet cable.
For closed-loop systems, labels reading Propylene Glycol
should be affixed to the solar loop. Many building departments Facility Staff Training
also require labels on the heat exchanger that clearly state Training plays a vital role in commissioning. It provides an
whether it is single or double walled. opportunity to raise the profile of solar thermal technol-
Check the monitoring system. Monitoring systems allow ogy, educate potential solar thermal advocates and perhaps
installers and system owners to conveniently keep close tabs win more jobs with the client. Contracts often require solar
on system performance and production. Web-based moni- thermal companies to educate maintenance staff and other
toring provides maintenance staff and system installers with on-site personnel on system operation, shutdown and trou-
real-time system performance and production data to con- bleshooting. Take this occasion to get people excited about
firm system operation and productivity without a site visit. solar thermal and encourage system owners to publicize
Some products feature alerts that allow installers to proac- their adoption of the technology.
tively address malfunctions, such as burned-out pumps or The training briefing usually takes place soon after
failed sensors. Monitoring systems typically require Internet the system is commissioned. Begin the continued on page 90

88 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
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Turning on the Heat

training session with an overview of how solar thermal and date of commissioning and any issues encountered during the
PV systems differ, as the two are often confused. During the process. Commercial building owners may demand a copy of
training, point out where the system documentation is located items from this documentation along with the commission-
(typically in the mechanical room). Thoroughly address system ing report before releasing final payment.
maintenance and at what intervals maintenance should be per- Original and as-built design documents are also impor-
formed. Remember, facility maintenance staff often consider a tant to the commissioning process. The commissioner must
solar thermal system to be just another thing that is going to carefully compare every aspect of the as-built system to the
break down and cause them trouble, and some maintenance original plans to determine design conformance. Record any
personnel may opt not to be responsible for maintenance at all. discrepancies. The sizes of piping and tanks, the placement
Ask questions of the staff to get a feel for how much assistance of valves and the collector layout are just a few of the features
they want with system maintenance. Record your findings and that must be double checked. All discrepancies or changes
relay a summary to the service manager. Make sure to allocate should be noted and documented.
sufficient time for the training session and stay on site until you In addition to the commissioning report, supplemen-
have answered everyone’s questions. tary documentation should be provided. Requirements vary
according to system owners’ wishes, but generally include
Internal Documentation and the Commissioning Report product manuals, as-built drawings, system shut-down pro-
Internal documentation serves as a record of the entire com- cedures, valve charts and contact information for service
missioning process. The commissioner’s handwritten notes companies. These materials are useful to any maintenance or
can prove invaluable in troubleshooting any future malfunc- repair personnel who need to service the system. One full set of
tions. The make, model and serial numbers of system com- documentation is left in the mechanical room, with items such
ponents should be recorded. This information will be needed as the valve chart and shut-down procedures laminated and
if components fail during their warranty period. This docu- posted in plain view. Additional sets of documentation should
mentation also identifies who commissioned the system, the be handed off to the system owner. c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 9 2

midwest renewable
energy association
Custer Office: 715-592-6595, [email protected]
Milwaukee Office: 414-431-0758, [email protected]
www.midwestrenew.org

90 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
DO YOU REALLY UNDERSTAND
THE NEC’s PV REQUIREMENTS?
With over 35 years dedicated to NEC education and publishing, veteran trainer Mike Holt
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• Detailed instructional illustrations supplement or call 1.888.NEC.CODE
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“...as for me and my house, we will serve the Lord.” [Joshua 24:15]
Turning on the Heat

Follow-up Solar thermal system malfunctions can easily


go unnoticed because backup heating systems will typi-
cally continue to supply hot water to the facility. Therefore,
a commissioning follow-up should be scheduled 30 to
60 days after the initial commissioning to ensure that the
system is operating as intended.

S h a w n S c h re i n e r ( 2 )
Commissioning Follow-Up
Commissioning is complete when the lead commissioner
is satisfied that the system is up and running properly. That
said, solar thermal professionals should always follow up 30
to 60 days after commissioning to ensure that the system is
still operating smoothly. No news is good news, but do not
assume that an absence of complaints from the client always scheduling delays, inspections—can be chalked up to expe-
indicates a flawlessly functioning system. rience if the commissioning is flawless. Commissioning day
Malfunctions in the solar thermal system may go unno- is your chance to close out the job on a high note. After the
ticed. Because an electric or natural gas water-heating system system is charged, there is nothing more satisfying than
nearly always backs up a solar thermal system, clients always spending some time watching it run, fine-tuning the control
have hot water. If a pump or control unit in the solar thermal settings and admiring your handiwork.
system fails, for example, owners may not realize for weeks Commissioning is also an opportunity to take photos of the
or months that something is amiss. Homeowners, as well as completed system for use in case studies and other marketing
finance departments that pay the utility bills for commer- efforts. Avoid the urge to set and forget the system and move on
cial or industrial buildings, may not know how much energy to the next job without taking steps that enable you to show-
savings to expect and therefore could not know that a newly case your hard work. Your business benefits, as does the solar
installed solar thermal system is underperforming. Unlike PV thermal industry itself. Publicizing solar thermal technology is
systems, where production is clearly indicated on utility bills a responsibility shared among solar thermal installers, integra-
that show how much energy the system is producing, utility tors, equipment manufacturers and resellers. Do your part by
bills do not show solar thermal system production. In addi- commissioning the right way every time and showing the world
tion, solar thermal system production is hard to quantify by that you have done so.
looking at gas bills alone since the gas portion of the bill is
often accounting for numerous gas-powered appliances. g C O N TAC T
Justin Weil / SunWater Solar / Richmond, CA / [email protected] /
Conclusion
sunwatersolar.com
For installers, the two best days of a project are typically
the first day on the job when the build plan is made and Patrick O’Boyle / SunWater Solar / Richmond, CA /
the day that the new system is fully commissioned. The dif- [email protected] / sunwatersolar.com
ficulties that so often occur in between—leaks, parts runs,

92 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
A Higher Standard

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111111111111111111h1
111k111111111

111111111S111111111v111:

-P111111111p
-P111111111p111111111111111111
111x111z11p11111111p1111111ROI
-I1111111111111111p1111111111
11p11f11111111111111111111k11111

1111v111111111111111111p111111111111111111111

-A111111h11h11h1111PT111ffi1111111111111
-S111111f111111111111p111111111h
1154001p11111h11111111111

-A11111111fi111111111111111111111h
111p111111111k1111111

“Win with Canadian Solar 201111111111111111111111111111


11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111

1Ph11111111111111f1S111111111

111111111111111111111
Interview An Experienced Perspective

Raghu Belur, Enphase Energy


Establishing a New Product Class
I n March 2006, Raghu Belur and for-
mer Cisco colleague Martin Fornage
launched Enphase Energy. Since then,
The main cause of all these
problems was that product
developers were attempting
Enphase has proven the viability of to follow the designs of exist-
microinverter-based PV systems and ing central inverters, with the
brought the benefits of module-level intention of simply making
dc-to-ac conversion to the industry. them smaller. Martin and I
An analysis of CSI data revealed that, knew this wouldn’t work, so
in 2010, Enphase microinverters held we built a microinverter from
more than 13% of the market share in the ground up, integrating
residential installations with capaci- cutting-edge power electron-
ties up to 10 kW, up from 5.3% in 2009. ics with digital control and
For small commercial systems ranging intelligence. We also took a
from 10 to 100 kW, Enphase secured different approach by think-
9.3% market share in 2010, up from just ing at the system level—every

Co u r t e s y E n p h a s e E n e r g y
3% in 2009. Enphase has shipped more microinverter would incorpo-
than 500,000 units to date, and it has rate built-in data acquisition
announced plans to triple production and networking technology to
capacity by year-end 2011. Raghu holds make the whole array smarter
an MS in electrical engineering from and more connected. We’ve
Texas A&M University and an MBA devised ways to use auto-
from the Haas School of Business. motive- and military-grade
Raghu Belur, VP of products, Enphase Energy semiconductors and compo-
SP: What drove you to transition from the Best practices from the telecom industry provided nents in our system without
computer networking and telecommunica- a foundation for Raghu’s successful development dramatically affecting its cost
tions industry to solar, and how did your of the Enphase microinverter system. or size. Our semiconductor-
past experiences assist in the successful based approach provides a
launch of Enphase Energy? law to PV inverters. [Moore’s law identi- significant advantage over central invert-
RB: Martin and I were working on high- fies a long-term computer hardware ers. We can build more reliable systems
efficiency power-supply technology and trend where the number of transistors and simultaneously increase functional-
advanced communication systems for that can be placed inexpensively on ity and lower costs.
telecommunications equipment when an integrated circuit doubles approxi-
Martin decided to buy a PV system for mately every 2 years.] SP: Many PV integrators view microinvert-
his home. Upon seeing the inverter ers as a solution for residential and small
equipment used in PV systems, we SP: In the late 1990s, microinverter commercial installations but not for larger
immediately thought we could create products from NKF Electronics and commercial projects. Are you developing
a better solution. Specifically, if we Ascension Technologies failed to gain products for the commercial sector?
could design an inverter at the individ- acceptance in the PV marketplace. From RB: The majority of our installations are
ual module level, we could use low- a product engineering perspective, what residential and small commercial. How-
voltage, low-power technology and enabled Enphase to succeed where earlier ever, we are seeing significant demand
semiconductor-based designs to attempts had failed? for larger commercial installations as
increase performance, reliability and RB: In trying to understand why past system integrators see the improve-
intelligence, while at the same time cre- technologies had not succeeded, we ments that microinverters deliver to
ate a path to continued cost reduction. concluded that they had failed in four ROI. We are very focused on increasing
Essentially, we saw the opportunity to key areas: efficiency, reliability, cost our presence in this market through
bring some of the concepts of Moore’s and lack of a systems-level approach. further innovations c o ntin u e d o n pa g e 9 6

94 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
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solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o 95
Interview

targeted at the needs of large commer- install, it seems that agreement with Siemens. As
cial systems. Our system-level approach the increased cost the solar industry contin-
means that we develop completely and complexity of a ues to grow, new installers
integrated solutions. This calls for both central inverter with will enter the market—and

Co ur te sy E npha se E ne r g y
hardware and software advancements dc-to-dc optimiza- these new installers will
for large commercial installations. On tion is not justified most likely come from the
the hardware side, we will be releas- in residential or ranks of master electri-
ing our 3-phase 480 V product soon, commercial instal- cians. When we signed the
which allows for larger branch circuits lations. We believe Siemens deal, we already
and greater BOS savings. The software that microinverters had relationships with a
component is critical as well because are a true alternative number of mainstream
commercial systems require differ- to central inverters, Designing for manufac- electrical distributors with
ent capabilities, including support for and we’re focused on turability One of Raghu’s portfolios of solar products.
O&M, reporting and system analytics. making them better, primary objectives was to However, this is our first
simpler and more develop an extremely reliable agreement that includes
SP: Does Enphase have specific pro- cost effective. microinverter that could be product cobranding. As
grams or training to assist integrators in produced via a highly auto- Siemens introduces solar to
deploying microinverters into larger com- SP: PV array safety mated manufacturing process. a new set of electrical con-
mercial systems? and fire hazards tractors, we will continue to
RB: Yes, we are building our staff specifi- have become widely discussed topics, focus on supporting our solar installers as
cally for commercial projects, and it’s especially with the addition of arc-fault we develop additional markets.
one of our fastest-growing areas. Today protection to Article 690 of the 2011 NEC.
we work with our installer partners dur- Enphase products will be exempt from SP: Finally, the million-dollar question:
ing all phases of site development, from these requirements due to low dc operat- Enphase announced the development of
technical support during presales to ing voltages. From your perspective, how a new platform for microinverters at SPI
detailed review of line drawings. We also will the new NEC arc-fault requirements 2010 in Los Angeles last October. The
have dedicated sales staff on both coasts impact the industry? platform was developed to enable direct
focused on large commercial integrators RB: The inherent safety advantages of inverter/module integration. Can you
and EPCs. Soon we will be introducing all-ac systems benefit installers, home- share any module partnership details and
targeted training materials such as best owners and firefighters. For this reason, expected release dates?
practices for commercial-scale microin- we see the safety of microinverters as RB: We are excited about the antici-
verter system design and installation. equally important as all their other pated transition to ac modules, which
advantages. We agree with the NFPA’s we believe will have a substantial
SP: As new equipment, including dc decision and feel that arc-fault require- impact on the solar industry. As such,
optimization products, continues to ments should absolutely be in place to its success requires tight collabora-
enter the market, what are Enphase’s ensure a minimum level of public safety. tion with our PV module partners and
strategies for differentiation and main- In my opinion, this is a nontrivial and new design elements on the back of
taining a market edge? critical problem to solve. It’s difficult to the modules for highly reliable electri-
RB: We really don’t see providers of dc- predict the impact of the new require- cal and mechanical interconnection.
to-dc electronics as direct competitors. ments because the enforcement of the Our next generation microinverter
Our goal is to replace central invert- NEC depends on the jurisdiction and the platform, coming out in June or July,
ers for a whole range of performance, discretion of individual inspectors. combines the proven field reliability of
reliability and system design issues, our products with an enclosure design
and dc-to-dc electronics are effectively SP: Enphase recently announced a major that allows for direct integration into
an add-on to central inverter systems. distribution agreement with Siemens, one the module. We have announced part-
Meanwhile, our installers tell us that of the world’s largest suppliers of build- nerships with Canadian Solar, Suntech
dc-to-dc electronics add a whole new ing technology products. The cobranded Power and Upsolar, and we have several
set of issues, such as system installation inverters will be rolled out this summer. Are other module partners committed to
complexity and cost. While the entire additional agreements with other electrical working with us. We expect to provide
industry is focused on driving down BOS product suppliers on the table? formal release timelines with our part-
costs by making PV systems simpler to RB: We are very enthusiastic about the ners in the coming months.

96 S o l a r Pr o | June/July 2011
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solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o 99
Projects System Profiles

RESCo Energy
LoyaltyOne, Mississauga Call Center

Courtesy RESCo Energy (3)


Overview
DATE COMMISSIONED:
L oyaltyOne, owner and operator of
the AIR MILES Reward Program,
engaged RESCo Energy to design and
learn about large grid-connected PV
arrays. RESCo worked collaboratively
with the ESA and utility officials on the
February 2010
build a solar system on a call center specifics of the project through a series
INSTALLATION TIME FRAME:
facility that was already under construc- of meetings. These meetings served to
180 days
tion. The building’s core and shell were help the project as well as increase the
LOCATION: Mississauga, Ontario, designed to LEED Silver requirements, knowledge about solar within Ontario.
43.6°N
and the interior was designed to LEED RESCo worked collaboratively with the
AVERAGE SOLAR RESOURCE: Gold standards. LoyaltyOne decided to entire team, including all subcontractors,
3.8 kWh/m2/day add a PV array eligible for feed-in tariff to ensure that the project was completed
RECORD LOW/AVERAGE HIGH (FIT) rates through the Ontario Power on schedule, on budget and at a high
TEMPERATURES: -22°F/80°F Authority. Connection to the grid and level of quality.
ARRAY CAPACITY: 156.6 kW receipt of a FIT contract occurred in The array employs two solar tech-
AVERAGE ANNUAL AC PRODUCTION: early 2010. This was the largest PV array nologies combined to provide both solar
160 MWh in Ontario’s FIT program at the time electric and solar heat to the building.
of commissioning. RESCo provided all In addition to the PV array, four 4 x 10
design, permitting, project management, solar thermal collectors deliver approxi-
Do you have a recent PV installation and commissioning services mately 34% of the required hot water load.
or thermal project we should for the system. Approximately 90% of the PV modules
consider for publication in When LoyaltyOne approached are situated on the roof of the building.
SolarPro? RESCo, no one in Canada had taken on a The remainder of the modules and the
Email details and photos to: project of this scale. The Electrical Safety solar thermal collectors are integrated
[email protected] Authority (ESA) was just beginning to into a custom carport that is reserved for

100 S o l a r pr o | June/July 2011


Equipment Specifications
MODULES: 764 (48 carport, 716 roof-
top) Sanyo HIT Power 205N, 205 W
STC, +10%/-0%, 5.05 Imp, 40.7 Vmp,
5.54 Isc, 50.3 Voc
INVERTERS: 3-phase, 120/208 Vac
service w/ 22 inverters: four SMA SB
5000-US, 5 kW, 600 Vdc maximum
input, 250–480 Vdc MPPT range; three
SMA SB 6000-US, 6 kW, 600 Vdc
maximum input, 250–480 Vdc MPPT
range; 15 SMA SB 7000-US, 7 kW,
600 Vdc maximum input, 250–480 Vdc
MPPT range
ARRAY, FLAT ROOF: Eight modules
per source circuit on two SB 5000-US
inverters (1,640 W, 5.05 Imp, 325.6
Vmp, 5.54 Isc, 402.4 Voc), three
circuits per inverter (4,920 W, 15.2
Imp, 325.6 Vmp, 16.6 Isc, 402.4 Voc);
nine modules per source circuit on 12
SB 7000-US inverters (1,845 W, 5.05
low-emission–vehicle parking. The loading to the roof deck. This required
Imp, 366.3 Vmp, 5.54 Isc, 452.7 Voc),
inverters are integrated into the employ- a custom flat-mounted system that
four circuits per inverter (7,380 W,
ee’s staff room alongside a standalone tied the PV racking system directly into 20.2 Imp, 366.3 Vmp, 22.2 Isc, 452.7
kiosk to engage staff and visitors. the building’s underlying structural Voc); 10 modules per source circuit on
The construction of the building support columns, suspending the solar three SB 7000-US inverters and three
core was mostly complete when RESCo array above the roof. Multiple sections SB 6000-US inverters (2,050 W, 5.05
began designing the array. This posed were placed to help distribute the Imp, 407 Vmp, 5.54 Isc, 503 Voc), four
challenging space constraints as the weight of the array over the building’s circuits per SB 7000-US (8,200 W, 20.2
building had very little capacity for support columns. This reduced the Imp, 407 Vmp, 22.2 Isc, 503 Voc) three
solar on the roof. Working with an power density but allowed the build- circuits per SB 6000-US (6,150 W, 15.2
Imp, 407 Vmp, 16.6 Isc, 503 Voc)
integrated and collaborative team, ing’s core design to remain unchanged.
RESCo was able to provide a unique “This building was not designed for ARRAY, CARPORT: Eight modules
solution that added no additional a solar array on the roof and as such per source circuit on two SB 5000-US
inverters (1,640 W, 5.05 Imp, 325.6
caused some challenges dur-
Vmp, 5.54 Isc, 402.4 Voc), three
ing the planning stages. Our
circuits per inverter (4,920 W, 15.2 Imp,
team had to get creative. We
325.6 Vmp, 16.6 Isc, 402.4 Voc)
worked closely with the teams
ARRAY INSTALLATION: Conergy
from LoyaltyOne and Bentall
Suntop rails supported by custom
L.P.—the building owner—to
framing on flat roof, 180° azimuth, 0°
provide a solution that met
tilt; Conergy Suntop rails supported by
the needs of the landlord, custom carport, 151° azimuth, 35° tilt
tenant and contractors after
ARRAY STRING COMBINER/S: Mid-
the building construction had
night Solar MNPV6
begun. The result is one of
SYSTEM MONITORING: Sunny Boy
the largest rooftop arrays in
Portal
Canada, on a building that
was never designed to sup-
port a solar array.”
–Fidel Reijerse, president,
RESCo Energy

solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o 101
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102 S o l a r pr o | June/July 2011


Advertiser Index
Company Page Company Page Company Page
A.O. Smith 79 HEYCO 12 Seaward Solar 55
Advanced Energy Renewables 71 Hyundai Solar 21 Session Solar 95
Advanced Protection Technologies 97 Ideematec 44 SMA America 9
AEE Solar 3 Intersolar North America 25 Solar Depot/DC Power Systems IBC
aleo solar North America 47 JAC-Rack 53 Solar Energy International 95
Allied Moulded 80 Lumos 61 Solar Pathfinder 97
altE direct 20 MidNite Solar 99 Solar Solutions 85
Appalachian State University 102 Midwest Renewable Energy Association 90 SolarEdge 59
ArgusON 87 Mike Holt Enterprises 91 SolarHub.com 103
Astronergy 43 Mitsubishi Electric 49 SolarNexus 87
Backwoods Solar 102 NABCEP 63 SolarWorld BC
Bosch Solar Energy 73 ONTILITY 15 Solectria Renewables 35
Canadian Solar 93 OutBack Power 10/11 Solmetric 99
Delta Energy Systems 41 Pike Energy Solutions 23 Solon 69
DPW Solar 84 Power-One 5 Stiebel Eltron 77
EagleView Technologies 65 PROINSO 31 Sunmodo 102
EcoFasten Solar 99 pv recycling 99 SunWize 45
Eltek Valere 81 PVSelect.com 102 Tanner Bolt 103
Enphase Energy 13 Quick Mount PV 27 Trina Solar 1
ET Solar 7 REC 2 Trojan Battery 37
Fronius USA 17 S-5! 97 Unirac 33
GAF 67 Satcon Technology IFC UPSOLAR 39
groSolar 18, 19 Schletter 48 US Solar Distributing 70
Heliodyne 83 Schneider Electric 51 Zep Solar 4
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HelioPower 62 SCHOTT Solar 89 Zomeworks 97

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solarprofessional.com | S o l a r P r o 103
Projects
NW Photon Energy
CherryWood Village Retirement Community
Overview
DESIGNER: John Stimac, system
designer, Renewable Energy Associ-
ates, renewableassociates.com
LEAD INSTALLER: Guy Anderson,

C o u r t e s y R e ne w a b l e E n e r g y A sso c i a te s ( 2 )
project manager, NW Photon Energy,
nwphotonenergy.com
DATE COMMISSIONED:
February 2011
INSTALLATION TIME FRAME: 35 days

LOCATION: Portland, OR, 45.5°N

AVERAGE SOLAR RESOURCE:


3.73 kWh/m2/day
HIGH/LOW DESIGN TEMPERATURES:
per solarabcs.org/permitting/map:
89.6°F/17.6°F
ARRAY CAPACITY: 92.4 kW

AVERAGE ANNUAL AC PRODUCTION: C herryWood Village Retirement


Community is a 318-unit senior liv-
ing facility located in Portland, Oregon,
planned around the rooftop features.
Upon further review by a structural engi-
neer and the roof truss manufacturer,
88,660 kWh
and owned by Generations LLC. It is the the preliminary design of 150 kW was
Equipment Specifications first such facility in Portland to utilize
solar power. The 92.4 kW PV system,
reduced to 92 kW due to loading restric-
tions. In addition, the new Oregon Solar
MODULES: 420 Schuco MPE 220 PS one of the largest in the metropolitan Installation Specialty Code and strict
092, 220 W STC, +5%/-0%, 7.38 Imp, area, is expected to cut the facility’s AHJ requirements regarding wind load-
29.7 Vmp, 8.12 Isc, 36.77 Voc annual electric bills by 25%. ing ruled out a ballasted racking system.
INVERTERS: 3-phase, 120/208 Vac Due to the building’s many architec- This resulted in over 800 4-feet-on-center
service, 12 SMA SB7000-US, 7 kW, tural features and obstructions on the penetrations in the built-up asphalt roof
600 Vdc maximum input, 250–480 Vdc roof, it was necessary to create a full 3-D to accommodate the racking system.
max MPPT range, 208 Vac output drawing after doing the roof shade analy- A professional roofing company sealed
ARRAY: 12 modules per source circuit
sis. The module layout had to be carefully the penetrations.
(2,640 W STC, 7.4 Imp, 356 Vmp, 8.1
The Schuco ezRail Mounting Sys-
Isc, 442 Voc), three circuits per inverter
tem is paired with custom tilt-up legs
on 11 inverters (7,920 W STC, 22.2
to accommodate varying roof slopes.
Imp, 356 Vmp, 24.4 Isc, 442 Voc), two
Wiley Electronics WEEB clips ground
circuits on one inverter (5,280 W STC,
the Schuco modules. The source circuits
14.8 Imp, 356 Vmp, 16.2 Isc, 442 Voc)
are routed through one NEMA 3R junc-
tion box, allowing a single conduit run
ARRAY INSTALLATION: built-up off the roof and into wireways con-
asphalt flat roof, Schuco SolarEZ nected to the inverters.
Mounting System, 211° azimuth, “We are excited about the end result of
7.5° tilt the CherryWood project. Since the array
ARRAY STRING COMBINERS: SMA can be seen from some of the residences,
inverter-integrated combiners and aesthetics and array placement were
disconnects, 15 A fuses important considerations. The close
SYSTEM MONITORING: SMA Webbox communication with the building owners,
architect and residents helped make this
a highly successful project.”
—Kirk Cameron, founder,
NW Photon Energy

104 S o l a r pr o | June/July 2011


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