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DBMS(BCS403) MQPsolved #telegram(@vtu23) (1) 240812

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Computer Science and Engineering (T John Institute of Technology)

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Model Question Paper- II with effect from 2022

Fourth Semester B.E Degree Examination 2024-25

Database Management System (BCS403)
TIME: 03 Hours Max.Marks:100
1. Note: Answer any FIVE full questions, choosing at least ONE question from each MODULE
2. M: Marks, L: Bloom’s level, C: Course outcomes.

Module - 1 M L C
Q.1 a What is a Database? Explain the three schema architecture with neat diagram. 8 L2 CO1

b What are the advantages of using DBMS approach? Explain 8 L2 CO1

c Explain the following terms. 4 L2 CO1

1. Data Dictionary 2. Weak Entity

OR

a Explain the categories of Data Models. 8 L2 CO1

Q.2
b Explain the component modules of DBMS & their interactions with 8 L2 CO1
diagram.

c What are the responsibilities of DBA & database designers? 4 L2 CO1

Module - 2
Q.3 a Explain the different types of update operations on relational database. How 6 L2 CO2
basic operation deals with constraint violation.

b Explain Unary relational operations with examples. 6 L2 CO2

c What is an Integrity Constraint? Explain the importance of Referential 8 L2 CO2

Integrity Constraint.

OR

Q.4 a Explain the following relational algebra operation. 10 L3 CO2

JOIN, DIFFERENCE, SELECT, UNION

b Discuss the E.R to Relational mapping algorithm with example for each 6 L3 CO2
step.

c Explain the relational algebra operation for set theory with examples. 4 L2 CO2

Module - 3
Q.5 a Illustrate insert, delete, update, alter & drop commands in SQL. 6 L4 CO3

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Model Question Paper- II with effect from 2022

b Explain informal design guidelines for relational schema design. 4 L2 CO3

c What is Functional dependency? Explain the inference rules for functional 10 L3 CO4
dependency with proof.
OR

a Consider two sets of functional dependency. F={AC, ACD, EAD, 10 L3 CO4

Q.6 EH} E= {ACD, EAH}. Are they Equivalent?
b Explain the types of update anomalies in SQL with an example. 10 L2 CO3

Module - 4
Q.7 a Demonstrate transaction states & additional operations. 10 L3 CO4

b Demonstrate working of Assertion & Triggers in database? Explain with an 10 L2 CO3

example.
OR

Q.8 a Demonstrate the System Log in database transaction. 6 L2 CO4

b Discuss the ACID properties of database transaction. 4 L2 CO4

c Explain stored procedure language in SQL with an example. 10 L2 CO3

Module - 5
Q.9 a Explain the Two phase locking protocol used for concurrency control. 8 L3 CO5

b Define Schedule? Illustrate with an example. 4 L2 CO5

c. Why Concurrency control is needed? Demonstrate with an example. 8 L3 CO5

OR

Q.10 a What is NOSQL? Explain the CAP theorem. 6 L2 CO5

b What are document based NOSQL systems? basic operations CRUD in 8 L2 CO5
MongoDB.

c What is NOSQL Graph database? Explain Neo4j. 6 L2 CO5

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Model Question Paper- I with effect from 2022

Fourth Semester B.E Degree Examination 2024-25

Database Management Systems (BCS403)
TIME: 03 Hours Max.Marks:100
1. Note: Answer any FIVE full questions, choosing at least ONE question from each MODULE
2. M: Marks, L: Bloom’s level, C: Course outcomes.

Module - 1 M L C
Q.1 a Explain the types of end users with examples. 8 L2 CO1

b What are the advantages of using DBMS? Explain. 8 L2 CO1

c Describe the characteristics of database. 4 L2 CO1

OR
a Explain three schema architecture. Why mappings b/w schema levels are 8 L2 CO1
Q.2
required?
b Explain the different types of attributes in ER model. 8 L2 CO1

c Explain the following. 4 L2 CO1

1. Cardinality Ratio 2. Weal Entity

Module - 2
Q.3 a Explain the different Relational Model constraints. 6 L2 CO2

b Demonstrate the concepts of Generalization & Specialization with examples. 6 L2 CO2

c Explain Entity Integrity Constraint & Referential Integrity Constraints? Why 8 L2 CO2
each of these is important in a database.

OR

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Model Question Paper- I with effect from 2022

Q.4 a Consider the Sailors-Boats-Reserves DB described 10 L3 CO2
s (sid, sname, rating, age)
b (bid, bname, color)
r (sid, bid, date)
Write each of the following queries in SQL.
1. Find the colors of boats reserved by Alber.
2. Find all sailor ids of sailors who have a rating of at least 8 or reserved
boat 103.
3. Find the names of sailors who have not reserved a boat whose name
contains the string “storm”. Order the names in ascending order.
4. Find the sailor ids of sailors with age over 20 who have not reserved
a boat whose name includes the string “thunder”.
b Discuss the Equijoin & Natural Join with suitable example. 6 L3 CO2

c Explain the relational algebra operation for set theory with examples. 4 L2 CO2

Module - 3
Q.5 a Explain the Cursor & its properties in embedded SQL with an example. 6 L2 CO3

b What is a Normalization? Explain the 1NF, 2NF & 3NF with examples. 10 L2 CO4

c Explain informal design guidelines for relational schema design. 4 L2 CO3

OR
a What is Functional Dependency? Write algorithm to find minimal cover for 10 L2 CO4
Q.6 set of Functional Dependency. Construct the minimal cover m for set of
functional dependency. E={ BA, DA, ABD}
b Explain the types of update anomalies in SQL with an example. 10 L4 CO3

Module - 4
Q.7 a Demonstrate the Database Transaction with transaction diagram. 10 L2 CO4

b Demonstrate working of Assertion & Triggers in SQL? Explain with an 10 L3 CO3

example.
OR

Q.8 a Demonstrate the System Log in database transaction. 6 L2 CO4

b Demonstrate the ACID properties of database transaction. 4 L2 CO4

c Explain stored procedure language in SQL with an example. 10 L2 CO3

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Model Question Paper- I with effect from 2022

Module - 5
Q.9 a Demonstrate the Two phase locking protocol used for concurrency control. 8 L3 CO5

b Demonstrate the Concurrency control based on Timestamp ordering. 4 L2 CO5

c. Why Concurrency control is needed? Demonstrate with an example. 8 L3 CO5

OR

Q.10 a What is NOSQL? Explain the CAP theorem. 6 L2 CO5

b What are document based NOSQL systems? Explain basic operations 8 L2 CO5
CRUD in MongoDB.
c What is NOSQL Graph database? Explain Neo4j. 6 L2 CO5

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Model Question Paper- I

Module – 1

Q.1 a Explain the types of end users with examples.

1. Casual End Users

¥ Description: These users occasionally access the database but do not have detailed
knowledge of its structure. They typically use query languages to retrieve information.
¥ Example: A manager who occasionally queries the database to generate a sales report.

2. Naive or Parametric End Users

¥ Description: These users frequently use the database but have a limited understanding of
its complexities. They often interact with the system through pre-defined functions or
transactions.
¥ Example: A bank teller who uses a banking application to enter customer transactions
and retrieve account information.

3. Sophisticated End Users

¥ Description: These users have a good understanding of the database and its capabilities.
They interact with the database to perform complex queries and analyses.
¥ Example: A data analyst who writes SQL queries to extract, manipulate, and analyze
large datasets for business insights.

4. Stand-alone Users

¥ Description: These users maintain personal databases using tools like Microsoft Access
or SQLite. They create and manage their databases independently.
¥ Example: A small business owner who uses Microsoft Access to manage customer
information and sales records.

5. System Analysts and Application Programmers

¥ Description: These users design, implement, and maintain database applications. They
write application programs that interact with the database and ensure it meets the needs of
the organization.
¥ Example: A software developer who creates and maintains an inventory management
system that interfaces with a company’s database.

6. Database Administrators (DBAs)

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¥ Description: These users are responsible for the overall management of the database.
They ensure its integrity, security, and performance, and manage user access.
¥ Example: A DBA who manages database backup and recovery, configures security
settings, and optimizes database performance.

Q1 b.What are the advantages of using DBMS? Explain.

Using a Database Management System (DBMS) has numerous advantages. Here are some of the
key benefits:

1. Data Redundancy and Inconsistency Control:

¥ Redundancy Minimization: A DBMS reduces data redundancy by integrating all the

data into a single database, reducing the need for duplicate data.
¥ Inconsistency Reduction: By centralizing data storage, a DBMS ensures that updates are
consistent across the system, preventing data anomalies.

2. Data Sharing:

¥ Multi-User Environment: A DBMS allows multiple users to access and work with the
data simultaneously.
¥ Controlled Access: Users can be granted different levels of access, ensuring data
security and integrity.

3. Improved Data Security:

¥ Access Controls: DBMSs provide robust mechanisms for controlling user access and
permissions.
¥ Encryption: Sensitive data can be encrypted to protect it from unauthorized access.

4. Data Integrity:

¥ Constraints: Integrity constraints such as primary keys, foreign keys, and unique
constraints help maintain the accuracy and consistency of data.
¥ Consistency Rules: DBMSs enforce data consistency rules automatically, reducing the
chances of errors.

5. Backup and Recovery:

¥ Automatic Backup: DBMSs often include tools for automatic data backup, ensuring that
data can be recovered in case of a failure.
¥ Recovery Mechanisms: DBMSs provide recovery solutions to restore data after crashes,
ensuring minimal data loss.

6. Data Independence:

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¥ Logical Data Independence: Changes to the logical schema do not affect the application
programs.
¥ Physical Data Independence: Changes to the physical storage of data do not affect the
logical schema or application programs.

7. Efficient Data Access:

¥ Query Optimization: DBMSs use sophisticated algorithms to optimize query

performance, making data retrieval efficient.
¥ Indexing: Indexes can be created to improve the speed of data retrieval operations.

8. Concurrent Access:

¥ Concurrency Control: DBMSs handle concurrent access to data, ensuring that multiple
users can perform transactions simultaneously without conflicts.
¥ Locking Mechanisms: These prevent conflicts and ensure data consistency during
concurrent operations.

9. Enhanced Data Integration:

¥ Centralized Data Management: Data from various sources can be integrated into a
single database, providing a unified view of the data.
¥ Data Warehousing: DBMSs can support data warehousing for better data analysis and
reporting.

10. Application Development Efficiency:

¥ Standardized Query Language: SQL provides a standardized language for querying

and managing data, making it easier to develop and maintain applications.
¥ DBMS Tools: Many DBMSs offer tools and interfaces that simplify the development
process.

11. Cost Efficiency:

¥ Reduced Storage Costs: By minimizing redundancy, storage costs are reduced.

¥ Maintenance Savings: Centralized data management reduces the cost and effort
involved in maintaining data.

12. Improved Decision Making:

¥ Data Analysis: A DBMS can provide advanced data analysis tools, enabling better
decision-making through data insights.
¥ Reporting: Various reporting tools integrated into DBMSs help generate insightful
reports for decision-makers.

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Q1.c Describe the characteristics of database.

Databases are fundamental components in modern computing and information management.

Here are some key characteristics of databases:

1. Structured Data Storage: Databases organize data into tables or collections with
predefined schemas. This structure helps in efficiently storing, retrieving, and managing
data.
2. Data Integrity: Databases enforce rules and constraints to ensure the accuracy and
consistency of the data. Common integrity constraints include primary keys (which
uniquely identify records), foreign keys (which establish relationships between tables),
and various data validation rules.
3. Data Management: Databases support various data manipulation operations such as
creating, reading, updating, and deleting data (often abbreviated as CRUD operations).
This functionality is facilitated through database management systems (DBMS) and
query languages like SQL.
4. Concurrency Control: Databases manage concurrent access by multiple users or
processes to ensure that transactions are processed reliably without conflicts. This
involves mechanisms for locking data and managing transactions.
5. Transaction Management: Databases support transactions, which are sequences of
operations that are executed as a single unit. Transactions are designed to ensure that
operations are completed fully and correctly or not executed at all, maintaining data
consistency (following the ACID properties: Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation,
Durability).
6. Scalability and Performance: Databases are designed to handle large volumes of data
and high transaction rates efficiently. They use indexing, optimization techniques, and
caching to improve performance and scalability.
7. Data Security: Databases implement security measures to protect data from unauthorized
access and breaches. This includes user authentication, authorization, encryption, and
auditing.
8. Backup and Recovery: Databases provide mechanisms for backing up data and
recovering it in case of failures or data loss. Regular backups and recovery plans are
essential for data protection and continuity.
9. Data Retrieval and Querying: Databases offer powerful querying capabilities to retrieve
and manipulate data. Query languages like SQL enable users to perform complex
searches, aggregations, and data analysis.
10. Data Relationships: Databases can represent complex relationships between data entities
through mechanisms such as foreign keys and joins. This allows for the efficient
organization and retrieval of related information.
11. Flexibility and Extensibility: Many databases are designed to be flexible and can adapt
to changes in data requirements. Some modern databases support schema evolution and
dynamic changes.
12. Data Redundancy Reduction: Through normalization processes, databases reduce
redundancy and improve data consistency by organizing data into related tables and
minimizing duplication.

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Q2.a Explain three schema architecture. Why mappings b/w schema levels are
required?

The three-schema architecture is a framework used in database systems to manage data

abstraction and separation. It involves three distinct levels of schemas:

1. Internal Schema (Physical Schema):

o Definition: This schema describes how data is physically stored in the database. It
deals with the storage structure, file organization, indexing, and access methods.
o Purpose: It provides the details about how data is organized and managed on the
storage medium, ensuring efficient data retrieval and management.

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oFocus: Implementation details, such as storage devices, data structures, and

access paths.
2. Conceptual Schema (Logical Schema):
o Definition: This schema represents the entire database's logical structure. It
defines the database's entities, relationships, and constraints without considering
how they are physically stored.
o Purpose: It provides a unified and coherent view of the data, ensuring
consistency and integrity across the database. It serves as an abstraction layer
between the physical storage and user views.
o Focus: Data organization, relationships, and constraints without concern for
physical storage details.
3. External Schema (View Schema):
o Definition: This schema defines different user views or perspectives of the
database. Each view is a subset of the database that is tailored to specific user
needs or application requirements.
o Purpose: It provides customized views of the data for different users or
applications, enhancing security and usability by restricting access to only the
relevant parts of the database.
o Focus: User interactions and data presentation tailored to specific needs.

Importance of Mappings Between Schema Levels

Mappings between these schema levels are essential for several reasons:

1. Data Abstraction:
o Purpose: Mappings allow for data abstraction, separating the physical storage of
data from its logical representation and user views. This separation ensures that
changes to the physical storage (e.g., changing indexing methods or storage
formats) do not impact the logical schema or user views.
2. Flexibility and Independence:
o Purpose: By defining mappings between schemas, databases can evolve
independently at different levels. For instance, if the internal schema changes
(e.g., due to hardware upgrades), the conceptual schema and external schemas can
remain unchanged, preserving the consistency of user views and logical data
organization.
3. Consistency and Integrity:
o Purpose: Mappings ensure that the logical schema accurately reflects the data
stored at the physical level and that user views are consistently represented. This
helps in maintaining data integrity across various schemas.
4. User-Specific Views:
o Purpose: Mappings allow different users to interact with the database according
to their needs without affecting the overall database structure. Users can work
with customized views (external schemas) tailored to their specific roles or
applications, while the underlying data structure (conceptual schema) remains
consistent.
5. Simplified Management:

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o Purpose: Managing and maintaining the database becomes easier when different
schemas are mapped correctly. Database administrators can optimize physical
storage and indexing without altering the logical schema or user views.

Q2.b Explain the different types of attributes in ER model.

1. Simple Attribute
An attribute that cannot be further subdivided into components is a simple
attribute.
Example: The roll number of a student, the ID number of an employee, gender,
and many more.

Simple Attribute

2.Composite Attribute
An attribute that can be split into components is a composite attribute.
Example: The address can be further split into house number, street number,
city, state, country, and pin code, the name can also be split into first name
middle name, and last name.

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Composite Attribute

3. Single-Valued Attribute
The attribute which takes up only a single value for each entity instance is a
single-valued attribute.
Example: The age of a student, Aadhar card number.

Single-Valued

4. Multi-Valued Attribute
The attribute which takes up more than a single value for each entity instance is
a multi-valued attribute. And it is represented by double oval shape.
Example: Phone number of a student: Landline and mobile.

Multi-valued

5. Stored Attribute
The stored attribute are those attribute which doesn’t require any type of
further update since they are stored in the database.
Example: DOB(Date of birth) is the stored attribute.

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Stored-attribute

6. Derived Attribute
An attribute that can be derived from other attributes is derived attributes. And
it is represented by dotted oval shape.
Example: Total and average marks of a student, age of an employee that is
derived from date of birth.

Derived-attribute

7. Complex Attribute
Those attributes, which can be formed by the nesting of composite and multi-
valued attributes, are called “Complex Attributes“. These attributes are rarely
used in DBMS(DataBase Management System). That’s why they are not so
popular.
Example: Address because address contain composite value like street, city,
state, PIN code and also multivalued because one people has more that one
house address.

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Complex-attribute

Representation
Complex attributes are the nesting of two or more composite and multi-valued
attributes. Therefore, these multi-valued and composite attributes are called
‘Components’ of complex attributes.
These components are grouped between parentheses ‘( )’ and multi-valued
attributes between curly braces ‘{ }’, Components are separated by commas ‘, ‘.
For example: let us consider a person having multiple phone numbers, emails,
and an address.
Here, phone number and email are examples of multi-valued attributes and
address is an example of the composite attribute, because it can be divided into
house number, street, city, and state.

Complex attributes

Components

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Email, Phone number, Address(All are separated by commas and multi-valued

components are represented between curly braces).
Complex Attribute: Address_EmPhone(You can choose any name).
8. Key attribute
Key attributes are those attributes that can uniquely identify the entity in
the entity set.
Example: Roll-No is the key attribute because it can uniquely identify the
student.
9. Null Attribute
This attribute can take NULL value when entity does not have value for it.
Example –The ‘Net Banking Active Bin’ attribute gives weather particular
customer having net banking facility activated or not activated.
For bank which does not offer facility of net banking in customer table ‘Net
Banking Active Bin’ attribute is always null till Net banking facility is not
activated as this attribute indicates Bank offers net banking facility or does not
offers.
10. Descriptive Attribute
Descriptive attribute give information about the relationship set example given
below. Here Start Date is the descriptive attribute of Manages relationship.

Descriptive-Attribute

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Q2.cExplain the following.

1. Cardinality Ratio 2. Weal Entity

1. Cardinality Ratio

Definition: Cardinality ratio describes the number of instances of one entity that are associated
with the number of instances of another entity in a relationship. It specifies how many instances
of an entity participate in a relationship with instances of another entity.

Types of Cardinality Ratios:

1. One-to-One (1:1):
o Definition: An instance of entity A is associated with at most one instance of
entity B, and vice versa.
o Example: In a database of employees and their company-issued cars, each
employee might be assigned exactly one car, and each car is assigned to exactly
one employee.
2. One-to-Many (1

):

Definition: An instance of entity A can be associated with multiple instances of

o
entity B, but an instance of entity B is associated with at most one instance of
entity A.
o Example: A single department (entity A) can have multiple employees (entity B),
but each employee belongs to only one department.
3. Many-to-One (N:1):

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Definition: Multiple instances of entity A can be associated with a single instance

o
of entity B, but each instance of entity B is associated with at most one instance of
entity A.
o Example: Many employees (entity A) can work under one manager (entity B),
but each manager supervises only one department (entity B).
4. Many-to-Many (M

):

o Definition: Multiple instances of entity A can be associated with multiple

instances of entity B, and vice versa.
o Example: Students (entity A) can enroll in multiple courses (entity B), and each
course can have multiple students.

Importance: Cardinality ratios are crucial for understanding how entities relate to each other,
which helps in designing the database schema and ensuring that relationships are represented
correctly.

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2. Weak Entity

Definition: A weak entity is an entity that cannot be uniquely identified by its own attributes
alone. It relies on a "strong" or "owner" entity and a relationship with that entity to ensure its
uniqueness.

Characteristics of Weak Entities:

1. Lack of Key Attribute: A weak entity does not have a primary key of its own. Instead, it
has a partial key, which is an attribute or set of attributes that can uniquely identify the
weak entity in conjunction with the primary key of the strong entity.
2. Dependence on Strong Entity: The weak entity is dependent on a strong entity, which
provides part of the identifying information. This relationship is typically depicted by a
double rectangle (for the weak entity) and a double diamond (for the identifying
relationship) in ER diagrams.

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3. Existence Dependency: A weak entity cannot exist without its associated strong entity.
If the strong entity is deleted, the weak entity is also deleted.

Example: Consider an example involving an entity Order and a weak entity OrderItem. An
Order entity can have multiple OrderItem entities. Here, OrderItem may not have a unique
identifier on its own; it relies on the Order entity's primary key plus a partial key (e.g.,
ItemNumber) to identify each OrderItem.

ER Diagram Representation:

¥ Weak Entity: Represented by a double rectangle.

¥ Identifying Relationship: Represented by a double diamond.
¥ Partial Key: Underlined with a dashed line.

Importance: Weak entities are important for representing complex real-world scenarios where
certain entities cannot be uniquely identified without referencing another entity. They help in
modeling hierarchical or dependent relationships in a database schema.

Q3.a Explain the different Relational Model constraint

Rela%onal Constraints
These are the restrictions or sets of rules imposed on the database contents. It validates
the quality of the database. It validates the various operations like data insertion,
updation, and other processes that have to be performed without affecting the integrity
of the data. It protects us against threats/damages to the database. Mainly Constraints
on the relational database are of 4 types
¥ Domain constraints
¥ Key constraints or Uniqueness Constraints
¥ En4ty Integrity constraints
¥ Referen4al integrity constraints

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1. Domain Constraints
• Every domain must contain atomic values(smallest indivisible units) which
means composite and multi-valued attributes are not allowed.
• We perform a datatype check here, which means when we assign a data
type to a column we limit the values that it can contain. Eg. If we assign the
datatype of attribute age as int, we canÕt give it values other than int datatype.
Example:
EID Name Phone
01 Bikash Dutta 123456789
234456678
Explanation: In the above relation, Name is a composite attribute and Phone is
a multi-values attribute, so it is violating domain constraint.
2. Key Constraints or Uniqueness Constraints
• These are called uniqueness constraints since it ensures that every tuple
in the relation should be unique.
• A relation can have multiple keys or candidate keys(minimal superkey), out
of which we choose one of the keys as the primary key, we donÕt have any
restriction on choosing the primary key out of candidate keys, but it is
suggested to go with the candidate key with less number of attributes.
• Null values are not allowed in the primary key, hence Not Null constraint is
also part of the key constraint.
Example:
EID Name Phone
01 Bikash 6000000009
02 Paul 9000090009
01 Tuhin 9234567892
Explanation: In the above table, EID is the primary key, and the Þrst and the last
tuple have the same value in EID ie 01, so it is violating the key constraint.

3.Entity Integrity Constraints

• Entity Integrity constraints say that no primary key can take a NULL value,
since using the primary key we identify each tuple uniquely in a relation.
Example:
EID Name Phone
01 Bikash 9000900099
02 Paul 600000009
NULL Sony 9234567892

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Explanation: In the above relation, EID is made the primary key, and the primary
key canÕt take NULL values but in the third tuple, the primary key is null, so it is
violating Entity Integrity constraints.
4. Referential Integrity Constraints
• The Referential integrity constraint is speciÞed between two relations or
tables and used to maintain the consistency among the tuples in two relations.
• This constraint is enforced through a foreign key, when an attribute in the
foreign key of relation R1 has the same domain(s) as the primary key of relation
R2, then the foreign key of R1 is said to reference or refer to the primary key of
relation R2.
• The values of the foreign key in a tuple of relation R1 can either take the
values of the primary key for some tuple in relation R2, or can take NULL values,
but canÕt be empty.
Example:
EID Name DNO
01 Divine 12
02 Dino 22
04 Vivian 14
DNO Place
12 Jaipur
13 Mumbai
14 Delhi
Explanation: In the above tables, the DNO of Table 1 is the foreign key, and
DNO in Table 2 is the primary key. DNO = 22 in the foreign key of Table 1 is not
allowed because DNO = 22 is not deÞned in the primary key of table 2.
Therefore, Referential integrity constraints are violated here.

Q3.bDemonstrate the concepts of Generalization & Specialization with examples.

Generalization
Generalization is the process of extracting common properties from a set of
entities and creating a generalized entity from it. It is a bottom-up approach in
which two or more entities can be generalized to a higher-level entity if they have
some attributes in common. For Example, STUDENT and FACULTY can be
generalized to a higher-level entity called PERSON as shown in Figure 1. In this
case, common attributes like P_NAME, and P_ADD become part of a
higher entity (PERSON), and specialized attributes like S_FEE become part of a
specialized entity (STUDENT).
Generalization is also called as Ô Bottom-up approachÓ.

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Generalization
Specialization
In specialization, an entity is divided into sub-entities based on its characteristics.
It is a top-down approach where the higher-level entity is specialized into two or
more lower-level entities. For Example, an EMPLOYEE entity in an Employee
management system can be specialized into DEVELOPER, TESTER, etc. as
shown in Figure 2. In this case, common attributes like E_NAME, E_SAL, etc.
become part of a higher entity (EMPLOYEE), and specialized attributes like
TES_TYPE become part of a specialized entity (TESTER).
Specialization is also called as Ó Top-Down approchÓ.

Specialization

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Inheritance: It is an important feature of generalization and specialization

• Attribute inheritance: allows lower level entities to inherit the attributes of
higher level entities and vice versa.
• in diagram: Car entity is an inheritance of Vehicle entity ,So Car can
acquire attributes of Vehicle example:car can acquire Model attribute
of Vehicle.

• Participation inheritance: In participation inheritance, relationships

involving higher level entity set also inherited by lower level entity and vice versa.
• in diagram: Vehicle entity has an relationship with Cycle entity ,So Cycle
entity can acquire attributes of lower level entities i.e Car and Bus since it is
inheritance of Vehicle.

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Q3.C c Explain Entity Integrity Constraint & Referential Integrity Constraints? Whyeach
of these is important in a database.

Entity integrity constraints:

Entity integrity constraints state that primary key can never contain null value
because primary key is used to determine individual rows in a relation uniquely, if
primary key contains null value then we cannot identify those rows. A table can
contain null value in it except primary key Þeld.
Example:
It is not allowed because it is containing primary key as NULL value.
Student_id Name Semester Age
21CSE101 Ramesh 5th 20
21CSE102 Kamlesh 5th 21
21CSE103 Aakash 5th 22
Mukesh 5th 20
Referential integrity constraints:
It can be speciÞed between two tables. In case of referential integrity constraints,
if a Foreign key in Table 1 refers to Primary key of Table 2 then every value of the
Foreign key in Table 1 must be null or available in Table 2.
Example:
Here, in below example Block_No 22 entry is not allowed because it is not present
in 2nd table.
Student_id Name Semester Block_No
22CSE101 Ramesh 5th 20
21CSE105 Kamlesh 6th 21
22CSE102 Aakash 5th 20
23CSE106 Mukesh 2nd 22
Block_No Block Location
20 Chandigarh
21 Punjab
25 Delhi

Importance:

¥ Data Consistency: Ensures that relationships between tables are preserved, and that
references are valid. This prevents orphaned records and maintains data accuracy.
¥ Preventing Invalid Data: Helps prevent the entry of data that would violate the
established relationships between tables, such as entering an order for a non-existent
customer.
¥ Enforcing Referential Actions: Defines what happens when a referenced record is
updated or deleted. For instance, it can specify that related orders should be deleted

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(cascade delete) or that the foreign key should be set to null (set null) when a customer
record is deleted.

Q4.a Consider the Sailors-Boats-Reserves DB described

s (sid, sname, rating, age) b (bid, bname, color)

r (sid, bid, date)

Write each of the following queries in SQL.

1. Find the colors of boats reserved by Alber.

2. Find all sailor ids of sailors who have a rating of at least 8 or reserved boat 103.

3. Find the names of sailors who have not reserved a boat whose name contains the string
“storm”. Order the names in ascending order.

4. Find the sailor ids of sailors with age over 20 who have not reserved a boat whose name
includes the string “thunder”.

1. Find the colors of boats reserved by Alber.

To find the colors of boats reserved by a sailor named "Alber," you need to join the Sailors,
Reserves, and Boats tables. First, identify the sid for the sailor named "Alber," and then use it
to find the colors of the boats reserved by this sailor.

SELECT DISTINCT b.color

FROM Sailors s

JOIN Reserves r ON s.sid = r.sid

JOIN Boats b ON r.bid = b.bid

WHERE s.sname = 'Alber';

2. Find all sailor ids of sailors who have a rating of at least 8 or reserved boat
103.

To find all sailor ids of sailors who either have a rating of at least 8 or have reserved boat 103,
you need to combine results based on these two conditions.

SELECT DISTINCT s.sid

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FROM Sailors s

LEFT JOIN Reserves r ON s.sid = r.sid

WHERE s.rating >= 8 OR r.bid = 103;

3. Find the names of sailors who have not reserved a boat whose name contains
the string “storm”. Order the names in ascending order.

To find the names of sailors who have not reserved any boat with a name containing "storm,"
you need to use a subquery to exclude sailors who have reserved such boats.

SELECT DISTINCT s.sname

FROM Sailors s

WHERE s.sid NOT IN (

SELECT r.sid

FROM Reserves r

JOIN Boats b ON r.bid = b.bid

WHERE b.bname LIKE '%storm%'

ORDER BY s.sname ASC;

4. Find the sailor ids of sailors with age over 20 who have not reserved a boat
whose name includes the string “thunder”.

To find the sailor ids of sailors older than 20 who have not reserved a boat with a name
containing "thunder," you need a subquery to exclude those who have reserved such boat

SELECT DISTINCT s.sid

FROM Sailors s

WHERE s.age > 20 AND s.sid NOT IN (

SELECT r.sid

FROM Reserves r

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JOIN Boats b ON r.bid = b.bid

WHERE b.bname LIKE '%thunder%'

);

Q4.b Discuss the Equijoin & Natural Join with suitable example.

Equijoin and Natural Join are both types of joins used in SQL to combine rows
from two or more tables based on a related column between them. They serve
similar purposes but differ in their speciÞc operations and results.
1. Equijoin
DeÞnition: An Equijoin is a type of join where tables are joined based on the
equality of speciÞed columns. It involves a condition where the values in one
column from the Þrst table are matched with values in a column from the second
table using the equality operator (=).
Example: Consider two tables, Employees and Departments:
Employees Table:
emp_id emp_name dept_id
1 Alice 101
2 Bob 102
3 Carol 101
Departments Table:
dept_id dept_name
101 HR
102 IT
103 Finance
To Þnd the names of employees along with their department names, you can
perform an equijoin on the dept_id column:
sql
Copy code
SELECT e.emp_name, d.dept_name
FROM Employees e
JOIN Departments d
ON e.dept_id = d.dept_id;
Result:
emp_name dept_name
Alice HR
Bob IT
Carol HR

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Explanation: In this equijoin, the dept_id column is used to match rows

between the Employees and Departments tables. The equality condition
e.dept_id = d.dept_id is applied to combine relevant rows.
2. Natural Join
DeÞnition: A Natural Join automatically joins tables based on columns with the
same names and compatible data types in both tables. It eliminates duplicate
columns from the result. The join is performed on all columns with the same
names in both tables.
Example: Using the same Employees and Departments tables:
Employees Table:
emp_id emp_name dept_id
1 Alice 101
2 Bob 102
3 Carol 101
Departments Table:
dept_id dept_name
101 HR
102 IT
103 Finance
To Þnd the names of employees along with their department names using a
natural join:
sql
Copy code
SELECT emp_name, dept_name
FROM Employees
NATURAL JOIN Departments;
Result:
emp_name dept_name
Alice HR
Bob IT
Carol HR
Explanation: The NATURAL JOIN automatically joins the Employees and
Departments tables on the dept_id column, as it is common to both tables. The
result set includes only one dept_id column, with duplicate columns being
eliminated.
Key Differences
• Join Condition:
• Equijoin: Requires an explicit condition for equality using ON clause. You
specify which columns to match.

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• Natural Join: Automatically uses columns with the same names for the
join condition. No need to specify the join condition explicitly.
• Duplicate Columns:
• Equijoin: Both tables' columns included in the join condition appear in the
result set unless speciÞed otherwise.
• Natural Join: Removes duplicate columns that are used for the join,
showing each column only once in the result.
• Flexibility:
• Equijoin: More ßexible because you can choose which columns to join on
and how to handle them.
• Natural Join: Less ßexible as it automatically joins on all columns with the
same names and does not provide explicit control over the join conditions.
Q4.c Explain the relational algebra operation for set theory with examples.
Relational algebra operations based on set theory are fundamental in querying
and manipulating relational databases. These operations operate on relations
(tables) and produce new relations as results. Here's an overview of key
relational algebra operations that are derived from set theory, along with
examples for each:
1. Union ( ∪ )
DeÞnition: The union operation combines the tuples of two relations, removing
duplicates. It requires that both relations have the same schema (i.e., the same
number of attributes with the same domain).
Notation:
R∪S
Example:
Consider two relations, Students1 and Students2:
Students1:
student_id name
1 Alice
2 Bob
Students2:
student_id name
2 Bob
3 Carol

The union of Students1 and Students2 is:

SELECT * FROM Students1

UNION

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SELECT * FROM Students2;

Result:
student_id name
1 Alice
2 Bob
3 Carol

2. Intersection ( ∩ )
Definition: The intersection operation returns the tuples that are common to both relations. Like
union, it requires that both relations have the same schema.

Notation: R∩S

Example:

Using the same relations as above:

Students1:

student_id name
1 Alice
2 Bob
Students2:
student_id name
2 Bob
3 Carol
The intersection of Students1 and Students2 is:
SELECT * FROM Students1
INTERSECT
SELECT * FROM Students2;
Result:
student_id name
2

3. Difference ( − )
DeÞnition: The difference operation returns tuples that are present in the Þrst
relation but not in the second. Both relations must have the same schema.

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Notation:R−S
Example:
Using the same relations as above:
Students1:
student_id name
1 Alice
2 Bob
Students2:
student_id name
2 Bob
3 Carol
The difference of Students1 minus Students2 is:
SELECT * FROM Students1
EXCEPT
SELECT * FROM Students2;
Result:
student_id name
1 Alice
4. Cartesian Product ( × )
DeÞnition: The Cartesian product operation combines each tuple of one relation
with each tuple of another relation. This operation results in a relation that
includes all possible combinations of tuples from the two relations.
Notation:
R×S
Example:
Consider two relations:
Students:
student_id name
1 Alice
2 Bob
Courses:
course_id course_name
101 Math
102 Science
The Cartesian product of Students and Courses is:
SELECT * FROM Students
CROSS JOIN Courses;

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Result:
student_id name course_id course_name
1 Alice 101 Math
1 Alice 102 Science
2 Bob 101 Math
2 Bob 102 Science

5. Rename ( ρ )
DeÞnition: The rename operation changes the name of a relation or its
attributes. This operation is useful for providing more meaningful names or for
resolving naming conßicts in queries involving multiple relations.
Nota'on: ρnew_name(R)\rho_{new\_name}(R)ρnew_name(R) or
ρnew_name(A1,A2,…,An)(R)\rho_{new\_name(A1, A2, \ldots, An)}(R)ρnew_name(A1,A2,…,An)
(R)
Example:
Consider a relation Employees:
Employees:
emp_id emp_name
1 Alice
2 Bob
To rename Employees to Staff and the attribute emp_name to name, you can
use: SELECT emp_id AS id, emp_name AS name
FROM Employees;
Result:
id name
1 Alice
2 Bob

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Q5.a Explain the Cursor & its properties in embedded SQL with an example.

A cursor is a database object used to retrieve and process rows from a query result set one at a
time.

Properties of Cursors

1. Declare: Define the cursor with a DECLARE statement, specifying the SQL query.
2. Open: Use OPEN to execute the query and create the result set.
3. Fetch: Use FETCH to retrieve individual rows from the result set.
4. Close: Use CLOSE to release resources associated with the cursor.
5. Deallocate: Optionally use DEALLOCATE to remove the cursor definition and free
resources.

Example

Here’s a basic example using a cursor in embedded SQL:

-- Declare the cursor

DECLARE emp_cursor CURSOR FOR

SELECT emp_id, emp_name, salary FROM Employees;

-- Open the cursor

OPEN emp_cursor;

-- Fetch rows

FETCH NEXT FROM emp_cursor INTO @emp_id, @emp_name, @salary;

-- Process rows

WHILE @@FETCH_STATUS = 0

BEGIN

-- Do something with the data (e.g., print it)

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PRINT 'ID: ' + CAST(@emp_id AS VARCHAR) + ', Name: ' + @emp_name;

-- Fetch the next row

FETCH NEXT FROM emp_cursor INTO @emp_id, @emp_name, @salary;

END;

-- Close the cursor

CLOSE emp_cursor;

-- Deallocate the cursor

DEALLOCATE emp_cursor;

Q5.b What is a Normalization? Explain the 1NF, 2NF & 3NF with examples.

Normalization is the process of organizing a database to reduce redundancy

and improve data integrity. The goal is to ensure that the database structure is
efficient and logical, and to eliminate anomalies in data handling. Normalization
involves decomposing tables into smaller tables and deÞning relationships
among them based on rules called normal forms.
HereÕs an explanation of the Þrst three normal forms (1NF, 2NF, and 3NF) with
examples:
1. First Normal Form (1NF)
DeÞnition: A table is in First Normal Form (1NF) if all the columns contain
atomic (indivisible) values, and each column contains only one type of data.
Additionally, each column must have a unique name, and the order in which
data is stored does not matter.
Example:
Consider a table storing information about students and their enrolled courses:
Student_Courses:
student_id student_name courses
1 Alice Math, Science
2 Bob Science, History

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This table is not in 1NF because the courses column contains multiple values.
To convert this to 1NF:
Create a separate row for each course.
Student_Courses_1NF:
student_id student_name course
1 Alice Math
1 Alice Science
2 Bob Science
2 Bob History
2. Second Normal Form (2NF)
DeÞnition: A table is in Second Normal Form (2NF) if it is in 1NF and all non-
key attributes are fully functionally dependent on the entire primary key. In other
words, there should be no partial dependency of any column on a subset of a
composite primary key.
Example:
Consider a table with the following schema and data:
Orders:
order_id product_id product_name quantity
1 101 Laptop 2
1 102 Mouse 1
2 101 Laptop 1
Here, order_id and product_id together form the composite primary key.
product_name is dependent only on product_id and not on order_id.
To convert this to 2NF:
Separate the product information into its own table.
Orders:
order_id product_id quantity
1 101 2
1 102 1
2 101 1
Products:
product_id product_name
101 Laptop
102 Mouse
3. Third Normal Form (3NF)
DeÞnition: A table is in Third Normal Form (3NF) if it is in 2NF and all the
attributes are functionally dependent only on the primary key, and not on any
other non-key attributes. This means there should be no transitive dependency.

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Example:
Consider a table with the following schema:
Employees:
emp_id emp_name department department_m
anager
1 Alice HR John Doe
2 Bob IT Jane Smith
In this table, department_manager depends on department, which is
a non-key attribute.
To convert this to 3NF:
Remove the transitive dependency by creating a separate table for department
details.
Employees:
emp_id emp_name department
1 Alice HR
2 Bob IT
Departments:
department department_manager
HR John Doe
IT Jane Smith

Q5.C Explain informal design guidelines for relational schema design.

1. Minimize Redundancy

Guideline: Avoid duplicating data across tables. Redundant data increases storage requirements
and can lead to inconsistencies. Ensure that each piece of information is stored only once.

¥ Example: Instead of storing a customer’s address in every order record, store the address
in a separate Customers table and reference it in the Orders table.

2. Avoid Insertion, Update, and Deletion Anomalies

Guideline: Design the schema to prevent anomalies that can occur when inserting, updating, or
deleting records. This typically involves ensuring that the schema is normalized to a suitable
level (usually 3NF).

¥ Example: If you have a table where updating a customer’s address could require multiple
updates due to redundant storage, it’s better to have a separate Addresses table and link
it with foreign keys.

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3. Ensure Data Integrity

Guideline: Use constraints to ensure that the data in the database is accurate and reliable. This
includes primary keys to uniquely identify records, foreign keys to maintain referential integrity,
and other constraints to enforce valid data.

¥ Example: Use foreign keys to ensure that every order in the Orders table refers to a
valid customer in the Customers table.

4. Design for Flexibility and Simplicity

Guideline: The schema should be designed to be simple and flexible. Avoid overly complex
designs and ensure the schema can accommodate future changes with minimal modifications.

¥ Example: Instead of combining multiple types of information into one table, use separate
tables with clear relationships. For example, use separate tables for Employees and
Departments with a clear foreign key relationship.

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