3

4 MODULE 1 CAUSE AND

EFFECT – OBSERVING
Behind every scientific investigation lies an observation. Whether it is a change in the environment,
a new combination of disease symptoms or a product of a chemical reaction, observations provoke
thought and inspire scientists to formulate questions, design tests and discover results that support
or disprove a theory.
INQUIRY QUESTIONS

•• How do observations inform scientific investigations?

•• What are the benefits and limitations of qualitative and quantitative observations?
•• How do you accurately collect primary data?
•• How can the data from a primary investigation be collected and presented to reflect the
outcome?
•• How do conclusions drawn from primary scientific investigations promote further research?
CONTENT

Students investigate:
•• role of observations •• observations as evidence
•• types of observations •• observing, collecting and recording data
OUTCOMES

A student:
•• develops and evaluates questions and hypotheses for scientific investigation INS11/12-1
•• conducts investigations to collect valid and reliable primary and secondary data and information
INS11/12-13

•• selects and processes appropriate qualitative and quantitative data and information using a range
of appropriate media INS11/12-4
•• identifies that the collection of primary and secondary data initiates scientific investigations INS11-8

Investigating Science Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017

36 9780170411196
9780170411196
Shutterstock.com/Songkris Khunkham

37
 3.1 Role of observations
Forms of observation
Usually the word observation is associated with something that has been seen. However, as shown in
Figure 3.1.1, observations actually include information that has been acquired through any of the senses;
including sight, hearing, taste, feeling and smell. People make unique observations related to their life on
a daily basis. For example, you may observe that it is raining by listening to the rain drops on your roof
or feeling a rise in the humidity.

Observations

Seeing Hearing Tasting Smelling Feeling

FIGURE 3.1.1 Observation comes in many forms.

chemical reaction Having many forms of observation is imperative to scientists as it allows them to gain information in
chemical process a variety of ways. For example, chemists may regularly use a combination of sight and smell to determine
that involves the
rearrangement of the nature of a chemical reaction whilst biologists and environmental scientists may rely more heavily
the elements of the
reactants into new upon sight and hearing to work out specific ecological interactions. By combining different forms of
products observation, scientists are able to make conclusions that support or disprove scientific hypotheses and
encourage further research.

Observations and inferences

After observing an interaction, relationship or phenomenon, it is natural to make assumptions as to why
inference it occurred. These assumptions are known as inferences and are an attempt to explain an observation
conclusion that is
rationally and logically using reasoning.
made based on People make inferences based on the observations that they make every day. For example, it could be
observations and
available information inferred that someone has bad eyesight if they are wearing glasses, is happy if they are smiling or late if
they are running at a train station.
WS
Because inferences are based on assumptions, making too many without questioning can be
problematic. For this reason, scientists investigate the cause of an observed effect through extensive
Worksheets
Homework
3.1.1 Observation testing which allows them to make informed conclusions.
and inference

3.1.1 African
animals live
webcam

38 MODULE ONE » Cause and effect – observing 9780170411196

 INVESTIGATION 3.1.1

Making inferences
AIM
To demonstrate that the difference between an observation and an inference can be completed without
the use of any scientific equipment

METHOD

1 Copy and complete the table below to record six observations and inferences.

ITEM OBSERVATION(S) INFERENCE

2 Select six items from your backpack and lay them out in front of you.
3 Use different forms of observation to investigate your partner’s items and write your observations in the
appropriate column.
4 Use reasoning to infer why your partner has each item and write it in the ‘Inference’ column in your table.
5 Discuss the items with your partner to determine if your inferences were correct.

Recording data from observations

No matter how a practical investigation is designed, scientists always rely on the data collected from qualitative data
observations to inform their results. There are two ways in which data is collected from any form of descriptive data
collected as
observation; qualitative data collection and quantitative data collection. Depending on the way in which evidence during an
data is collected, an observation is categorised as being inherently qualitative or quantitative. investigation (e.g.
images, observational
Quantitative observations are those that rely on the measurement and use of scientific equipment sentences)
to collect data. Qualitative observations are those that rely on personal opinions and/or descriptions
quantitative data
during data collection. Practical investigations can focus on recording qualitative data, quantitative data numerical values
collected as evidence
or a combination of both. during an investigation
(e.g. calculations,
Qualitative and quantitative measurements)
Alamy Stock Photo/Gallo Images

observations in behavioural
science
The field of behavioural science is built upon
observing biological interactions. Behavioural
science laboratories often involve many
hours of attentively recording interactions
between species such as the number of times
a male fish swims toward a female fish, or species
group of living
the manner and direction in which a spider organisms with similar
characteristics that can
weaves its web. FIGURE 3.1.2 Behavioural scientists also work in the field interbreed
to observe interactions between species.

9780170411196 CHAPTER 3 » Cause and effect – observing 39

 INVESTIGATION 3.1.2

Burning a candle in a closed container

AIM
To make observations of a burning candle in a closed container

MATERIALS

•• floating candle
•• trough
•• water
•• matches
•• large beaker
•• stopwatch

METHOD

1 Pour enough water in a trough to cover the base.

2 Place the candle on top of the water.
3 Light the candle using a match.
4 Place the large beaker upside down over the candle.
FIGURE 3.1.3 Experimental set-up
5 Record quantitative and qualitative observations in a table.

RESULTS
Copy and complete the table below.

QUANTITATIVE OBSERVATIONS QUALITATIVE OBSERVATIONS

DISCUSSION

1 Select one qualitative observation and infer why it occurred.

2 Select one quantitative observation and infer why it occurred.

40 MODULE ONE » Cause and effect – observing 9780170411196

 INVESTIGATION 3.1.3

Qualitative and quantitative observations

This practical highlights how qualitative and quantitative observations are made in behavioural science by
recording the behaviours of slaters in wet and dry environments. It is best to complete this practical in groups
with each member responsible for a particular role, such as ‘observers’ and ‘recorders’.

AIM
To determine differences in behaviour of slaters in wet and dry environments

MATERIALS

•• two slaters
•• dry soil
•• water
•• two petri dishes
•• tablespoon
•• stopwatch

METHOD

1 Place 2 tablespoons of dry soil in each petri dish.

2 Add 1 tablespoon of water to one petri dish and label it ‘W’ (wet).
3 Label the second petri dish ‘D’ (dry).
4 Place one slater in each petri dish.
5 Start the stopwatch.
6 Create a tally in the appropriate column each time the slater moves and record the time of the movement
in minutes and seconds.
7 Stop recording after 10 minutes.
8 Discuss which slater’s movement was faster or slower with your group and record your observations in the
appropriate column.
9 Compare your findings with other groups.

RESULTS
Copy and complete the following table.

QUALITATIVE OBSERVATIONS QUANTITATIVE OBSERVATIONS

Speed of movement Number of movements Time of each movement

(fast/slow) (min/sec)

Wet environment

Dry environment

DISCUSSION

     Infer why each slater behaved in the manner observed.

9780170411196 CHAPTER 3 » Cause and effect – observing 41

 Scientific observations in history
Imagefolk/Image Asset Management

Many of history’s greatest scientific breakthroughs have been the result

of a simple observation that sparked inquiry and experimentation.
Without these initial observations made by scientists such as
Archimedes, Galileo and Fleming much of our understanding of pivotal
concepts underpinning the interactions of our daily lives would not be
understood.

Archimedes: Observing water displacement

If you’re planning on taking a bath, you know that you can’t fill the water
FIGURE 3.1.4 Archimedes developing the Archimedes’ right up to the top because once you get in, the water will topple over
principle through observation and inference.
the sides and spill on to the floor. While you can easily identify that your
body volume is the reason for the increase in water level, it was the mathematician Archimedes who
applied this everyday observation to formulate a theory he named Archimedes’ principle.
Believed to have occurred around 265 BCE, the motivation behind his principle came about when
mass Archimedes was summoned by King Hiero II to investigate his suspicion that a goldsmith replaced some of
amount of matter in a the gold in his crown with silver. With no way to easily determine it at the time, Archimedes was asked to
solid, liquid or gas
find a solution to the dilemma. It was during his routine bath that Archimedes had an epiphany: the amount
of water displaced was equal to the volume of an object and that this volume could be used to determine
density. With this knowledge, he investigated samples of known gold and silver. Once he figured out the
density of both he submerged the crown in water and used its mass to determine whether its density was
3.1.2 Water
displacement equal to gold or silver. Archimedes found the density of the crown higher than that of silver but less than
simulation gold, confirming the King’s suspicions that a mixture of the two was used.
3.1.3 How taking
a bath led to
Archimedes’
principle
3.1.4 the real
story behind
Archimedes’
Eureka!
KEY FORMULA

The crown and the gold The crown displaced more

mass
Density = have equal mass. water than the gold.
volume
FIGURE 3.1.5 By submerging a fragment of gold with the same mass as the crown, Archimedes was able
to determine that the two were not equal in density.
Imagefolk/World History Archive/Ann
Ronan Collection

Alexander Fleming: Observing the effect

of mould on bacterial growth
In 1928, after Alexander Fleming left his workbench
scattered with poorly sealed petri dishes containing cultured
staphylococci bacteria, he returned from holiday to make a
crucial observation. Shown in Figure 3.1.7, Fleming noticed
that one of the petri dishes had been contaminated by a
mould (Penicillium notatum) and around the mould was an
FIGURE 3.1.6 Alexander Fleming’s observation
area clear of bacteria. Interested and wanting to find out was essential to modern medicine.

42 MODULE ONE » Cause and effect – observing 9780170411196

 more, he isolated the mould and experimented on a range of different bacterial groups to see if it had the
same effect. He published his findings in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology in 1929; however, it
was another ten years before a group of scientists at Oxford University transformed this laboratory mistake
into the life-saving antibiotic that is still used today: penicillin.

FIGURE 3.1.7
Getty Images/Bettmann

In Fleming’s culture
of staphylococcal
Penicillin colony bacteria he observed
a reduction in
Staphylococci undergoing bacterial growth
cell death surrounding the
penicillin mould.

Normal staphylococcal
colony

Galileo: Observing the movement of Jupiter’s moons

Over 400 years ago Galileo Galilei made a series of observations that shifted scientific thought and formed
the basis of modern cosmology. While viewing Jupiter through his homemade telescope, Galileo saw what
he thought were three fixed stars in a line through the planet. After a month of observations, Galileo found
there were in fact four objects and that these ‘stars’ were carried along with Jupiter as it orbited, changing
positions along the way (Figure 3.1.8). The stars appeared to be orbiting Jupiter; an observation that contested
traditional cosmology’s idea that there was only one centre of motion in the Solar System.

4 12 3
7 January 1610

4 1 2 3
8 January

4 32 1
10 January 1 Io
2 Europa
3 Ganymede
3 4 12 4 Callisto
11 January

3 14 2 12 January

2 31 4
13 January

FIGURE 3.1.8 Galileo’s observations of Jupiter’s moons

Galileo’s discovery came at a time where there were two conflicting models
of our Solar System: the geocentric (Earth-centred) model and the heliocentric
(Sun-centred) model. As technology was limited, there was conflict over which
system should prevail. The geocentric model was based upon the belief that
Earth was different to other planets as it clearly had an orbiting moon. However,
Galileo’s discovery confirmed that Earth was not the only planet to have objects
in its orbit, which suggested that our Solar System may be arranged differently
to what was accepted at the time and eventually provided support for the later
devised heliocentric model.

9780170411196 CHAPTER 3 » Cause and effect – observing 43

 Observations by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples
For tens of thousands of years, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders peoples have been applying
observations of their natural environment to ensure their use of the land was carried out sustainably.
One way of managing land is through the use of fire. Fires are lit on mornings in the cooler months of
3.1.5 Traditional
Indigenous land the year, and in conditions where there is low cloud and little to no breeze. Aside from reducing the risk
management
of spontaneous wildfires in the hotter months, controlling fire in this manner also increases the nutrient
availability in the soil to encourage fresh growth and germinates seeds that are triggered by heat and smoke.

INQUIRING
FURTHER
Investigate how traditional land management is being trialled in New South Wales. Present your findings in an essay
format as a justification for the re-introduction of Indigenous land management.

SECTION
REVIEW REMEMBERING
1 Identify five ways in which you can make an observation.
3.1 2 Define:
a 'quantitative observation'. b 'qualitative observation'. c 'inference'.
UNDERSTANDING
3 Illustrate how Archimedes proved that the crown of King Hiero II wasn’t made of solid gold.
4 Describe how experimentation was used by two scientists to determine the cause of a known effect.
APPLYING
5 Examine Figure 3.1.9 and determine whether each of the following statements is a qualitative
observation, quantitative observation or an inference.
a The frog is 17.34 mm in length.

Photo by Mark Roth, USGS, UMESC, 2007

b The frog is green.
c A scientist is measuring the length of a frog.
d A digital ruler is being used to measure a frog.
e The frog is a juvenile.
f The frog is about to be returned to its natural
environment.
6 Demonstrate how Archimedes’ principle could be
used in modern science? FIGURE 3.1.9 Scientists use digital rulers to
accurately measure small organisms.
7 Explain the importance of plants to modern health.

WS

Worksheets
Homework
3.2.1 Qualitative
3.2 Types of observations
and quantitative
data

Quantitative and qualitative observations

As the name suggests, quantitative data refers to observations that are based on quantities or numerical
3.2.1 How values. In most cases, quantitative data is collected using scientific equipment. Observing time using a
simple ideas
lead to scientific stopwatch, distance using a measuring tape, temperature using a data logger, or volume using a pipette
discoveries
are all forms of quantitative observation.
Unlike quantitative data, qualitative observations rely on personal opinion to describe the results
of an investigation. Describing the colour, smell or appearance of an object or substance are examples
of qualitative observation.
44 MODULE ONE » Cause and effect – observing 9780170411196
 Observations in everyday life
Humans are known to be curious creatures, with some young children asking a question based on an
observation every five minutes. Our naturally inquisitive nature inspires us to try to make sense of our
observations by asking questions, developing hypotheses and designing primary investigations.

Observing pH pH scale
scale ranging from
The term pH relates to the amount of hydrogen ions that are released in a solution; or in other words, it 1–14 that describes
the acidity or alkalinity
refers to the acidity or alkalinity (baseness) of a substance. As shown in Figure 3.2.1, the pH of a substance of a substance
is measured on a pH scale that usually ranges from 1−14.

pH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Description Strong acid Weak acid Neutral Weak base Strong base

FIGURE 3.2.1 pH scale

Finding the pH of a substance is important in many facets of

Alamy Stock Photo/sciencephotos

science and everyday life; it can determine whether a plant will
grow in a certain soil, a particular facial cream is suitable for use
on human skin, pool water is safe to swim in, and even to balance
flavour combinations in food.
pH can be measured both quantitatively and qualitatively.
Quantitative data collection is enabled through the use of a
data logger with a pH attachment to give a digital reading. A
combination of qualitative and quantitative data is used when
universal indicator is added to a substance and the colour change
is compared to a pH colour chart.

FIGURE 3.2.2 Data loggers are used

to collect quantitative data.

Imagefolk/Bilderbox
Photographer: CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products

FIGURE 3.2.3 Universal indicator shows both quantitative and FIGURE 3.2.4 Substances with universal
qualitative data. indictor added display different pH values.

9780170411196 CHAPTER 3 » Cause and effect – observing 45

 INVESTIGATION 3.2.1

Measuring the pH of household substances

Using a universal indicator, a data logger and a pH colour chart, you can test the acidity and alkalinity of the
substances you are exposed to on a daily basis, using both quantitative and qualitative observations.
AIM
To determine the pH value of a range of household substances
MATERIALS
•• universal indicator solution and pH colour chart
•• data logger with pH probe
•• distilled water
•• six samples of household substances such as: shampoo, lemon juice, salt, sugar, bleach, pool water
samples, dish washing detergent, lemonade, antacid tablet, vinegar, fabric softener, baking soda
•• test tube rack
•• six test tubes (one for each sample)

! HAZARD MANAGEMENT
RISK
ASSESSMENT Splash household substances in eyes Wear eye protection (goggles)

Broken glass Place all glass in centre of bench

Stop working immediately if a break occurs and notify teacher

METHOD
1 Set up the test tubes in test tube rack.
2 Label each test tube from A−F.
3 Place 2 cm of each of the household substances into the test tubes (you may need to add distilled
water to the substance if it is a solid).
4 Submerge the tip of the data logger probe into solution A, recording the pH value in your results table.
5 Repeat step 4 for the remaining solutions, rinsing the end of the probe in distilled water between each test.
6 Add two drops of universal indicator to each test tube.
7 Gently swirl each test tube so that the universal indicator is uniformly mixed with the substance.
8 Compare the colour of the substance to the pH colour chart.
9 Record the colour and pH of each substance in your table.
RESULTS
Copy and complete the table below.
TEST TUBE SUBSTANCE pH VALUE FROM pH VALUE FROM
DATA LOGGER COLOUR CHART
A
B
C
D
E
F

DISCUSSION
Analyse your results and comment on any similarities or discrepancies between the two forms of data collection.
CONCLUSION
Describe any generalisations or trends related to the acidity or alkalinity of the substances tested and their
general use in the household.

46 MODULE ONE » Cause and effect – observing 9780170411196

 Observing objects falling due to gravity

Alamy Stock Photo/North Wind Picture Archives Archives

Sir Isaac Newton was not the first person to observe an object falling towards the earth,
but he was the first to thoroughly investigate and draw concrete conclusions from
his observations. The legend tells us that gravity was discovered when an apple fell on
Newton’s head; however, his law of universal gravitation was actually a culmination of
years of research based on centuries of observations and the knowledge of many scientists.
During his eventual formulation of the law of universal gravitation, Sir Isaac Newton relied
on quantitative observations of mass and distance in order to calculate force.
Although the concept of gravity is still not fully understood, the formulation
of Newton’s law highlighted that gravitational force differs between objects of
varying mass and varying distance.
Figures 3.2.6 and 3.2.7 show that quantitative observations of mass, time
and distance can be plotted on a graph to provide a visual representation of FIGURE 3.2.5 Sir Isaac Newton

KEY FORMULA
Newton’s law of universal gravitation
KEY LAW

Newton’s law of universal gravitation

A particle attracts every other particle in  m × m2 

F=G  1 
the universe using a force that is directly  r2  3.2.2
proportional to the product of their Misconceptions
F = force about falling
masses and inversely proportional to the objects
square of the distances between them. G = gravitational constant 3.2.3 Isaac
Newton: The
m1 = mass object 1 man who
discovered
gravity
m2 = mass object 2
r = distance between two objects
Michael Courtney at English Wikipedia

300
Acoustic fall time versus height

295 0.50
0.45 Measured time
290 (2h/g)1/2
Free fall time (seconds)

0.40
Time (seconds)

285 0.35
0.30
280
0.25
275 0.20
0.15
270
0.10
265 0.05
0
260
70 75 80 85 90 95
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1
Jumper mass (kg) Height (metres)

FIGURE 3.2.6 Graph showing the relationship between the mass FIGURE 3.2.7 Graph showing the relationship between the
of a free fall jumper and the time they are in falling motion. distance of an object from the ground, and the time it takes for
the object to hit the ground.

INQUIRING
FURTHER
Although it seems like common sense that objects fall towards the earth due to gravity, there was a time before Newton when
gravity was poorly understood. Research the myths and misconceptions about gravity to learn more about the theories behind
what we now know as the force applied by Earth’s mass. Share and compare your research with a classmate.

9780170411196 CHAPTER 3 » Cause and effect – observing 47

 the relationship between the mass or distance of objects and the time in which it takes them to fall. From
graphs such as these, scientists can predict the speed at which the object is falling or the force applied to
the falling object.

Describing cells from hand-drawn and digital images

In the 21st century, scientists are fortunate to have relatively easy access to technology that allows
them to view objects and specimens on a cellular level. By making qualitative observations of cell
characteristics, scientists can propose hypotheses and account for differences in specialised cellular
structures according to their function. These observations may include the location and shape of the
cell organelle
cell structure that has a cell, the types of cell organelle present, whether the cell has structures that allow it to move or if it has
specific function a membrane-bound nucleus.

Fat
droplets
Cartilage-
forming
cells

Adipose
Cell tissue Matrix
nucleus
Cartilage
(at the end of a bone)
Collagen
fibres Central
canal
Fibrous connective Cell
White
tissue (forming blood
a tendon) cells Matrix

Collagen Red
fibre Bone-forming
blood Bone
Plasma cells
cells
Elastic Blood
Loose connective
fibres
tissue (under the skin)

FIGURE 3.2.8 There are many different types of cells in the human body and each is specialised to carry out a specific role. For example, red blood cells
lose their nucleus as they mature to provide more space to carry oxygen. This figure shows examples of cell specialisation in human connective tissue.

Collecting quantitative data from images of cells

While examining the qualitative characteristics of cells can indicate specialisation, collecting quantitative
data from images of cells can provide scientists with a more sophisticated understanding of the cells'
function.
One of the most common forms of quantitative data that scientists need to collect is cell size. Cell
size indicates the amount of nutrients and energy the cell requires which can provide information as to
how the cell functions in the body. For example, the largest cell observed in the human body is the egg
cell, or ovum, which is 0.1 mm in diameter. On the contrary, at just 0.05 mm, sperm cells are the smallest

48 MODULE ONE » Cause and effect – observing 9780170411196

 observed cell (Figure 3.2.9). While both contribute an equal amount of DNA to the developing embryo, the
ovum also contains all the instructions for embryonic development and must also have enough energy
to sustain itself during cellular division and thus must be significantly larger in size. The sperm cell is
little more than a nucleus with mitochondria for energy and a flagellum attached; it is small because its
function is to deliver DNA to the ovum.

Observing rock strata

Not only have scientific observations led to an increased

Science Source/David M. Phillips

understanding of the phenomena in our current world,
they have also allowed us to gain insight as to how
certain environments may have looked before humans
were alive to document them.
Geological exploration and examination of fossils
found in sedimentary rocks provides scientists with
evidence to suggest how the dominant flora, fauna
and terrain of an environment have changed over time.
Scientific understanding of sedimentary rock formation
indicates that the deeper the rock strata, the older the
rock and therefore the older any biological material
contained within it, such as fossils.
This knowledge of rock formation coupled with
radiometric dating
radiometric dating has contributed to the construction technique used to date
rocks and minerals
of geological eras and periods shown in Figure 3.2.11. FIGURE 3.2.9 Ovum and sperm: the largest and based on the decay
Radiometric dating is a quantitative form of data smallest observed cells in the human body have a rate of radioactive
great responsibility in the continuation of human isotopes
collection that uses the rate of decay in the radioactive beings.
isotopes present in minerals to determine the age of
rock strata.

FIGURE 3.2.10
Rock strata showing
geological succession.

INQUIRING
FURTHER
What do you know about how your local area may have looked in the past? Conduct your own research to determine how your
environment may have looked throughout geological time. Present your research as an annotated timeline.

9780170411196 CHAPTER 3 » Cause and effect – observing 49

 Millions of years PERIOD REPRESENTATIVE LIFE
before present Quaternary period
1.5

Cenozoic era Tertiary period Primitive horses

(recent life)
65

Cretaceous period Last dinosaurs

140

Mesozoic era Jurassic period Quarry dinosaurs

(middle life)
210
Triassic period First dinosaurs
245
Permian period Primitive reptiles
290
Pennsylvanian period Giant insects
320
Mississippian period Brachiopods
360
Devonian period Primitive fishes
Palaeozoic era 410
(ancient life)
Silurian period Sea scorpions
440

Ordovician period Nautiloids

500

Cambrian period Trilobites

570

Fossils older than the Cambrian period are rare. This earlier span of time is called the
Precambrian period.

FIGURE 3.2.11 The geological timescale is constructed using geological evidence of major environmental changes.

Limitations of qualitative data

The type of data collection used in a primary investigation is determined by the nature of the hypothesis
being tested. While qualitative data allows data to be described, quantitative data collection is regarded
as being more scientifically accurate as it reduces the amount of error that may occur between scientists.
Have you ever asked your parents to have a ‘small’ party only to find out their definition of ‘small’ is
very different to yours? Well, this occurs between scientists too. One scientist may describe the texture of
a mineral using the term ‘hard’ but this can be perceived differently by different scientists. While timber
and steel can both be described as ‘hard’ surfaces, one is actually much harder than the other. For this
reason, it is beneficial to combine qualitative data with some form of quantitative measurement such as
a scale. Mohs’ hardness scale is an example of how one type of qualitative data can become quantitative
(Figure 3.2.12).

50 MODULE ONE » Cause and effect – observing 9780170411196

 ABILITY TO RELATIVE
MINERAL
SCRATCH HARDNESS

iStock.com/MarcelC Shutterstock.com/vvoe
Scrapeable
Talc 1
with fingernail

Scratchable with
Gypsum 2
fingernail

Shutterstock.com/
Scratchable with
Calcite 3
Jiri Vaclave
copper coin

Easily scratchable
iStock.com/
BruceBlock

Fluorite 4
with knife
Shutterstock.com/

Scratchable
Apatite 5
Fokin Oleg

with knife
Shutterstock.com/

Scratchable with
Feldspar 6
Fokin Oleg

steel file
Shutterstock.com/

Scratches window
ArtOfPhotos

Quartz 7
glass
iStock.com/Kerrick

Scratches
Topaz 8
quartz
iStock.com/lissart

Corundum Scratches
9
topaz
Stellar-Serbia
iStock.com/

Scratches
Diamond 10
corundum

FIGURE 3.2.12 Mohs’ hardness scale

9780170411196 CHAPTER 3 » Cause and effect – observing 51

 INVESTIGATION 3.2.2

Making qualitative and quantitative observations in a primary

scientific investigation
This practical demonstrates examples of qualitative and quantitative observations, and how each type of
observation can be applied during one investigation.

AIM

Ben Irwin © 2017

To determine the effect of water and salt solutions
on the length and texture of a gummi bear over time

MATERIALS

•• three gummi bears

•• three 50 mL beakers
•• distilled water
•• salt
•• teaspoon
•• ruler
FIGURE 3.2.13 Doing a simple test using gummi bears can
METHOD easily demonstrate the difference between qualitative and
quantitative observations.
1 Measure the size of three gummi bears using
a ruler and record this in the results table.
2 Feel the texture of the gummi bears and write a description in the results table.
3 Label the beakers: water, salt + water, and no water.
4 Place one gummi bear in each 50 mL beaker.
5 Fill two beakers with 25 mL of distilled water.
6 Add one teaspoon of salt to the beaker labelled ‘salt + water’.
7 Leave the beakers in the same environment for 3 days.
8 Record the size and texture of each gummi bear in the results table.

RESULTS
Copy and complete the table below.

WATER SALT + WATER NO WATER

Before After Before After Before After

Length (cm)

Texture

DISCUSSION

1 Which observation was:

a qualitative?
b quantitative?
2 Which type of data was easier to observe and record? Justify your answer.
3 What is the purpose of having a beaker with no water?

EX TENSION
Conduct further research to explain your results.

52 MODULE ONE » Cause and effect – observing 9780170411196

 SECTION
REMEMBERING REVIEW
1 State the limitation of qualitative data.
2 Define radiometric dating as a form of quantitative observation. 3.2
UNDERSTANDING
3 Explain how you can qualitatively and quantitatively describe the pH values of acids and bases.
4 Describe the importance of obtaining quantitative data from cells diagrams.
APPLYING
5 Describe an example where it would be more appropriate to use:
a quantitative observation to collect data.
b qualitative observation to collect data.
6 Determine the accuracy of quantitative and qualitative data.
7 Figure 3.2.14 shows three separate rock strata samples. Analyse the diagram and answer the following questions.
a Identify two quantitative observations from this diagram.
b Describe a qualitative observation from Outcrop III.
c Which outcrop is the oldest? Justify your answer.

FIGURE 3.2.14
Outcrop II Outcrop III Three samples of rock
Surface Surface strata.
F
L
Outcrop I
Surface
G
A M

B H N

C I O

D J P

E K
Q

8 Construct your own pH scale that includes the value, description, colour and an example of a substance at
each number on the scale.

3.3 Observations as evidence

In our daily lives, people form hypotheses and design investigations without even realising. For example, a hypothesis
educated guess
person may observe that their skin breaks out in a rash every time they use a certain brand of sunscreen, tested through
experimentation to
they may then hypothesise that the sunscreen is causing the rash and they may then choose to use answer the inquiry
a different sunscreen brand in order to support or disprove their hypothesis. While the person in the question; states the
relationship between
scenario may believe that they have determined the cause of the problem, the results are not deemed the independent and
accurate unless they have followed every step in the scientific method. dependent variables

9780170411196 CHAPTER 3 » Cause and effect – observing 53

 Designing a scientific investigation
valid The role of a scientist is to collect scientific data. When most people visualise scientists at work, they
extent to which a
report or investigation usually picture a clinical laboratory and a white coat. Although it is the most publicised form of scientific
contains accurate work, lab testing is only one of many methods of scientific data collection. Scientists can also be found
data, inferences and
conclusions collecting data in hospital settings, conducting surveys on the streets or over the telephone, building
reliable
models or digital simulations, diving the depths of the ocean or climbing metres from smouldering
extent to which an volcanic lava.
observation and/or
measurement can be Whether the data is being collected in a confined laboratory or the open ocean, the design of every
repeated under the investigation must adhere to a specific subset of rules to ensure the data collected is valid, reliable and
same circumstances and
produce similar results accurate. The rules that underpin the scientific method are outlined in Figure 3.3.1.

FIGURE 3.3.1
Scientists must follow
the steps of scientific Observations
WS method to ensure the
data collected can
Worksheets
Homework be used for future
3.3.1 research.
Observations Determine whether data
as evidence support or disprove hypotheses. Propose questions.
research task
Determine how conclusions Perform background research.
fit in with other information.

Conclusions Hypotheses

Check experimental results

for reproducibility. Select or develop models.

Analyse data Design experiments to test

and compare them hypotheses.
with predictions.

Controlled experiments

Developing a research question based on an observation

Observations are the platform of every scientific investigation. In order for an observation to be
investigated, it must first be transformed into a specific research question. Making the question specific
allows you to identify your exact intentions and will make for a much easier design process. For example,
the classic question, ‘Why is the sky blue?’ is not a specific question. To make your question more specific,
you must think of what it really is that you are wanting to investigate; in this case, a better question would
independent
be ‘How do wavelengths of light interact in different environments?’
variable
factor deliberately
changed during an
Identifying variables
investigation to obtain Once a specific research question has been developed, you must consider the variables of your scientific
data
design.
controlled variable In every primary scientific investigation, there should only be one independent variable; this is
factor that is kept
constant during the the one factor that is deliberately being changed to see whether it has an effect on the result of the
investigation
investigation. Considering all other factors that may influence the result of the investigation is addressed
control through controlled variables which are the factors that must be kept the same between the control and
experimental set-up
where the independent the independent variable. By deliberately changing only one factor whilst keeping all others the same, the
variable is not applied
scientist can determine whether what is being changed is in fact the cause of an effect.

54 MODULE ONE » Cause and effect – observing 9780170411196

 Every primary scientific investigation must have a focus or dependent variable; this is based upon the dependent
variable
initial observation. The dependent variable is the factor that is being measured to determine whether or factor measured in
not what is being changed is producing the observed effect. the investigation
By clearly identifying and addressing the independent and controlled variables, you can determine
the most appropriate form of data collection. A scientific investigation can only be deemed valid if the
method of data collection is regulated, there is only one factor being changed, and all other factors are
considered and kept the same.

Variables in context

Shutterstock.com/somchai rakin
Variables can be put in perspective through reference
to the question, ‘Does fertiliser increase root growth in
Gardenia jasminoides?’ Here, the independent variable
is the addition of fertiliser to one experimental
group and the control is the group with no fertiliser
added. Variables that must be controlled include the
environment both plants are left in, the amount of
soil and water added, the type and age of the plant,
the time each plant is left to grow, and the measuring
equipment and technique used to measure root
growth. Controlling all possible conditions will
therefore allow for the dependent variable, the length
of the roots, to be measured and a cause-and-effect FIGURE 3.3.2 Reliable results must show the
relationship to be determined. relationship between the independent and
dependent variable in many specimens.

Forming a hypothesis
Identifying the variables in a primary scientific investigation allows for a hypothesis to be devised. A
hypothesis is an educated guess based on the relationship between the independent variable and the
dependent variable in your investigation. The hypothesis forms the context of the investigation and
guides each step in your experiment. At the conclusion of your investigation, you analyse your data in
terms of your hypothesis by either supporting or disproving it.

Constructing a method
Following the formation of a hypothesis, a method must be constructed to test the claim. The method
must explicitly describe all aspects of the investigation. It must have only one independent variable with
all other variables remaining controlled, clearly state the dependent variable, outline the manner in
which the data is going to be collected and consider any potential risks.

Writing a valid method

The validity of a method is reliant on the way in which the variables are addressed. In order to investigate
the cause of an effect, you must have an independent variable: the one factor believed to be the cause.
For example, if you were investigating whether fertiliser improves root growth, then the fertiliser would
be the independent variable. To ensure the independent variable is the cause of an effect, the only change
in your experimental set-up is that the independent variable is applied to one group and the group
without the independent variable receives the exact same treatment. To do this, you must control all
other variables. In the example used above, a valid method must have two groups of the same plant, one
treated with fertiliser and the other without fertiliser. Then, both groups must receive the same amount
of water and sunlight, be kept in the same environment, be planted in the same amount and type of soil,
and be measured at the same time.
Similar to reading a recipe, a method must not leave anything up to the imagination. Each step in
the method must refer to the specific equipment being used and the action taking place. Just as you

9780170411196 CHAPTER 3 » Cause and effect – observing 55

 wouldn’t write ‘bake in an oven’ when describing how to cook a cake, a method cannot simply
Shutterstock.com/Africa Studio

end with a statement along the lines of ‘record results’. The method in which the results are being
collected is equally important to the experimental set-up and should thus be explicitly stated in the
method.
The way in which the results are collected relies upon the dependent variable, the variable that
is being measured in the investigation. Before writing the method, you must determine which
characteristics of your investigation will form the dependent variable. For example, if the specimen
shown in Figure 3.3.3 is what you wish to examine, you must determine whether your dependent
variable is the width of the roots, the mass of the roots, the number of roots or the length of the
longest root.
FIGURE 3.3.3 When
gathering data on Assessing risks
plant growth, it is
important to explicitly No matter the importance of the phenomena being investigated, the health and safety of the
state how growth will scientist remains the top priority. Unfortunately, the nature of scientific investigations often
be measured in your
method. Root growth means there is an element of risk involved. In order to reduce the degree of risk, it is important
can be measured that all possible hazards are considered and appropriate precautions are addressed in the
according to the
number of roots, method. As shown in Figure 3.3.4, there are four main categories of risk, each with their own set
their width and their of hazards.
length.

Burns
Chemical Inhaling
Chemical
poisoning
Swallowing
Cuts/
lacerations
Physical
Radiation
poisoning

Contamination
TYPES OF RISK
Biological
Exposure
to disease

Sunburn

Dehydration

Environmental Trip hazards

Insect bite

Allergy

FIGURE 3.3.4 Categories of risk and their related hazards.

56 MODULE ONE » Cause and effect – observing 9780170411196

 When planning primary scientific investigations, a risk assessment must be included at the beginning
of the method. It must list the risks involved in the investigation and describe what precautions will be
taken in order to reduce the likelihood of danger occurring. By doing so, scientists equip themselves with
all the necessary equipment required to overcome a problem if something doesn’t go to plan. The format
in which the risk assessment should be constructed is shown in Table 3.3.1.

TABLE 3.3.1 Scaffold for risk assessment

! RISK MANAGEMENT
RISK
ASSESSMENT Burning eye from splashed acid Wear safety goggles

Cut from broken glass Place glassware in middle of table and stop work
immediately if glass breaks

Science Photo Library/MARTYN F. CHILLMAID

Limitations of observational tools
While scientists pride themselves on their ability to design inves-
tigations and collect data, they are limited by technology, physical
space and time.

Analogue to digital technology

From watches to television, digital technology is no stranger in
our daily lives. Even in the classroom, it is now common practice
to learn from digital presentations such as PowerPoint rather than
copy boards full of your teacher’s handwriting. Of course, the science
laboratory has not gone unscathed either. Digital thermometers parallax
FIGURE 3.3.5 A digital data
scientific error caused
and rulers, data loggers and scales are all instruments that have logger can provide accurate by a change in line of
information on water pH, salinity, sight by the observer
transitioned from analogue to digital over time. temperature, dissolved oxygen
One reason for the shift to digital technology in terms of and turbidity.

scientific observations is the significant reduction in human error

when measuring, such as parallax. Without digital technology, the 3.3 .1 CSIRO
astrophysics for
accuracy of scientific observation is compromised and therefore senior physics
the validity of the primary scientific investigation is weakened. 3.3.2 CSIRO
astronomy

Observing the universe

By Andrew Z. Colvin (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons
.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0) via Wikimedia Commons
By Andrew Z. Colvin (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/

FIGURE 3.3.6
For many years, there has Our observable
universe is just
been contentious debate over a fraction of the
whether life exists elsewhere in hypothesised
universe.
our own Solar System, not to
mention the universe. As shown
in Figure 3.3.6, the observable
licenses/by-sa/3.0) via Wikimedia Commons

universe is just a tiny fraction

of the entire universe. Limited
by the inability to travel faster
than the speed of light and the
dilemma of the continuous
expansion of the universe,
scientists can only gather
data on a small portion of the
cosmological world.

9780170411196 CHAPTER 3 » Cause and effect – observing 57

 INVESTIGATION 3.3.1

Designing your own primary scientific investigation

An important part of Investigating Science is being able to develop your own primary scientific investigation
based on observations and given scenarios. Read the following information and answer the questions to
produce a valid investigation.

Shutterstock.com/Vladimir Gjorgi
OBSERVATION
After initially using goat milk soap for its
organic properties, many people began to
observe that the soap was effectively clearing
their blemished skin.

HYPOTHETICAL SCENARIO
Executives from a particular goat milk soap
company received feedback on the soap’s
effectiveness at clearing skin blemishes and
proposed a new product design that featured
the claim, ‘Goat milk soap is more effective at
removing skin blemishes than leading brands’.
FIGURE 3.3.7 Skin blemishes are a common problem for
Your team of scientists have been asked to test many teenagers. This investigation evaluates the effectiveness
this claim before the new product design can be of two methods to reduce the appearance of skin blemishes.
confirmed.

AIM
To determine whether goat milk soap is more effective at removing skin blemishes than leading skincare
brands

VARIABLES
In this investigation, you must only change one factor and keep all other factors the same. You must decide on
the dependent variable; there are many ways to collect data so you will need to ensure that your method of
data collection is aligned with the equipment available to you.
Identify the independent, dependent and controlled variables.

HYPOTHESIS
Develop a hypothesis that states the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

RISK ASSESSMENT
Copy and complete the table below to assess two risks involved in this primary scientific investigation.

! RISK MANAGEMENT
RISK
ASSESSMENT

METHOD
The method must be valid and aim to collect reliable data in an accurate manner. It must explicitly describe the
type of data collection, test your hypothesis and consider each of the variables.
1 What type of data collection will you be using to inform your results? Justify your answer.
2 Construct a valid and reliable method.

58 MODULE ONE » Cause and effect – observing 9780170411196

 RESULTS
Usually, tables and graphs are used to depict experimental results.
1 Construct a table that identifies the independent and dependent variables and includes units of
measurement shown in the title and subheadings.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

No primary scientific investigation is perfect. Of equal importance to the scientific design is the ability to reflect
on any problems that may have been encountered and propose ways in which the investigation could be
improved in the future.
1 Describe a problem with this investigation that may reduce the validity of your results.
2 Devise a way in which this problem could be overcome in future investigations.

SECTION
REMEMBERING REVIEW
1 Define:
a 'dependent variable'. 3.3
b 'independent variable'.

Shutterstock.com/Minaieva Antonina
c 'controlled variable'.
2 State the purpose of a risk assessment.
3 Identify three environmental hazards.
UNDERSTANDING
4 Restate the four main steps in designing a primary investigation.
5 Explain how to write a hypothesis.
6 Use two examples to discuss the benefits and limitations of
observational tools.
APPLYING
7 Demonstrate the importance of controlled variables in a primary
investigation.
8 In order for data to be used in the future, it must be valid. Discuss
how to collect valid data that can be used for further investigation.
9 Figure 3.3.8 shows an experimental set-up to test the hypothesis,
FIGURE 3.3.8 Experimental set-up: Fertiliser increases flower
‘Fertiliser increases flower growth’. Using the image only, justify growth.
why the results from this investigation will not be valid.

3.4 Observing, collecting and recording

Presenting data
The purpose of a primary scientific investigation is to analyse the data collected and determine whether
there is a possible cause-and-effect relationship present. However, when trying to interpret the results
of an investigation, the sheer volume of text in many journal articles can be overwhelming and, at
times, confusing. For this reason, data is represented in a number of different forms in order to clearly
demonstrate the strength of the cause-and-effect relationship.

9780170411196 CHAPTER 3 » Cause and effect – observing 59

 Tabulating data
Tabulating information is often the most efficient way to record data, particularly quantitative data.
Tables provide an organised and systematic method of recording values that allow scientists to easily
compare results between the experimental pressures.
While constructing a table may appear simple at first, it can be difficult to determine the appropriate
format relating to your investigation. The purpose of a table is to allow peers to review the results of an
investigation without having to decode scientific jargon or long, detailed sentences. The table must have
a heading that summarises all the information contained within it. Figures 2.18.1 and 2.18.2 in Chapter 2
(page 33) illustrate useful scaffolds which can assist in formulating a table that presents qualitative and
quantitative data, respectively.

Graphing data
Once information has been tabulated, it can then be used to generate a graph. Graphs are used by
scientists to visually represent data from the primary scientific investigation and observe possible cause-
and-effect relationships.
As shown in Table 3.4.1 and Figures 3.4.1−4, different types of graphs are used depending on the type
of data collected in the primary scientific investigation. In most cases where the graph has axes, the
independent variable is expressed along the horizontal x axis and the dependent variable on the vertical
y axis.

TABLE 3.4.1 Types of graphs used to depict scientific data and their purpose

GRAPH TYPE DATA TYPE PURPOSE

Line graph Numerical data on both axes To show changes that occur over time or
distance

Scatter plot Same as above To show how one variable is affected by the
other

Column graph Categorical data against a numerical value To show values of categorical data

Pie graph Percentages To show proportional data such as responses

from a survey

Line graph
Line graphs are constructed to show a relationship between two variables where one is usually time or
distance.

Examining trends in line graphs

After constructing a line graph that depicts a relationship between the independent and dependent
trend variables, scientists often note a trend in the data. A trend is a pattern or direction that shows how the
general pattern
dependent variable is affected as the independent variable is changed. Trends are used to inform further
investigations by stimulating scientists to devise further hypotheses as to why the pattern exists.

60 MODULE ONE » Cause and effect – observing 9780170411196

 Annual mean rainfall for Australia
800

Data: Australian Bureau of Meteorology

700
Australian Government
Bureau of Meteorology
600

500
Rainfall (mm)

400

300

200

100
10-year mean
0
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year

FIGURE 3.4.1 A line graph depicts a cause-and-effect relationship and is often used when the independent variable is time or distance.

Scatter plot
Scatter plots are used to determine whether there is a general cause-and-effect relationship between the
independent and dependent variables.

Hours of homework completed online versus test score

100
90
80
70
Test score (%)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Homework (hours)

FIGURE 3.4.2 Scatter plots are used to show whether a relationship exists between the dependent and independent variable.

Line of best fit

If a relationship is found to exist in a scatter plot, a line of best fit may be drawn to make predictions. The
line of best fit is a line drawn by the scientist to represent the general trend of the data on the scatter plot;
it can be straight or curved.

9780170411196 CHAPTER 3 » Cause and effect – observing 61

 Column graph
Column graphs depict changes in numerical data according to different categories. They are commonly
used to show population numbers in different locations or differences in participant responses in surveys.

FIGURE 3.4.3
Column graphs Population of Australian States

Data: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2016. Australian Demographic

plot numerical data and Territories (2016)

Statistics, Dec 2016, http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/

against a category. 9
8

Population (millions)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

mf/3101.0
QLD NSW ACT VIC TAS SA WA NT
State/Territory

Pie graphs
Pie graphs are most commonly used to depict data that has been gathered through scientific investigations
that include surveying, such as the Census and the National Health Survey.

FIGURE 3.4.4 Pie

graphs often show Percentage of Australians living

Data: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2016. Australian Demographic

percentage data. in each State and Territory

Statistics, Dec 2016, http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/

Northern Territory
1%

Western
Australia
11%
South
Queensland
Australia
Tasmania 20%
7%
2%
mf/3101.0

Victoria New South Wales

25% 32%

Australian Capital Territory

2%

62 MODULE ONE » Cause and effect – observing 9780170411196

 Alamy Stock Photo/bilwissedition Ltd. & Co. KG
Visual representations
Visual representations refer to any stimulus that converts the
data gathered into a diagrammatic form. Graphs are an example
of a visual representation; however, digital images and drawings
can also be used. 3.4.1 Australian
In the biological sciences, the results of an investigation are Museum: The
Scott sisters
often related to observing specimens and are drawn straight
from a microscope or in the field. The art of scientific drawing
follows a unique set of rules. Figure 3.4.5 shows how the use of
stippling highlights features of the specimen and allows scientists stippling
to illustrate the most intricate details. Visual representations of technique used in
scientific drawing to
this nature are used to show comparisons between different show detail and shading
using small dots
species or to depict the results of an investigation where
members of the same population have changed in response to a
manipulated environment.
FIGURE 3.4.5 Scientific drawing is
used to visually represent results
Digital representations of an investigation.

Similar to a visual representation, the purpose of a digital representation is to transform the data collected
into an alternative source that summarises the findings and increases accessibility for a wider audience.
The most common sources of digital representations are simulations and models. Digital simulations
and models can demonstrate complex scientific processes that are difficult to explain using text or
verbal explanations alone. From gravity and orbits to isotopes and atomic mass, there are many websites
dedicated to presenting digital explanations of scientific concepts across the disciplines of science.

SECTION
REMEMBERING REVIEW
1 Name four conventions used to analyse scientific data.

Newspix/Craig Greenhill
2 State the type of data represented in a: 3.4
a line graph.
b scatter plot.
c column graph.
d pie chart.
3 Identify an example of a digital representation.
UNDERSTANDING
4 Explain why data from primary investigations are presented
diagrammatically.
5 Compare methods of tabulation when collecting quantitative and
qualitative data.
6 Explain why it is important to have an average column when FIGURE 3.4.6 Surf lifesaving
tabulating quantitative data. drone with flotation device.

APPLYING
7 A group of engineers are designing an upgraded drone to assist surf lifesavers patrol beaches and
provide struggling swimmers with life-supporting flotation devices. The new drone is being designed
to carry more than 3 kg (the carrying capacity of previous drones used on New South Wales beaches).
They are planning an investigation to determine how much extra weight (to the nearest kilogram) their
new drone design will be able to carry while flying at a height of 20 m. Draw a table designed to collect
results for this investigation.

9780170411196 CHAPTER 3 » Cause and effect – observing 63

 8 Examine the graph shown in Figure 3.4.7 depicting the population of a predator (blue) and prey
(orange). Describe the trend in the line graph and propose reasons for the trend.

FIGURE 3.4.7
Line graph depicting 140
a predator−prey

Number of animals (000s)

relationship. 120

100

80

60

40

20

1845 1855 1865 1875 1885 1895 1905 1915 1925

Year

Data from Elton C, Nicholson M. 1942. The ten-year cycle in numbers of the lynx in Canada. Journal of Animal Ecology
11: 215–244.

9 Justify the use of stippling when drawing a visual representation of a biological specimen.

Conclusions promote further

3.5
investigation
Drawing conclusions
The purpose of any scientific investigation is to gather data that either disproves or supports a hypothesis.
From this, a scientist makes a conclusion as to how their investigation addressed a cause-and-effect
relationship. A conclusion is usually two or more sentences that sums up the findings of the investigation
and can be used by scientists in the future to conduct further research.

The collaborative nature of science

With thousands of new observations made by scientists across the world every day, the relevance of
scientific thought constantly relies on the collaborative observations of many scientists over time. As
hypotheses are tested and published, their acceptance may be challenged by societal norms or can lead
to new observations from more advanced technologies, and, consequently, new conclusions.

Societal norms
The prevailing societal norms can influence whether new scientific research and developments will be
accepted or not when they are first released. Following the publication of Darwin’s On the Origin of Species,
the Huxley-Wilberforce debate is an example of social norms conflicting with exceptional scientific
observations. Known as ‘Darwin’s bulldog’, Thomas Huxley famously fought the theory of evolution by
natural selection with Oxford University’s Bishop Samuel Wilberforce, in front of an audience of 700 at

64 MODULE ONE » Cause and effect – observing 9780170411196

 the annual meeting of the British Association for the

© Look and Learn/C L Doughty

Advancement of Science. The debate took place in
1860, in the Victorian era; a time where scientific
thought began to challenge traditional values.

Technological innovations
Associated with almost every new scientific devel-
opment is an advance in technology that allows a
concept to be analysed at a more complex level.
Although improvements in scientific equipment
will progress the complexity of scientific understanding, FIGURE 3.5.1 The Huxley-Wilberforce debate was
there are less obvious advances in technology that have a product of scientific observations challenging
societal norms.
had a profound influence over the direction of scientific
research. For example, the relatively recent introduction
of the Internet has substantially increased the availability of journal articles and scientific research. Work
that was previously only accessible by established members of the scientific community could now be
accessed and scrutinised by the public.

Importance of collaboration in biological science

As environmental factors have changed and continue to change over hundreds of years, the scientific
understanding of biological relationships and environmental interactions has depended on the
collaborative study of scientists to draw final conclusions from the data.
With human life expectancy averaging around 70 years, it is impossible for one biologist to observe phenotype
observable
changes to species and populations over centuries. Biologists may also require the expertise of scientists characteristic that
in other areas of study to confirm their hypotheses. For example, a biologist may observe variations in results from the
interaction between
the phenotype of a species and propose how they may have looked in past environments, and then rely on genetics and the
archaeologists and geologists to confirm the hypothesis. environment
Shutterstock.com/DummyAcksText

Eohippus Oligohippus Merychippus Pliohippus Modern horse

FIGURE 3.5.2 Our understanding of how species have changed over time has relied on the cumulative observations of
scientists across many areas of study.

The theory of evolution by natural selection

Commonly referred to as ‘Darwin’s theory’, the acceptance and publication of the theory of evolution
by natural selection was actually the product of observations made by many individuals across the
disciplines of science and other areas of study. It was only after Alfred Wallace,
a fellow biologist, sent observations made in the Malay Archipelago to Darwin
KEY THEORY

Theory of evolution by natural selection:

that the two realised they had devised theories very similar to one another. Both the idea that individuals best suited to
Darwin and Wallace drew upon the research of palaeontologists, geologists and their environment will survive and pass
embryologists whose observations helped in the formulation of the now widely on the favourable trait to their offspring.
accepted theory.

9780170411196 CHAPTER 3 » Cause and effect – observing 65

 As mentioned previously, even following decades of

Getty Images/Time Life Pictures

observations and research by many great scientists, the
theory of evolution by natural selection was not well
received due to the Christian belief of creation underpinning
society at the time. It wasn’t until many months after the
publication that Huxley began rallying support for the
controversial theory. Today, scientists continue to collect
evidence for the theory and assess conclusions based on
primary data collected in the field.

Heredity genetics
Observe the people around you. What is their hair colour?
Is it curly or straight? Are their ear lobes attached? Can they
trait roll their tongue into a U-shape? When they clasp their
physical or chemical
characteristic that is hands, is the left or right thumb on top? These are just some
genetically determined of the traits we now know as being heritable characteristics; FIGURE 3.5.3 Mendel formulated the
principles of heredity genetics from
gene that is, they are passed down from our parents. Our current observing pea plants in his monastery
sequence of DNA that knowledge of genes and heritability is the product of garden.
is considered the unit
of heredity, as it is collaboration between many scientists. Perhaps the most
transferred to the next
generation
meticulous scientific observer renowned for developing the
field of genetics was the Austrian monk, Gregor Mendel.

Mendelian genetics
Alamy Stock Photo/Edward Parker

Often referred to as the ‘father of genetics’, Mendel

developed the laws of genetic inheritance that would
later explain the cause for variation in all living things.
Experimenting on thousands of pea plants over
8 years (1856–63), Gregor Mendel’s aim was to study the
inheritance of seven pairs of contrasting characteristics:
plant height, pea colour, pea shape, position of flower,
3.5.1 How flower colour, pod shape and pod colour. He did this
Mendel’s pea FIGURE 3.5.4 Mendel hand-pollinated every pea
plants helped plant by taking the anther (male organ) of one by painstakingly hand-pollinating two pea plants
us understand pea plant and dusting it onto the stigma (female
genetics (Figure 3.5.4) with contrasting characteristics and
organ) of another plant that had its anthers
3.5.2 Gallery for removed. observing the resultant offspring. From his recorded
genetics genius
observations, Mendel formulated the basis of genetics
as we know it. His simple observations provided evidence that there is a pair of characteristics for each
trait: one from each parent. He also formulated the idea that some traits are dominant while others are
recessive, providing an explanation to human heredity factors such as blood type, and hair and eye colour.
Our understanding of genetics today is not a product of Mendel’s work alone but rather a collective
effort made by many scientists of varying expertise who continue to theorise and design investigations
based on Mendel’s basic heredity principles.

Importance of collaboration in chemical science

atom Chemistry is the backbone of science. Without understanding atoms, their properties, and how they
from the Greek word relate to one another, we would not have the knowledge required to make scientifically informed
‘atomos’ meaning
cannot be divided hypotheses about the phenomena we observe every day.

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 Periodic table of the elements
The scientist most commonly associated with the periodic table is Dmitri Mendeleev. Indeed, Mendeleev
organised and published the first version of the periodic table, but he does not deserve all the credit for
the modern table we refer to on a daily basis.

FIGURE 3.5.5
Getty Images/Science & Society Picture Library

The first periodic

table: Mendeleev’s
organisation of
elements according
to atomic mass.
This periodic table
is different to the
table you have most
probably colour-
coded and stuck into
your science book
some time within the
last 5 years, but the
general organisation
is apparent.

The first attempt to group atoms according to their properties was completed by Antoine
Lavoisier in 1789, who classified known atoms into gases, metals, non-metals and earths. Several
other scientists also researched the atomic mass of the elements, which were then collated and element
substance that cannot
presented at a scientific conference in Karlsruhe, Germany in 1860. Following the publication of be separated into
this list, Mendeleev tabulated the information and devised the table that somewhat resembles the smaller substances by
chemical means
modern table we use today.
The periodic table of elements is now a scientific staple used across many areas of study. It is used
to predict chemical reactions, determine which elements can be used as a conductor or insulator of
electricity and to compare DNA structures between organisms.

Importance of collaboration in the physical sciences

Physical science is a broad term used to describe the branches of science related to the inorganic world
such as physics, astronomy, inorganic chemistry and earth science. As our knowledge in these areas
continues to develop, we rely on observations made by scientists many centuries ago and compare them
with modern observations and new conclusions.

Heliocentric model of the Solar System

Our understanding of the Solar System and how the planets, moons and Sun interact is fundamental
to our understanding of weather systems, tides, seasons and even the possibility of extraterrestrial life.
Before the current model was confirmed, there was significant conflict as to how the planets and Sun
were arranged.
The first recognised theory of how Earth interacted with other planets, stars and the Sun was devised
more than 2000 years ago by a Greek mathematician. Ptolemy’s model was known as the geocentric
or ‘Earth-centred’ model, and was based on mathematical principles such as Pythagoras’ theorem and
‘spherical trigonometry’. At the time of this model there was a strong belief that Earth was superior to
other planets which may have influenced his hypothesis that the Earth was at the centre of the entire

9780170411196 CHAPTER 3 » Cause and effect – observing 67

 Solar System. Ptolemy’s geocentric model of the Solar System was accepted and remained the dominant
theory for over 1400 years. Remnants of his theory still pertain in our current vocabulary such as the
phrases ‘sunrise’ and ‘sunset’ which suggest that the Sun is moving around the Earth; however, we now
know that this is not the case.
During the ‘scientific revolution’ that occurred in the 16th and 17th centuries, many theories that
attempted to explain everyday observations were put under scrutiny. Refuting Ptolemy’s theory at
this time was Polish mathematician and astronomer, Copernicus, who proposed the Sun as being a
stationary body at the centre of the Solar System. Now referred to as the heliocentric or ‘Sun-centred’
model, Copernicus challenged the assumption that the Earth was the centre of the universe. Based on
his observations of planetary movement over many years, Copernicus’ theory attempted to resolve some
mathematical inconsistencies that arose from Ptolemy’s assumption that Earth was stationary and all
planets moved on a spherical orbit around it.

FIGURE 3.5.6
Stars Stars
Previous and current
models of the Solar
System
Planets
Planets

Moon

Sun
Earth Sun Eart
h

Moon

Geocentric Theory Heliocentric Theory

The current understanding of the Solar System is built upon the heliocentric model which, in turn,
was based on elements of the geocentric model. The geocentric model would not have been devised
had Aristotle not observed that the Earth is spherical rather than flat. Therefore, in order to build our
scientific knowledge, it is imperative that theories continue to be reviewed, new observations made and
new conclusions reached.

Importance of collaboration in earth and environmental science

Earth and environmental science is a field of study that examines changes to landforms and environmental
conditions over time. The nature of this area of science relies on the collection of data over decades. While
scientists in the past have been known to work on one theory over such a time period, current economic
pressures and the availability of research grants rarely allow for such an occurrence now. Consequently,
modern scientists rely on collaborative collection of data that builds upon the observations and
hypotheses proposed by previous scientists.

Plate tectonics
In 1912, Alfred Wegener put forward his continental drift theory. Wegener’s theory suggested that
Pangaea all of the continents were once joined together into one giant landmass called Pangaea and that the
from the Greek ‘pan’
meaning all and
continents somehow separated and drifted across the oceans. Wegener’s theory was based on two pieces
‘gaea’ meaning Earth; of evidence: the observation that the continents fit together like a jigsaw, and the collection of similar
therefore, ‘all of the
Earth’ prehistoric plant and animal fossils from continents a considerable distance apart.

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 Shutterstock.com/DummyAcksText
Laurasia

Equator Equator

Pa
ng
ae
a
Go
nd
wa
na

225 million years ago 150 million years ago

North North Europe Asia

America Asia America
Europe
Africa India
Equator Equator
South Africa South
America America Australia
India
Australia
Antarctica Antarctica

100 million years ago Earth today

FIGURE 3.5.7 Wegener’s theory of continental drift proposed that the continents moved away from each other over time but
did not describe how this happened.

During Wegener’s time, there was no way of measuring whether continents could move or not. In
1945, sonar technology was used to survey the depth of the ocean floor. Scientists found that there were
many underwater ‘mountain ranges’ called mid-ocean ridges. Harry Hess proposed some 20 years later
that the mid-ocean ridges were caused by hot magma rising from the mantle and forming a new rocky
crust. As shown in Figure 3.5.8, this new rocky crust pushed the old crust outwards which caused the
seafloor to spread. Hess’ theory of seafloor spreading was the first model to explain Wegener’s theory that
continents could drift away from each other. Hess’ explanation for continental drift was again supported
with evidence gathered by successive scientists such as sediment thickness and rock age around­ sediment
solid fragmented
mid-ocean ridges. material that is
transported and
deposited by water, ice
or wind, forming layers
on the Earth’s surface

Mid-Atlantic
South
ridge
America
Africa
Seafloor
spreading

Youngest
Older Older

Oldest Oldest
FIGURE 3.5.8 Hess proposed seafloor spreading as the cause of continental drift.

9780170411196 CHAPTER 3 » Cause and effect – observing 69

 Without Wegener, Hess and other scientists involved in the collection of evidence to support plate
tectonic theory, we could not have attained the comprehensive knowledge that explains the distribution
of continents over the Earth’s crust. This is a clear example of where previous conclusions, in this
case from Wegener’s work, prompted further observations, the collection of data and developed new
understandings of the movement of plates over time.

INQUIRING
FURTHER
Contemporary scientists rely on observation and collaboration as an important part of their research. Conduct a
secondary source investigation into one of the following areas of research being conducted in Australia today and
discuss the importance of observation and collaboration. Present your research as a three to five-minute audiovisual
presentation.
Professor Paulo De Sousa, University of Tasmania – The Mars exploration rovers project
Professor Greg Woods – Devil facial tumour disease
Dr Beth Fulton, CSIRO – Strategic modelling of Australia’s fisheries
Dr Brad Tucker, ANU – The skymapper supernova survey
Professor Neal Menzies, University of Queensland – Soil fertility

SECTION
REVIEW REMEMBERING
1 Define ‘conclusion’.
3.5 2 Name two factors that influence the acceptance of scientific conclusions.
3 Identify three examples of where the periodic table has been used in scientific research.
UNDERSTANDING
4 Explain how collaboration between scientists was influential in the development of the theory of
evolution by natural selection.
5 Name three scientists who contributed to the development of heliocentricity and describe their
input.
6 Describe how Hess used Wegener’s conclusions to support the theory of plate tectonics.
APPLYING
7 Relate modern society to the acceptance of scientific thought.
8 Relate the primary data collected from your practical investigation to investigations conducted by
other scientists.
9 With reference to two examples, assess the importance of using conclusions to support further
investigation.

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 CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS

REMEMBERING

1 Create a glossary of all of the terms listed in this chapter.

2 List the quantitative and qualitative observations that can be made when watching a candle burn.
3 Identify an example where combining qualitative and quantitative data can improve scientific accuracy.

UNDERSTANDING

4 Outline one way that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples use observation to manage their
natural environment.

APPLYING

5 Examine a slide of your choice under a light microscope. Draw a diagram of your observation that
includes both qualitative and quantitative data.

ANALYSING

6 The Bernoulli effect describes the phenomenon where fluid can move at a faster speed when there is
less pressure. Design a practical investigation that aims to collect quantitative and qualitative data on the
Bernoulli effect.

EVALUATING

7 A student is overheard saying that quantitative data is more scientifically accurate than qualitative data. Is
this an accurate statement? Justify your answer.
8 Evaluate the influence of Mendel’s findings on our current understanding of genetics.

CREATING

9 Create a visual representation of a biological specimen viewed under a stereo (dissecting) microscope.

9780170411196 CHAPTER 3 » Cause and effect – observing 71

 INVESTIGATING CORAL BLEACHING ON THE
BIOLOGY
GREAT BARRIER REEF
Suggested length: 14 hours including research and generation of graphs and tables for
presentation
Focus: Secondary-sourced investigation and presentation

SECONDARY-SOURCED INVESTIGATION SCAFFOLD

WS

Worksheets
Syllabus outcome
Homework
3.6.1 Secondary Identify the syllabus outcome you will be investigating and write a summary of the outcome.
investigation
scaffold Syllabus statement: Analysing primary data through tabulation, graphing and visual/digital representations

Aim
Write the aim as a sentence. Start the sentence with ‘To’   followed by a verb; for example, ‘investigate’, ‘measure’
or ‘test’.

Secondary sources
List all of the sources that you are using in your investigation and cite them using the correct citation protocols.
3.6.1 Australian Suggested source:
Museum Lizard
Island Research •• Australian Institute of Marine Science
Station
3.6.2 Great Barrier Investigation design
Reef Foundation Outline how you are designing the final presentation (refer to Chapter 2 for further information).
3.6.3 Managing
the reef Method
3.6.4 Science The method is written as numbered steps. Each sentence must start with a verb.
and the Great
Barrier Reef
Results
3.6.5 Coral
bleaching risk The results may be recorded in tables, graphs or diagrams, or written as observations in sentence form.
indicators and
Summer sea water
temperatures for Validity and reliability
the Great Barrier
Reef Remember that validity is related to ensuring that the sources come from educational, government, university
or scientific web pages, journals and textbooks. Reliability is associated with finding similar explanations of the
concepts across many sources.

Discussion and conclusion

In the discussion and conclusion, analyse your findings to answer your hypothesis, aim and inquiry question/s.

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 HOW CHEMICAL TESTING HAS HELPED
SOLVE CRIMES CHEMISTRY

Suggested length: 12 hours including research and writing

Focus: Secondary-sourced investigation: Essay

SECONDARY-SOURCED INVESTIGATION SCAFFOLD

WS

Syllabus outcome Worksheets

Homework
Identify the syllabus outcome you will be investigating and write a summary of the outcome. 3.7.1 Secondary
investigation
Syllabus statement: Investigating how observation and experimentation explain cause and effect in historical scaffold
examples

Aim
Write the aim as a sentence. Start the sentence with ‘To’   followed by a verb; for example, ‘investigate’, ‘measure’
or ‘test’.

Secondary sources
List all of the sources that you are using in your investigation and cite them using the correct citation protocols.
Suggested sources: 3.7.1 National
Institute
•• National Institute of Justice of Justice:
Forensics
•• Crime Scene Investigator Edu
3.7.2 The Real
•• Explore Forensics CSI
3.7.3 Crime
Investigation design Scene
Investigations
Outline how you are designing the final presentation (refer to Chapter 2 for further information). Make sure you and forensic
include the following (if applicable): laboratory
science
•• Variables (independent, dependent and controlled)
3.7.4 Explore
•• Treatments / control forensics
3.7.5 Solving
Method cold cases
with DNA: The
The method is written as numbered steps. Each sentence must start with a verb. Boston strangler
case
Results 3.7.6 Forensic
cases: The
The results may be recorded in tables, graphs or diagrams, or written as observations in sentence form. murder of
Leanne Tiernan
Validity and reliability
Remember that validity is related to ensuring that the sources come from educational, government, university
or scientific web pages, journals and textbooks. Reliability is associated with finding similar explanations of the
concepts across many sources.

Discussion and conclusion

In the discussion and conclusion, analyse your findings to answer your hypothesis, aim and inquiry question/s.

9780170411196 DEPTH STUDY 73

 HOW DOES THE MASS OF A PENDULUM AFFECT
PHYSICS
ITS ACCELERATION TO THE EQUILIBRIUM
POSITION?
Suggested length: 10 hours
Focus: Primary scientific investigation

PRIMARY SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION SCAFFOLD

WS
In the discussion and conclusion, analyse your findings to answer your hypothesis, aim and inquiry
Worksheets
Homework
3.8.1 Primary question/s.
investigation
scaffold
Syllabus outcome
Identify the syllabus outcome you will be investigating and write a summary of the outcome.
Syllabus statement: Investigating the role of variables in a primary scientific investigation

Aim
Write the aim as a sentence. Start the sentence with ‘To’   followed by a verb; for example, ‘investigate’, ‘measure’
or ‘test’.

Investigation design
Outline how you are designing the final presentation (refer to Chapter 2 for further information). Make sure you
include the following (if applicable):
•• Variables (independent, dependent and controlled)
•• Treatments / control

Hypothesis (if applicable)

A hypothesis is an educated (informed) guess that is tested through investigation to explain and reach answers
to scientific questions.

Secondary sources
List all of the sources that you are using in your investigation and cite them using the correct citation protocols.
3.8.1 Swinging Suggested sources:
pendulum
•• Teach Engineering
3.8.2 Kinematics
•• The Physics Classroom
3.8.3 Pendulums
3.8.4 Acceleration Method
The method is written as numbered steps. Each sentence must start with a verb.

Results
The results may be recorded in tables, graphs or diagrams, or written as observations in sentence form.

Validity and reliability

Remember that validity is related to the method and equipment used to perform your experiments, whereas
reliability is associated with the repetition of the experiment obtaining similar results with minimal error.

Discussion and conclusion

In the discussion and conclusion, analyse your findings to answer your hypothesis, aim and inquiry question/s.

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 HOW ARE OBSERVATIONS USED BY
ABORIGINAL AND TORRES STRAIT ISLANDER INVESTIGATING
SCIENCE

PEOPLES TO MANAGE THE LOCAL AREA

SUSTAINABLY?
Suggested length: 12 hours
Focus: Secondary-sourced investigation

SECONDARY-SOURCED INVESTIGATION SCAFFOLD

WS

Syllabus outcome Worksheets

Homework
3.9.1 Secondary
Identify the syllabus outcome you will be investigating and write a summary of the outcome. investigation
scaffold
Syllabus statement: Investigating observations that informed land management by Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander peoples

Aim
Write the aim as a sentence. Start the sentence with ‘To’   followed by a verb; for example, ‘investigate’, ‘measure’
or ‘test’.

Secondary sources
List all of the sources that you are using in your investigation and cite them using the correct citation protocols.
Suggested sources: 3.9.1 Indigenous
knowledge and
•• CSIRO environmental
land
•• Creative Spirits management
•• Rosemary Hill, Petina Pert, Jocelyn Davies, Catherine Robinson, Fiona Walsh, Fay Falco-Mammone. (2016). 3.9.2 Biological
Indigenous land management in Australia: Extent, scope, diversity, barriers and success factors. Cairns: CSIRO. diversity
3.9.3 Indigenous
Investigation design perspective on
sustainability
Outline how you are designing the final presentation (refer to Chapter 2 for further information).
3.9.4 Aboriginal
Heritage
Method
3.9.5 Aboriginal
The method is written as numbered steps. Each sentence must start with a verb. land care

Results
The results may be recorded in tables, graphs or diagrams, or written as observations in sentence form.

Validity and reliability

Remember that validity is related to ensuring that the sources come from educational, government, university
or scientific web pages, journals and textbooks. Reliability is associated with finding similar explanations of the
concepts across many sources.

Discussion and conclusion

In the discussion and conclusion, analyse your findings to answer your hypothesis, aim and inquiry question/s.

9780170411196 DEPTH STUDY 75