Ch 15: Mechanical wave

ch motion. pattern(See Example 15.1.)

ic the
withwave frequency f and period T. The
heximum
tions
distance
and
displacement Summary (1)
over which the wave pattern
uct of l
mplitude andAwave
isf the
equalsdynamics: The wave function
maximum displacement x
waves and their properties
SUMMARY
cribes
ium.
mple
A
Wave
ae special
medium.
harmonic
sinusoidal
functions
theperiodic
displacements and
The product of lofand
wave
is a special
dynamics:
individual
f equalsWave
y1x, t2 describes the displacements of individual particles
Equations wave(15.3), (15.4), and (15.7)
periodic
The
give
speed
wave
particles function y1x, t2 = A cos c va - t
y1x, t2 = A cos v c va
in the medium. Equations (15.3), (15.4), and (15.7) give x t
erties:
ch
quation point A moves
wave in
is
for aequation simple
any
sinusoidal harmonic
disturbance that v
v =
for awave ltraveling waveintraveling
the lf t2 =functions - (
the wave Wavelength sinusoidal in they1x,wave A cos
y1x, t2 2pca
= A cos 2pc
mple
egion
on. 15.1.)
to another.
If+x@direction.
the wave isIf Amoving
mechanicalin the wave
- x@direction, l T
the wave is moving in the - x@direction,
aterial
signs theincalled
minus the
the cosine
signs medium.
functions
in Theare
the cosine wave replaced
functions arebyreplaced byy1x, t2 =y1x, A cos1kx - yvt2
t2 = A cos1kx
The
e(Seetypewave of
Example function
wave and
15.2.)the properties of x
plus signs. (See Example y1x, 15.2.)
t2 = A cos c va - tb d y (15.3)
nd wave dynamics:
individual particles x The wave function v where k x =
where2p>kl =and 2p v>l =an
ve
y1x, function
t2 The
= A obeys
wave
cos c va a partial
function - obeys
tb differential
d a partial equation
differential
(15.3) equation
y1x, t2 = A cos c va - tb d A
he
),the displacements
andmotion
(15.7) of give of individual Each particles
particle of v
wave called
equation, each
theAmplitude
waveEq. v
point
equation,
A
(15.12).of the
Eq. (15.12). x t 0 2
Ay1x, t2 0 2
y1x,
1 0
t22
y1x, 1At202
y1
vequations
th traveling
frequency (15.3),
infthe (15.4),
and and y1x,
period (15.7)
T. ropet2
The give
= oscillates
A cos 2pca - bd =
(15.4) = x2
ed of The speed of
transverse transverse
waves x on ta waves
string on a string
depends depends
T A 0x 2 x 0xt2
v
2
0t 2v 0
nstance
for a sinusoidal
the - x@direction,
over which wavethe traveling
wave in
patternin
SHM. the l
y1x, t2 = A cos 2pca - bd
y1x,
ion
he Ft2and
on
wave =is Amoving
the cos 2pca
tension
mass F and
per
in unit
the -length
mass
- bd
per m.
x@direction,
unit length (15.4)
m. l T F Wa
s are Areplaced
tude is the by
maximum l T
y1x, t2
displacement = A cos1kx - vt2 F (15.7)
nple the(See
15.3.)
cosine Example
functions 15.3.)
are replaced by v = v (waves
= (waves
on a y o
strin
y1x, t2 = A cos1kx - vt2 A m
Wavelength l
dium.
y1x, The
t2 =15.2.) product
A cos1kx - vt2 of l and f equals
where k = 2p>l and v = 2pf = vk A m
(15.7)
xample
differential
usoidal waveequation
is a special periodic2 2 where k = 2p >y
l and v = 2pf = A
vk
ction obeys a partial differential 0=y1x, equation
t2 = vk 1 0 y1x, t2
where
int wave k =
Wave power:
moves 2p
dynamics >
in simplel and
Wave harmonic
v 2pf
motion conveys = energy02fromy1x, one region
t2 02 (15.12)1
y1x, Pt2 = 2mF A 2 2
A
quation,
aer: Wave Eq. (15.12).
motion 1A v
2conveys energy fromv one 0t region
string depends 2 2 2 1 av 2 2 2
215.1.)to another. For a sinusoidal 0x mechanical wave, the = Pav
average = 2mF v A t (
0gth y1x,
ransverse
Forpower
m. t2 waves
a sinusoidal
0 y1x,
1 onmechanical t2
a string depends wave, the average 0x 2
v 2 2
0t 2 (average power, sin
=Pav is proportional to theF square of(15.12) the wave ampli- A
(average power,2 sinusoidal
and mass 2 per unit 2 length 2 m.v = I r
0xtude and the
s proportional v to 0t
the square of
square of the frequency. the (waves
waveFor on a
ampli-
wavesstring) F
that spread (15.14)
1
= 2T
2
3.) Am v = (waves
I on
r 2 aPeriod
string) (
e square of the frequency. For waves that spread 1 2 I r
 y
mass times transverse component of velocity). The impulse
We might expect that the end would move with constant acceleration; of the transverse
Fy in time t We
d vhappen ifWave speed, a simple way
is Fy t.now
the
In Fig.take
force
15.11bthe
were applied limit
the right
to a as
triangle
point ¢x
whose
mass. S 0.
vertex
Butv
In
is atthis
here
P, with
the limit,
effect of
y t and vt, is similar to the right triangle whose vertex is at the y position of
y is with
Fand, to set becomes
successively the
sides Fy and F. Hence derivative
Transverse
more and impulse
more of=
mass 0y>0x
Fin
y t = with
motion.
F
flexible t respect
The
string wave
with μ to
trav-x
v mass density
onstant speed v,
second (partial) derivative of y with respect to x:
so the division point P between moving and nonmov-
Fy vy t vy
ns moves
mass
times time)with
of the the same
ismoving
equal theconstant
to portion
=changeof the = Fv (Fig.
ofspeed
string
Fytransverseis the 15.11b).
product
momentum 2 of
of thethe mass
moving
2 pe
p
15.11b
gth m and shows
the length F or vt
that allvt,
particles
mvt.inThe
the moving v
transverseportion 0 yof the m
momentum
mass times transverse component of velocity). The impulse=of the transve is0the
string ymove
prod
ith
Fy constant
mass and the
in time t is Fy t. In vFig.
velocity
transverse y , not constant
velocity
15.11b thevy:right
acceleration.
triangle whose To
0x 2 vertex
see whyF this
0t
is 2 is
at P,so,
w
hat the impulse of the force F up to time vty is F t. According to the
vy t and vt, is similar to
Transverse the right
impulsey triangle whose
= Fy t = F = t 1mvt2v vertex
y is at the position
momentum Now,
and, with sides theorem Transverse
Fy finally,
and (see
F. Hencecomes momentum
Section the 8.1),punch line of yisourequal
the vimpulse story. to Equ
the
the total
mass of thetransverse
same
moving form component
portion as
of the
the of momentum
wave
string is equation,
the product 1mv
of y -
Eq.
the 02 per
mass of the
(15.12), unit mov-w
that
note again vertical
constant that theforce
momentum Fy vincreases
y t constantwith vtime
verticaly not because mass is
velocity
fh the string. Because
thetion vt, orthe
15.3. That system started
equation with no transverse momentum,
y 8, but because more mass is th
and Eq. (15.18) describe
m and length mvt. The
= transverse F momentum
= F is the product of
faster, as was usually theFcase in Chapter v speed br
al toand
mass thethe
total momentum
transverse velocity y: vt t:constant wave
at vtime
motion. But they themust
impulsebe identical.
of the forceComparingFy is still equal the to two theequation
total cha
mentum ofwe
the must
impulse-moment system. Applying
have
theorem
Transverse y t = this
Fmomentum mvyrelationship,
= 1mvt2vy we obtain
vy
momentum
ote again thatthus mustTransverse
the momentum increase impulse
increases with =time
proportionately Fy tnot= because
F ttime.
with mass But
is since
mov- the
vy v F
aster,
oint Pas moves
was usually
withthe case in Chapter
constant F 8,
speed, t but
the because
=length
mvtv y of more
stringv
mass = is brought
that is in motion
motion.
mass ofBut
the the impulse
moving of
portion the force
of the v
F is
stringstillisequal
the
the total mass m in motion are also proportional to the time t that
y to the
product total
of A
change
the m
mass in perthe
u
entum of the system. Applying this relationship, we obtain
 0x 0t
anical waves SOLUTION
on a stretched string or rope. Remarkably, it turns out that fo
estypes
the ofpunch Remark on wave speed
line ofwaves,
mechanical
IDENTIFY
our story.
and SET
Equation
including
UP:
waves(15.18)
Our
has exactly
on a string,
target
the fo
the expression
variables are the spe
speed equation,
wave has the same Eq.general
(15.12), form:that we derived at the end of Sec-
wavelength of a sound wave in water. In Eq. (16.7), we
uation and Eq. (15.18)force
Restoring describe the the
returning very same
system
3 towave motion, so
equilibrium
3
v =density of water, r = 1.00 * 10 kg>m , and the bulk mod
ical. Comparing
A the two
Inertiawe equations,
resisting we
the return see that for this to be so,
water, which find from the tocompressibility
equilibrium (see Table
terpret thisGiven the speed
expression, let’sand theatfrequency
look ƒ = 262
the now-familiar Hz,
case of we
wavesfindon the
. TheFor length
tension F from
in
a string v = the v =
string Fƒl. tension
plays the forceoftending
role the to straighten
restoring force;the
it string
tends t
(15.19)
the string back to its undisturbed,
A m linear equilibrium configuration.
density making motion sluggish The mass o
ring—or,EXECUTE: In Example
more properly, the linear 16.2, we density
mass used Table 11.2 to find
m—provides =
the Binerti
expression
revents the 9as Eq.
10 Pa. from
string (15.13).
Then returning instantaneously to equilibrium. Hence w
= For
vh this a bulk
2F>m forfluid
derivation,thewe didn’t
speed makeon
of waves any special assumptions
a string. about
9 law
Chapter
wave. 16
Since we’ll
our see a similar
derivation Bled bulk 2.18
modulus
expression
us to for*the10speed
Hooke’s
rediscover Pa of(15.12),
Eq. sound waves
the in
speed of v = = = 1480 m>s
Roughly speaking, the gas
e conclude that the wave equation
longitudinal wave Apressure
r Bprovides
1.00
density
the
* 10
is valid force
3
for kg>m that3tends to return th
waves on a string
o
pe. its undisturbed state when a sound wave passes through. The inertia is pro
and
by the density, or mass per unit volume, of the gas.
v 1480 m>s
Mechanical Waves l = = -1
= 5.65 m
ƒ
 Outline

• mechanical wave
• wave function and wave equation; sinusoidal wave
• speed of transverse wave
• energy in wave
• superposition, interference, and boundary condition
• standing wave and normal mode
 15.13. We note again that Fy>F is equal to the negative of the slope of th
a, 15.13.
which We
is notegiven
also again by Energy transfer
Fy>F is
that0y/0x. equal to
Putting the negative
these together,ofwe
thehave
slope of the s
15.13. We note again that Fy>F is equal to the negative of the slope of the str
a, which is also given by 0y/0x. Putting these together, we have
a, which is also given by 0y/0x. Putting these 0y1x, together, t2 we have
Note that the string to the FFy 1x, t2 = -F0y1x, 0y1x,t2t2
F 1x, t2
y1x, t2 == -F -F 0x (
(15
left of point a exerts a force y 0x0x
We We
on
note
We
need
the need
the
string
again that
the
negative
to F the
>F
negative
y
sign
right:
is equal
sign
because
to the Fy is negative
negative
because FFy isis negative of the
negativewhen
whenofthe
slope
whenthe the
theslope
slope
string isatpos
slopeisispositiv
posit
We
write need
the the
vertical negative
force sign
as F because
1x, t2 as ya reminder that its value may be d
ch is also
write
writegiven
the
the by
vertical0y/0x.
vertical Putting
force
force as
as F
F
y
ythese
1x,
1x, t2
t2 together,
as
as aa reminder
reminder we have
thatits
that itsvalue
valuemay maybebediffe diff
different
different points
points along
along the
the string
y
string and
and at
at different times.
different times.
different
When vertical points along the string and
point aamoves inin=the 0y1x,at different
y-direction, t2 times.
the force
forceFFydoes does(15.20)
workononth
When
When
component point F
point a moves y 1x,
moves t2 -F
the y-direction, the
in the y-direction, the force Fy ydoes work on this work
and
and therefore transfers energy into 0x
the part of the string to the right of a
and therefore transfers energy into the part of the string to the right of a. ThT
therefore transfers energy into the part of the string to the right of a.
responding
responding
responding power
power
power PP (rate
doing
ed the negative sign because Fy is negative when work
(rate of
of doing
on
doing
doing pointwork)
work)
work)a at at
at the
the
the point
point
point a a a
isisisthe
the
slope is positive. We the transve
transvers
transverse
FyF1x,
the vertical 1x, atatat
t2force
Fyy1x, t2t2 a atimes
aastimes
times the
Fy 1x, thet2transverse
transverse
transferring
transverse
as a reminder velocity
velocity
energy
velocity vvv
thatinto 1x,
1x,
yyy1x,
its the t2
t2t2
value ===
right 0y1x,
0y1x,
0y1x,
may be t2>0t
t2>0t
t2>0t
different ofthat
ofofthat that pop
poin
at
ent pointsits along
power the (work
string and rate)at different times.
hen point a moves in the y-direction, the force Fy does 0y1x,
0y1x,
0y1x, t2t2t2
work 0y1x,
0y1x,
0y1x,
on t2t2t2point
this
P1x,t2t2 == FFyy1x,
P1x,
P1x, 1x, t2v
1x, 1x,t2t2 === -F
t2vyy1x, -F
-F (
(15
erefore transfers energy into the part of the string to the 0x 0x
right
0x of 0t a.0t0t
The cor-
nding power P (rate of doing work) at thevalid point foraany wave
is the on a stringforce
transverse
ThisThis
This powerisis
power
power isthetheinstantaneous
the instantaneous rate
instantaneous rate at at which
which
which energy
energy
energy isisis
transferred
transferred
transferred alon
al
t2 at a times the transverse velocity vy 1x, t2 = slop,
nonzero 0y1x, t2>0t of that point:
string.
P Its
string.
string. ≠ItsIts
0valuevaluedepends
:value
energy depends
transferred onon the
the position
position xxxon
the position onthe
on thestring
the stringand
string and
and ononon
the
the time
the time
timt
that energy
that energy is is being transferred nonzero
being transferred only
only at transverse
at points
points where wherevelocity
the
thestring
stringhas hasa anon
e vertical force as F 1x, t2 as a reminder that its value may be different y at
21) is valid stant.
for If
any the
y wave wave so
on that
function
a the0y1x,
string,transverse
is sinusoidal force
t2sinusoidal orcan do
not. work.
For a
(15.21)
points
with
ve wave
with
is
along
wave Energy for sinusoidal wave
valid take
the
function
for
stant.
function
the
any
string
given
If the
n point a moves in the y-direction,
derivative
wave
and by
wave
given
at on
Eq.
by
of
Eq.
sinusoidalthe
a
different
Equation
the
string,
(15.7),
function
wave
times.
(15.21)
(15.7),
wave0x we
is we
y1x,
force
=
function
have
t2
with
is-kA
have
valid
=does
Fywave
y1x,
or
sin1kx
A cos1kx
work on
function
t2
not.
for any -
with
For
vt2
- given
vt2
arespect
wave on a string,
this by point
to t,
Eq. (15.7)
k
Slop

efore transfers
sinusoidal energy
wave
t2 =t2 A= cos1kx
then
y1x,y1x, into the
function part
- vt2on of0y1x,
stringthe t2
string
y1x, t2 to = theAright
cos1kx of a.
- Thevt2 cor-
A cos1kx - vt2 = vA sin1kx
y1x, t2 -
= A
vt2 cos1kx - vt2
ng power 0y1x, P (rate
t2then of doing work) at the
0t point a is the transverse force
0y1x, t2 0y1x, t20y1x, t2
at a times the transverse = -kA = -kA velocity
sin1kxsin1kx - v-
vy 1x, 1x,
vt2
y vt2 t2
P1x,t2 = =
t2 0y1x,
= FkvA t2>0t
= 2 vAof
sin that
2sin1kx
1kx
= -kA
point:
- - vt2 - vt2
sin1kx
vt2
0x 0x 0t t20x
0y1x,
0y1x,By
0y1x,
t2 using the relationships v =0y1x,
t2 v y 1x, t2 = = vA sin1kx - vt2
vk andt2 0t0y1x,2
0y1x,
v =t2 t2F>m, we can also expres
P1x,in t2 the== F =
vA
y 1x, sin1kx
vA t2vsin1kx
y 1x,-t2- vt2= vt2-F = vA sin1kx(15.21)- vt2
0t 0t alternative form 0x 0t0t
22 2 2 2
P1x, P1x,
t2 =t2 =
FkvA FkvA 2
sin sin
1kx 1kx-
P1x, -
vt2 vt2
t2 = 2mF P1x,
v 2
A 2t2sin= 2 FkvA
(15.22)
1kx
(15.22) - sin
vt2 1kx - vt
wer is the instantaneous rate at which energy is transferred along the
ts value depends on 2 the2 position
2By using x on the string and on the
vk time v 2 t. Note
onships v = vk and v = F>m, we can also express Eq. (15.22) = F>m,
relationships The
v = vk
sin and v
function = is
F>m, neverthe
we relationships
negative,
can also so
express
vthe = and
instantaneous
Eq. (15.22) powerwe can
in
rgy form
tive is beingwave transferred
is either only
in the
positiveat alternative
points
(so thatwhere formtheflows
energy string in has
the a nonzero
positive x-directio
form
y>0x is nonzero points 2, so wherethat there
there is
is a
no transverse
energy component
transfer). Energy of the
is nevertension
2 2 transferred
2
P1x, t2 = 2mF 2 v 2 2
2 A sin
2
2
1kx
time -
average
vt2 P1x, t2 = 2mF
(15.23) v A sin 1kx - v
nd whereP1x, the =string
t2 tion 2mF hasva Ato
opposite nonzero
sin 1kxtransverse
the direction - vt2 of velocity
wave 10y>0t
propagation is(Fig.
(15.23) nonzero15.16).2
The sin 2
function 1 is never 1 negative, 2 2so the instantaneo
he transverse force
ction is never negative, can
The maximum do work.
so the value P = P
of the instantaneous
instantaneous
av = μFω
power in a sinusoidal
max powerA P1x, t2 occurs w
is never negative, so the instantaneous
wave is either 2 powersinusoidal
in
2 a sinusoidal
tion (15.21) is
r positive (sofunction valid
that energy for
has flowsany
the valuewave
in the positive x-direction)energy
on
unity: a positive
string, (so that or orzero flows
not.(at For in the
a positiv
itive
al wave(sowith
that wave
energy flows points
function ingiven
thewhere
positive
by Eq. there x-direction)
is
(15.7), no
2 weenergy
2 have ortransfer).
zero (atEnergy is neve
there is no energy transfer). Energy is never Pav P ∼transferred
ω =A 2mF in the 2 2direc-
Adirec-
etoisthe
nodirection
energy transfer). Energy is
tion opposite
of wave propagation (Fig. 15.16). never totransferred
the
max directioninofthe vwave propagation (Fig.
= The maximum - for general mechanical
value of the instantaneous waves
power P1x
he direction
mum value ofTothe of wavey1x,
obtain propagation
t2 A
the average
instantaneous cos1kx
power(Fig.
power 15.16).
vt2
P1x, from Eq. (15.23),
t2 occurs when we the note 2
sin2 that the aver
15.16 T
 greater distance
r1, the intensity
Intensity
tance r from the source is inversely proportional to r
directly from energy conservation. If the power output
averagethe
less than I1: the I, intensity: intensity I1 through
time average rate aatsphere
which with radius r1 and
e power is spread energy is transported by wave per unit area
a greater area. P
I1 = 2
At distance r1 P 4pr 1
I =
from source 1
4πr 2 At distance r2
r2 The average intensity I2 through a Psphere with a di
1
I2 = is absorbed betw
a similar expression. If no energy 4πr22
power P must be the same for both, and
wave spreading out 2 2
equally in all direction 4pr 1 I1 = 4pr 2 I2
r2 > r1
I1 r 22 I2 < I1
= 2 (inverse-square law for
I2 r1 inverse-square law
P : power output I1 r22
of source =
I2 r12
 square root of
ecta- same mass, the the string tension F and the
ude A. 15.6
same Answer:
Compared
mass,
Superposition
theto
same
string
same
length,
(i),
length,
and
the
and
the same
average
the same
linear
linear
mass
mass
de
den
ment The frequency f is the same for each
2
wave, as is the ang
is (ii)
andis 14
The
quency = v2
frequency
=timesf is greater;
2pƒ. the same
Hence the
∂ 2(iii)
for 4
each
average
y(x, t) = ∂16
wave,
2
wavey(x, as is theforangu
power
t) eac
nt wave equation
2
quency : linear
= 2pƒ. equation
Hence the average =
1
)and12 122 = 4 12 times
v
is proportional to thegreater.
square∂xroot 2 ofvwave
the
2 power
string
∂t 2 for
tension each
F
waveIf there
is proportional to the square root of the string tension F
are two solutions,
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square of the amplitude A. Compared to string (i), the

square
∂ 2
y (x,
power in each
1 of
t) the1 amplitude
∂ 2
y1 (x, t) A.∂ 2 Compared to
y2 (x, t) 1
string is (ii) 14 == 2 times greater; (iii) ∂ 2
y2 string
(x, t) (i), the a
=
power ∂x 2in each v 2
string
∂t 2 is (ii) 14
s not times greater; and (iv) 12 122 = 4 12 times greater.
∂x22 = 2v 2 times ∂t 2 greater; (iii) 4
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2
= lf y
times 1 (x, t) +
greater; y2(x,
andt) (iv) 12
also 122
the =
solution 4of12wave times
equationgreater.
cta- ∂ 2
(y + y ) ∂ 2
(y1 + y2)
cta- 15.6
principle
Answer:
, the 15.6 Answer:
ment
of superposition 1 2
=
1
∂x 2 v2 ∂t 2
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nt is
nt is y1
ave
idal, y
wave 2

otion
not When two waves overlap,
not
bout y y(x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2(x, t)
= lf
= lf y15.7
2
1Answers: yes, yes Doubling the frequenc
Mthe
has interference
length half as large. Hence the spacing betwe
the
 Boundary condition fixed end

incident wave to the right

reflected wave to the left

 Boundary condition free end

incident wave to the right

reflected wave to the left

 Boundary conditions; interference
superposition principle

overlap with the

zero displacement at O inverted shape

zero slop at O overlap with

the same shape
Standing waves on a string
not traveling wave

fixed SHM
for incident wave
(brown curves).
Standing
y l l wave and
l interference
15.24 Formation
2 of a2 standing wave.2 A wave traveling to the left (red curve
combines withy1a(x, t) =traveling
wave − A cos(kx + ωt)
to the right incident
(blue curves) Equi
wave to
to form
left a standing w
posit
(brown curves).
y (x, t) = A cos(kx − ωt)
1
t5 T 2 reflected wave to right x is alo
16 horiz
y l l l
2 2 2 equilibrium
fixed Equi
end 1 posit
t5 T
81 T
x is alo
t5 16
x
horiz

zero
3
t5 1 T
16 in phase
x
t5 T x
8 Waves
coincide
At th
wave
1
t5 43
T x they
t5 16
T x maxi
displ
still zero At th
t5 16
T x

3
in phase
At th
t5 8
T x
wave
1
t5 4
T x they
maxi
7 displ
t5 16
T x
5 exactly
t5 16
T half-cycle out of phase cancel
x
At th
1 wave
t5 T x
2 cance
3
t5 8
T x displ

9
t5 16
T x
7
t5 16
T x
N A N A N A N A N A N A N
node antinode At th
1 always zero greatest amplitude wave
t5 T destructive interference constructive interference x
2 canc
 from the incident wave is -A cos vt, which we cansimple
undergoes
undergoes also write
simple as A cos1vt
harmonic motion,
motion, + pbb
To derive
Note
From Eq. the the
also(15.27),
that standing
wavewave
thechange functionfunction
in sign corresponds
for the
pair standing
of nodes towave
a shift
is
oscillate ininsum
the phaseof
phase. ofThi
the 18
ind
pair of nodes t 5 T phase. Thi
radians.
duct
vidualof At x =
wavelength
wave 0
functions:the
superposition principle motion
and from
frequency.the reflected
between The wave
oscillations is ofA cos vt
adjacent and the
points
between oscillations of adjacent points
from the incident wave is -A cos vt,direction. which we can also write as A cos1v
direction.
riodic
g From
wave
y1x,
terms,Eq. t2 =
we(15.27),ybecause
1x,
obtain the
1 t2 + y2all
1x, points
t2 =
the wave function for
on
A3-cos1kx
the
the
the+
stand-
standingvt2 +
wavecos1kx
is -
the vt24
sum of t
We can use Eq. (15.28) to
We can use Eq. (15.28) to find the p find the p
vidual
We waveUsing
can rewrite of the±cosine
functions:
eachcos(a b) = terms
cosfora by
forcos b ∓
using
which sin
the
sin a sin b
identities
kx = 0, for
so
which sin kx = 0, so the displace the
the cosine
displace
one
the dimension
sum and difference (in Fig.
of two15.4,
angles:along
vt t2==(or
cos(a
= the b) = cos Áa cos b sin a sin
=
SW sin kx) sin
kx = 0, !
p, 2p, 3p, Á , or, !
using k = 2
1x, t2
t2 + y2y1x, y1 1x,sin
t2 == 12A t2kx2 y2 1x,
+ sin kx AA3-cos1kx
0, p, 2p, + ωt
3p, , or, using
vt2 + cos1kx - vt k
ength, and amplitude apply equally well p 2p
p 2p 3p 3pfor
We can rewrite each of the cosine terms by using
x = the
0, identities
Each
, ,point , Á the
moves c
dimensions.1standing Figure wave 15.5 on shows
a a wavex = 0, kk , kk , kk , Á
nodes:
thesinsum
kx2 (15.28)! b) =place.
vt and difference of two angles: cos(a cos a cos b ! sio
Particles
rface of a tankstring,
of fixed endAs
water. = 02 waves
at xwith l 2l 3l
= 0, lmove
, 2l , in
3lphase
, Á wi
= 0, , , , Á
2 2 2
ce from one crest to the next, and the 2 2 2
ASW is twice the amplitude A of either of the origi-
e equilibrium level. In particular, fixed 15.5
there is a node
end A
In particular, there is a node at x = 0
at x =of0
series
fixed end of the string.
g waves on a string, the wave speed endvofisthe
fixedParticles produces a periodi
string.
ASW = 2A A standingbetween
wave,
radially
successive
unlike a travelin
outward. T
roperties of the medium. In this A standing
case,
nodes wave,
oscillate in unlike
phase. a traveli
one end to the other. The two wave
factors: a function of x and a functiononeof end
t. Theto fac- troughs
the other. Thearetwoconcen
wave
the product vL == 2lƒ remains the
equalsame,
no energy
amounts of power in opposite d
transfer inoflength
standing
powerlinwaves
is the radi
each instant the shape of the string isequal
a sineamounts
curve.
from each node to the adjacent antin
opposite d
ith the same wave speed. In this
from chapter
long a string, the wave shape stays in energy eachposi-
the same node adjacent
to the adjacent
crests
transfer is zero at every point.
antin
or a
 v
s are called harmonics, ƒn = n and=the 1nSolving
nf1series =is 1, 2,this
called 3, aequation2
Áharmonic for(string
l an
String fixed at both ends
nf1 1n = 1, 2, 3, Á 2 2L(string fixed at both ends)
s sometimes call ƒ2 , ƒ3 , and so on overtones; ƒ2lnis =2L
2L
(15.33)
thensecond 1n = 1
rst overtone, ƒ3 is the third harmonic or the second ln = overtone, 1n and = 1, 2,
These frequencies are called
fixed harmonics, n and th
fixed
ies are called
armonic harmonics,
is the same and the series
as the fundamental Waves is called
frequency can (Fig.a harmonic
exist on the string
15.25).
nsend series. Musicians sometimes
Waves
overtones;
end can call
exist ƒ on
2 , ƒthe
3 , and
string so if o
ithsometimes
fixed endscall at xƒ2=, ƒ03and, andx so = on L, the ues,
wave ƒ2 is cannot
butfunction
there they1x, secondt2beofa ste
harmonic or the first overtone,
t) = (or
ƒ is the third harmo
) sincondition
first overtone,
wave is given ƒby 3 isEq.
the(15.28) y(L,
third harmonic
(which ues,
Atotal but
thesin
satisfies there
kLthe
second
wave 3 cannot
ωt = 0 beand
overtone,
cannot be a steady
a stan
that
SW
al modes
harmonic of
is athe so on.
same as The
the first harmonic
fundamental total is
frequency the
wave same
cannot
(Fig. asbethe
15.25). fundam
a standing
x = 0), with v = vn = 2pfn and k =standing k n 2πL/λ
= 2p>l = nπ
waves n : (nshown= 1,2,3...) in Fig
mpare these For a string
with fixed ends at x = 0 and x = L, thesent with standing
fixed
wave nendswaves at
function
= 1, 2,x =
shown
3,y1x, 0
and
in
and
t24,
Figs.
x
ofrespe = 1
.23.) sent n =λ = 2L/n (n = 1,2,3...)
n 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectiv
g wave isygiven n 1x, t2bythe
=Eq.Anth
SW standing sinwave
sin k n x(which
(15.28) isCorresponding
given
vn tsatisfies theby Eq.(15.34)
condition (15.28)
to that
the (w
serio
.25 Corresponding to the series
cy,x f1=Each
at
15.25 0),
Eachstring
with vofthere
string of=aaviolin
is =
vviolin
n a naturally
node
2pf at xk ==series
n and
naturally 0),
k n with
= of 2p>lv =:
possible
n v n = 2pf
standing-w n an
how
llates thatatthis
at
scillates one or
one orwave
morefunction
more of its has nodes at both x = 0 and x = L,
harmonic
of its harmonic series of possible standing-wave
uencies,
fixed N
producing sound
yn 1x, t2 =sound
requencies, producing waves in the
sin k ninx the
ASWwaves sin vn t wavelength
wavelength
fixed by by
ƒ ƒ
yn 1x, t2 =n A(15.34) =n =
v>l sinv>l
n . kThe
n .
x T
s s
SW n
with
irend
withthe same
the same frequencies.
frequencies.
ode of an oscillating system is a motion in which wavelength
wavelength
end (the
(the n
all =n 1= 1
case),
particles case),
l1
show that this wave You function
can has
easily nodes
show at
thatboththis xfundamental
=
wave 0 and x
function frequency
= L,has n
ove sinusoidally with the same frequency. For a system made v v
length L fixed as
at it
both must.
ends, each of the wavelengths ƒ
given1 =
ƒ 1 by =
fixedovertone)
mode
(first of an oscillating system is a motion fixed
in which all particles 2L 2L
esponds
end to a possible A normal mode ofpattern
normal-mode an oscillating
and
endFor a system made
system
frequency. is a
moveA sinusoidally
N of with
the the
systemsame movefrequency.
This isiscalled
sinusoidally
This called the
harmonics with
the f
fundamental
the =
fundament nf
same f
tely many normal modes, each with its characteristic n fre-1
f length L fixed at both ends, each of the wavelengths given by are ƒ = 2v>2L, ƒ = 3v>2L, an
 harmonic or the first overtone, ƒ3 is the third harmonic or the se
des of a Harmonics analysis
so on. The first harmonic is the same as the fundamental freque
e these For a string with fixed endsmode:
normal = 0 and xoscillation
at x sinusoidal = L, theofwave
the nth standing wave isall given
particlebywith
Eq.the
(15.28) (which satisfies
same frequency
there is a node at x = 0), with v = vn = 2pfn and k = k n =
normal mode of string with fixed ends
N
yn 1x, t2 = ASW sin k n x sin vn t
infinitely many (n = 1,2,3...)
You can easily show that this wave function has nodes at both
as it must. Every possible motion of string with
overtone) fixed ends can be represented by
A normal mode of an oscillating system is a motion insome
combination of normal-mode motions:
N of the system move sinusoidally with the same frequency. F
up of a string of length L fixed at both ends, each of the wav
Eq. (15.31) corresponds to a possible normal-mode patte
There are infinitely many normal modes, each with its
overtone) quency and vibration pattern. Figure 15.26 shows the first
A N patterns and their associated frequencies and wavelengths; t
Eq. (15.34) with n = 1, 2, 3, and 4. By contrast, a harmoni
harmonic
has only one oscillating particle, hasanalysis;
only oneFourier
normal series
mode
d waves in the wavelength by ƒn = v>ln . The smallest frequency f1 co
. String instruments
wavelength (the n = 1 case), l1 = 2L:
v 1 F
fundamental frequency of string ƒ1 = = 1string fixed at both en
2L 2L μ

This is called the fundamental frequency. The other sta

are ƒ2 = 2v>2L, ƒ3 = 3v>2L, and so on. These are all
producing sound wave
fundamental frequency ƒ1 , such aswith
2ƒ1the
, 3ƒ1 , 4ƒ
same 1 , and so
harmonics
all the frequencies as

v
ƒn = n = nf1 1n = 1, 2, 3, Á 2 (string fixed
2L

These frequencies are called harmonics, and the serie

series. Musicians sometimes call ƒ2 , ƒ3 , and so on over
harmonic or the first overtone, ƒ3 is the third harmonic or
al modes of a so on. The first harmonic is the same as the fundamental f
mpare these For a string with fixed ends at x = 0 and x = L, the
 ensions,
ve motion
all the wave
conveys intensity
energy
0 frequencies I
from
tas is
oneinversely
region = I12 r 2 2 2 (15.12)
s on a string depends 2 2mF v A
vPav =0t(inverse@square
2 2 1
sinusoidal
the square
eitortional
lengthWave
power:
Period T
m.
to
mechanical
of
Wave
the
power
v
the square
distance
motion
0x
wave,Summary (2)
the
from
conveys
versus time t
average
of0the wave ampli-
the source.
energy F from(average
one power, sinusoidal wave)
region P
law for intens
= 1
2mF v
15.4 and waveƒ
at15.5.)
= n
coordinate
power; x
= =nf
sinusoidal1n =v 1, =2, 3,wave,
wave Á(waves
2 I on
r 2
(string inverse-square
a string)
fixed at av
both 2
law
(15.14)
ends) (15.3
other.
flects
are For
when
of the n a sinusoidal
it reaches
frequency. 2L
1 mechanical
For waves that y1x, t2
spread
A = y11x, t2
m the
1
=
average
+ y21x, t2
2
(average (15.27)power
P
I2 2 for intensity
r Ppoint
ny av isthe
nsions, proportional
where Pmaxtwo
wave or to Ithe
intensity square
is inversely of the
(principle of wave rampli-
superposition)
1 2
isplacement
he square
and the square
These of is
the theof sum
distance
frequencies the from
frequency.
are the
called source.
For waves
harmonics, (inverse@square
that
and spread
the law
series I
for
is1 calledr
intensity)
2 a harm
eys energy
P from
1
P one region 1 2 2 = 2
tion:
n5.4
vidualandA
three
=
wave
15.5.)
waves
series.
av reflectsthe
(principle
Musicians
dimensions,
2 max when
sometimes
wave it P av =call2 ƒ2mF
reaches
intensity 2 ,I ƒ
is3 ,vandA y1x,
inverselyso on = y11x,
t2 overtones; I2 t2 ƒ+r2(15.25)
1 y21x,
is the t2
sec
anical
s medium. wave, the
At 0any average
point where (inverse@square
ortional harmonic
to the or the
square first
of overtone,
the t twoƒ3oris from
(average
distance power,
the third sinusoidal
the harmonic
(principle
source. wave)
or of
thesuperposition)
second overtone,
quare
frlap,
of the
O on.
so wave
The ampli-
first harmonic is the 2wave
same as superposition
the fundamental frequency (Fig. 15.25
a
Examplesthe total displacement
15.4that Period T
15.5.) I1 r2
andspread is the sum
ncy. For
e Aofwave waves
Forreflects
a stringwhen with = at2 x = 0y1x, andt2x==y L,
ments
ion: the individual itfixed
waves ends
(principle
reaches 1x,the
t2 wave
+ y function
1x, t2 (15.26) y1x, t
e medium.
intensity
the I
nth is inversely
standing wave is I 2
given r
by
1
1 Eq. (15.28) (which satisfies the condition
2
At
). N a sinusoidalAwaveany point where two or
N (inverse@square (principle
law for of superposition) (15.28)
intensity)
hen
distance therefrom is athe
nodesource.
at x = 0), y1x,
with t2 == 1A sin kx2 sin vt
SW= 2pf and k = k = 2p>l :
lap, the total displacement is the sum standing wave
v v n onn a string n n
end of a stretched l
L string, (standing wave on a string,
eents
Nsuperposition:
of the individual
s combine to form
2
=
Aa A
wave
waves reflects
(principle
y when
1x, t2 = it
A reaches
sin k x sin v t y1x, t2 = y1 1x,
(15.3
.
undaryN A
of antinodes. N
its medium. At any point whereN fixed
n end at x
SW =
two 0) n
or
n
nodes and v (principle of sup
on
wavesa string:
You can
overlap,
> 2 L atotal
= the sinusoidal fn wave
= n
displacement =isnfthe
1 1nsum=y1x, t2 3,=c2
leasily show that this wave function has nodes at both x = 0 and x =
When 1, 2, 1ASW sin kx2(15.33)
sin vt
stance l 2 apart, as are2
2L
me a
ects asA itorit
Nfixed
when
displacements must.
Nfree A end
reaches of of Aaindividual
Nthe stretched
N y1x, t2 string,
= y11x,
waves (principle y21x, t2 wave on a(15.27)
t2 +(standing string,
ple
ne) 15.6.)
yonreflected
point AO
where normal
waves two or mode oftoan
combine formoscillating
a
(principle1 F system is a motion in which all parti
of superposition)
perposition).
witha string:
length When
L3 are
l
= a
L sinusoidal
held fixed, wave
f 1 = y1x, t2 fixed
= 1A SWend
sin at
kx2 x
sin=vt 0)(15.35)
N
placement
dal of
wave theis
with system
the
2
sum
nodes move sinusoidally 2L with
A m the same frequency. For a system m
a fixed
when N L A or free
isNan end
N of
Ainteger aNand antinodes.
stretched
A multiple string, (standing wave v on a string,
dual up
waves of a string
(principle of A N (string
length
> L fixed fixed
at at both
both ends, ends) = nof the
fneach nf1 1n = 1, 2,give
= wavelengths 3, c
are spaced
reflected
associated wavesa distance
combine
vibration lto2form
pattern apart,
a as are fixed end at x 2L
= 0)pattern and freque
dal wave
Eq.
N with (15.31)
4
l
nodes = L corresponds
and
A antinodes. N to a possible normal-mode
des. (See
xamples Example
15.7 and
2
15.6.)
15.8.) v