Name : Fazil Latief

Class r/n : 181008

Exam r/n : 1809939
Phone no : 6006018993
Batch : 2018
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Water harvesting and conservation
In many farming areas, readily available water is in short supply. Although the total annual
rainfall in an area may be enough to sustain farm needs, it is often distributed very unevenly so
that long dry periods are interspersed with periods of intense rainfall. In many cases, a crop is
unable to use a high proportion of this water, as much of it is lost through run off or leaching.
This may also cause soil erosion and loss of soil nutrients. The techniques described in this
booklet aim to maximise the available water through water harvesting and conservation. Water
harvesting techniques gather water from an area termed the ‘catchment area’ and channel it to
the cropping area or wherever it is required. Conservation techniques conserve water within the
biomass and the soil by reducing run-off and keeping the water where it falls, as much as
possible.

Principles of Water Harvesting and Conservation

In deciding which techniques to use to make more efficient use of the available water, it is
important to consider how crops receive or lose water. Crops receive water through rainfall,
irrigation and stored soil water. They lose it through run off, evaporation and drainage. Some
key principles on effective water management are:

● Use rainwater effectively.

In many climates, rainfall is distributed unevenly in intense downpours that cannot be readily
used by a crop. Storage techniques (such as external catchments or roof top collection)
increase the availability of water in the drier seasons. They also harvest water from a wider area
making more water available to the crop. Measures can also be taken to avoid the rainwater
running off the surface during intense rainfall (explained below).

● Make effective use of soil water reserves.

The soil stores water from rainfall providing a reserve that is available to the crop. How much
water is available depends on the soil type and the rooting system of the crop. Sandy soils hold
much less water than clay or silt soils, so crops will require watering more often. Deeper
rooting crops, such as grasses or cereals will exploit soil water reserves more effectively than
shallower rooting crops such as vegetable crops and therefore can be grown in drier periods.
Good cultivation practices (e.g. not ploughing too deep or when the soil is wet) that result in a
soft, friable soil will also promote deep rooting and efficient use of soil water reserve
 ● Take measures to avoid run off

Run off is where water is not absorbed by the soil but runs across the surface away from where
the crop can use it. Structures such as contour schemes, terracing, pits and bunds can reduce
run-off. Run off is more likely to occur on silty or clay soils where the surface has been
subjected to intense rainfall then baked in the sun to form a crust or cap. Adding mulch to break
up the intensity of rainfall, or adding manure, compost or incorporating green manure
residues will reduce the tendency of the soil to form a crust.

● Avoid wasting water through evaporation

Water that evaporates directly from bare soil is wasteful as it is not being used for productive
plant growth. It is desirable to maintain full ground cover for as much of the time as practically
possible. Applying mulch to the soil will also reduce evaporation considerably. Use of drip
irrigation and irrigating in the evening will also reduce the amount of water lost through
evaporation.

● Reduce water losses through drainage

When water drains out of the soil, not only is it wasted but essential mobile nutrients such as
nitrogen are also washed out. This is more of a problem on light sandy soils. Adding organic
matter in the form of compost, manures or plant residues will eventually increase the amount of
water a soil can retain, but this will only have an effect if it is added over a longer period of
years. Most drainage occurs during the heavy rains, especially if the soil is left bare. Growing
a cash or cover crop during this period reduces these losses, as the roots lift water and
nutrients back from deeper to shallower soil profiles.

● Plan your irrigation

Irrigation is one way of supplementing water from rainfall and soil reserves, but can waste large
amounts of water if not used carefully. A key way of making the most of the water supply is to
only irrigate when necessary. Many people irrigate on a regular basis whether the crop needs it
or not. If water is scarce, irrigation should be restricted to the most critical periods such as
germination and fruit set. Drip irrigation makes much better use of water than overhead
systems as it is targeted to the roots rather than sprayed up into the air.

1. CONTOUR FARMING
Contour farming refers to field activities such as ploughing and furrowing that are carried out
along contours rather than up and down the slope. They conserve water by reducing surface
run off and encouraging infiltration of water into the crop area.
For all contour systems the first step is to determine a contour guideline. This can be done using
the “A frame method” (see appendix). From this, parallel contour guidelines can be drawn up.

A number of water harvesting techniques are based along contours including: contour
ploughing; contour ridges; stone lines; grass strips and terraces. The technique used depends
on the steepness of the slope, soil type, conditions, crops grown and other factors such as the
availability of labour.

1. 1 Contour Ploughing
Ideally, any ploughing on a slope should be carried out along the contours rather than up and
down as this reduces run off and soil erosion and increases moisture retention. Contour
ploughing can be practised on any slope with a gradient less than 10%. On steeper slopes it
should be combined with other measures such as terracing, bunds or strip cropping. It is not
always carried out in practise because the shape and topography of the field may be considered
a more important factor in determining the direction of ploughing. It is important to lay out
contours properly or they may channel the water and increase run off.

1.2 Contour Furrows

Contour furrows are small earthen banks that run along a contour. A furrow is dug next
to each bank on the upper side of the slope. The distance between the ridges varies
between 1 - 2 m depending on the rainfall and the slope. The aim of contour furrows
is to concentrate moisture into the ridge and furrow area where the crops are planted
by trapping run off water from the catchment area between them. This also decreases
the risk of erosion. Plants with higher water requirements, such as peas or beans, can
be planted on the higher side of the furrow whereas cereal crops requiring less water,
such as sorghum or millet, can be planted on the ridges. The catchment area between the
ridges should be left uncultivated and clear of vegetation so that run off into the ridges
is maximised. Under drier conditions, the furrows are spaced further apart to harvest water
from a larger catchment area. Contour furrows are suitable for areas with lower rainfall (350 –
700 mm). However, the amount of water harvested is limited, so they are not suitable for very
dry areas. Extreme rainfall may cause the ditches to overflow and break. This is more
likely to occur on heavier soils with a lower infiltration rate, or on steeper slopes. The
risk can be reduced by building higher ridges, although this increases the labour requirement.

1.3 Bench Terraces

Terraces are made by creating ridges and furrows along contours on a slope. The ridges hold
back water and soil runoff and eventually turn the hillside into a number of terraces. These can
be stabilised by planting grasses or shrubs on them. Terraces can be used on steeper slopes
than other contour methods, but building them requires very high labour input. Terraces are
formed by digging a ditch along a contour and throwing the earth either uphill or downhill to form
a ridge. Water is stored behind the ridge. If the earth is thrown uphill the terraces are suitable
for steep slopes with gradients of 30-55%. If the earth is thrown downhill there is a higher risk
of the ridges breaking due to water pressure so this method is not suitable for steep slopes (up
to 35% gradient) or areas with intense rainfall. Stone terraces are constructed by digging a
shallow ditch along a contour. Large stones are placed at the bottom of the ditch then smaller
stones are added until the structure is 20–30 cm high. They are very stable and can be used in
areas with high rainfall. They are also a useful way of removing stones from stony arable land.
In general, the steeper the slope, the narrower the width of the terrace should be. For
example, wider terraces of 20–60 cm are suitable for shallow slopes (gradient 1%) whereas very
narrow terraces of 5–10 cm are required for steep slopes (gradient 40%). These narrow terraces
are very labour intensive and the land is less useful for cropping.

1.4 Grass Strips

Strips of grass (up to 1m wide) planted along a contour can reduce soil erosion and runoff. Silt
builds up in front of the strip and over time benches are formed. On gentle slopes the strips
should be widely spaced (20-30m apart), and on steeper slopes narrowly spaced (10-15m
apart). The grass needs to be trimmed regularly, to prevent it competing with crops. Many
grass varieties can be used, depending on what is locally available. For example, Vetiver,
Napier, Guinea and Guatemale grass. Alternatively a local Veld grass can be used. The
strips need to be maintained to prevent the grass from spreading and becoming a weed
problem or becoming a refuge for rodents and other pests. Grass strips are most likely to be
used in areas where fodder or mulch is also needed. They are not suitable for steep slopes or
in very dry areas since grasses will compete with the crop. They can also be used in conjunction
with other water harvesting techniques: grass strips can be planted along ditches to stabilize
them, or on the rises

1.5 Stone Lines

Stone lines running along the contour are one of the simplest contour techniques to design and
construct. The lines of stones form a semi-permeable barrier that slows the speed of run off so
that spread of water over the field and infiltration is increased, and soil erosion reduced. The
lines are constructed by making a shallow foundation trench along the contour. Larger stones
are then put on the down slope side of the trench. Smaller stones are used to build the rest of
the bund. The stone lines can be reinforced with earth, or crop residues to make them more
stable. When it rains, soil builds up on the upslope side of the line, and over time a natural
terrace is formed. The stone lines are spaced 15-30m apart or a shorter distance on steeper
slopes. Stone lines are suitable on gentle slopes (0.5–3%) in areas with annual rainfall of
350700mm. They are often used to rehabilitate eroded and abandoned land by trapping silt
and are popular in dry stony areas. However, they may provide a refuge for rodents and other
pests.
1.6 Retention Ditches
Retention ditches work on a similar principle to contour furrows but on a larger scale. They are
large ditches, designed to catch and retain all incoming run-off and hold it until it infiltrates into
the ground, increasing the supply of water to crops planted in the ditch and reducing soil
erosion. They vary from 0.3-0.6 m deep and 0.5-1 m wide. They are usually used on flat land
where they may be spaced at 20 m or on gentle slopes where the spacing can be decreased to
10-15m. When constructing the ditches, the soil is thrown to the lower side to form an
embankment that prevents soil from falling back in. This structure can be stabilised further by
planting grass on it. On soils with lower infiltration rate, or on slopes, the ends can be left open
to allow excess water to drain out. Retention ditches are commonly used in semi-arid areas for
growing crops that have high water requirements, such as bananas. They should be used on
lighter, free draining soils that are deep, stable and not prone to landslides.

2. PLANTING PITS
Planting pits are a very simple form of freestanding water harvesting structure that are easy to
construct. They consist of small pits in which individual or small groups of plants are sown. The
pits catch run off and concentrate soil moisture around the roots. Normally the pits are 10-30
cm in diameter and 5 –15 cm deep and are spaced about 1 m apart. The earth removed from
the holes is piled in a half moon shape along the lowest edge of the pit. Before planting,
compost or manure is added to the pit to improve soil fertility and structure. Planting pits are
particularly successful in areas of low rainfall (350–750 mm) and are suitable for crops with low
water demand such as sorghum or millet. They are more suitable for heavier clay soils, which
tend to form a cap and have poor infiltration. As digging the pit reduces the depth of soil, they
are not suitable for shallower soils. They are only suitable for gentle slopes (less than 2%
gradient).

3. EARTH BASINS
Earth basins are designed to collect and hold rainfall and are easy to construct by hand. They
are square or diamond shaped basins with earth ridges on all sides. Runoff water is channelled
to the lowest point and stored in an infiltration pit. The lowest point of the basin might be
located in one of the corners (on sloping land) or in the middle (on flat land). Earth basins are
usually used for fruit crops and the seedling is planted in or on the side of the infiltration pit. The
size of the basin depends on local rainfall and the water requirements of the trees. They are
larger on flat land and smaller on sloping land. They are usually 1-2 m long, though
sometimes basins of up to 30m are constructed. Grass can be planted on the bunds for
reinforcement. Manure and compost can be added to the basin to improve fertility and
water-holding capacity. Earth basins are suitable in arid and semi-arid areas, with annual
rainfall amounts of 150mm and above. Soils should be deep, preferably at least 1.5 - 2m to
ensure enough water holding capacity. The slope can be from flat up to about 5%. If earth
basins are constructed on steep slopes they should be small.

4. SEMI-CIRCULAR BUNDS
Semi-circular bunds are earth bunds formed in U-shapes on a slope. The uppermost
tips of the U lie on a contour so that run off is collected in the lowest section of the U. A shallow
pit is sometimes also dug in this section to help concentrate moisture. Their size varies from
small structures (radius 2m) used for fruit trees or seedlings to very large structures (radius
30m) used for rangeland rehabilitation or fodder production.
Bunds are constructed by digging out earth from within the area to be enclosed and piling it up
to form the bund. They should be constructed in layers of 10-15 cm, with each layer compacted
before the next is added to ensure that they remain stable. They are easy to construct and
reduce soil erosion. The bunds are arranged along a contour line in a staggered arrangement
so that water, which spills round the ends of the upper hill, will be caught by those lower down.

Semi-circular bunds are suitable on gentle slopes (normally below 2%) and uneven terrain in
areas with annual rainfall of 350-700 mm. The soils should not be too shallow or saline.

5. COVER CROPS/GREEN MANURES

Cover crops are grown to protect the soil from leaching, erosion and to improve soil fertility.
They build up organic matter in the soil, improve soil structure, suppress weed growth and
increase soil fertility through nitrogen fixation. They also, reduce f luctuations in temperature
and improve soil moisture. Legumes, such as beans and peas, or grasses are often used.
They cover the ground surface between a widely spaced perennial crop, such as young fruit
trees, coffee, cacao and oil palms or between rows of grain crops such as maize. Cover crops
are often combined with mulching.

Cover crops can be a source of food, fodder and mulch and may provide some cashincome.
However, they may also provide a refuge for rodents and pests.

The cover crop should be of a slow growing variety to minimize competition for water and
nutrients with the main crop. It should be planted as soon as possible after tillage to be fully
beneficial. This can be done at the same time as sowing the main crop, or after the main crop
has established to avoid competition.

Cover crops are not suitable for dry areas with annual rainfall of less than 500mm, as they
might compete for water with the main crop. Under such conditions it might be better to keep
the weeds and natural vegetation as cover. They may not do well under conditions of low
phosphorous.

6. MULCHING
Mulching means covering the soil between crop rows or around trees with a layer of
loose material such as dry grass, straw, crop residues, leaves, manure or compost. This
helps to retain soil moisture by limiting evaporation, suppressing weed growth and
enhancing soil structure, reducing runoff, protecting the soil from splash erosion and
limiting the formation of crust. In addition, mulching reduces fluctuations in soil
temperature which improves conditions for micro-organisms. It is commonly used in areas
affected by drought and weed infestation.

Mulch can be spread on a seedbed or around planting holes and it can also be
applied in strips. Alternative row mulching is sometimes preferred to full mulching,
because it reduces the fire risk. It is most effective if applied at the start of the rains,
as it intercepts and increases water take-up, but it is frequently more practical to mulch
towards the end of the rains when grass is available. When crop remains are used for
mulching nutrients are released more slowly, so that more manure or fertilizer has to be
applied.

Weeds can be a problem if some grass species are used and mulches can provide a
possible habitat for pests and diseases.
Use a mixture of fast and slow decomposing material and break large pieces of crop
residue before application. Grass should be dried before applying as this reduces the
chance of it rooting. The mulch layer should not be too thick; otherwise the soil
underneath heats up. If lots of straw is used this can lock-up nutrients in the soil. The
mulch can be covered with a layer of soil to protect it against wind.

7. DRIP IRRIGATION
Drip irrigation can conserve water especially when used in conjunction with roof top
harvesting. The principle is very simple: water seeps slowly out of small holes in a pipe
on the soil surface. Holes are normally located close to plants so that the water is
targeted directly to the root zone. Drip irrigation comes in many forms, but at its simplest,
can be constructed by puncturing a piece of garden hose at intervals and connecting this
to a water supply. The end furthest from the header tank should be closed off. For
smaller areas the pressure from a header tank should be more than adequate to
operate the system. Larger areas that require a longer length of tubing may need to be
divided into sections and irrigated at different times. Separate sets of tubes with different
hole spacing may be needed to match different crop spacing. The system should include a
simple wire mesh filter between the storage tank and the drip irrigation pipes. This mesh
requires regular cleaning as it may get clogged up with algae. A small petrol pump can
be used for larger areas, but this will add a fuel cost, will need servicing and is easily
stolen. The key advantage of a drip irrigation system is that water is targeted directly to
the root zone so applications can be closely controlled. This considerably reduces the
amount of water lost through evaporation compared to sprinkler systems. It also avoids
problems of disease encountered from wetting the surface of the leaves and, because
only a small area of the soil is watered, the area for weed control is far less than with
sprinkler systems The system requires considerable work to set up, but once this is done,
irrigation is relatively easy. Therefore it is more likely to be used on smaller areas of
high value crops that require regular watering.
8. CONSERVATION TILLAGE
Conservation tillage refers to a type of agriculture where soil cultivation is kept to a
minimum. It aims to reduce the negative effects of conventional tillage such as soil
compaction, formation of pans, disturbance of soil fauna and moisture loss. The two main
features that distinguish conservation tillage systems from conventional tillage systems
are minimum cultivations and permanent soil cover. Minimal cultivations vary in type. In a ‘no
till system’ the land is prepared without the use of a conventional plough. In a ‘minimum
tillage’ system, prong-based implements or hand hoes are used to open the soil just
enough to allow a seed to be planted.
Minimal cultivations reduce water losses because of a reduction in soil disturbance from tillage.
In the long term the soil structure is improved. Less surface compaction and smearing at
depth from the shares of the plough should increase rooting depth and therefore the
drought tolerance of crops.

Permanent soil cover is commonly achieved by leaving crop residues on the ground as
mulch after harvest (rather than incorporating them as in conventional tillage) or using
cover crops or green manures between cash crops. This can reduce water loss and soil
erosion from run off and prevent capping from heavy rainfall. Seeds or plants have to
be sown or planted directly into mulch using a prong based implement or hoe.

Leaving crop residues on the soil can, however, increase the build up of pests and diseases.
Leaving large amounts of straw type trash on the soil can also result in nitrogen being
‘locked up’ in a form that is not easily available for subsequent crops. Certain residues
can have allelopathic effects (especially rye or vetch), which reduce germination of weeds
but also subsequent directly sown crops for a period of up to six weeks.

There are many advantages and disadvantages to be considered in conservation tillage

systems. In practice, many farmers have found that it takes several years before the
advantages are realised so it should be considered a long-term project.

9. WATER HARVESTING FROM EXTERNAL CATCHMENT

Water harvesting from external catchments involves diverting runoff water from an area that is
not cropped to the area where crops are grown. Water is stored in a simple reservoir structure
and can be applied to the crops when it is needed. The f low of water from the reservoir into the
cropped area can be controlled using tied bunds that can be built up or dismantled as required.

The external catchment area should not be cultivated and may include rough grazing areas,
roads or homesteads. Ideally the soil should have a low infiltration rate in order to maximise
runoff and therefore vegetation should be restricted to a minimum. The stored water will be lost
gradually through evaporation and seepage, this can be reduced on silt or clay soils by capping
the soil using puddling boards (used to encourage flooding in rice cultivation).
This technique is a much larger scale operation than the others and requires considerable
labour to implement. It also requires a large area of uncultivated land, so is not suitable for
densely populated areas. Construction may be on a community scale, and agreements need
to be put in place to ensure that the management of the scheme and rights to access water are
clearly defined.

10. ROOF TOP HARVESTING

Roof top harvesting is a simple technique that can store large amounts of water from the rainy
season for later use in the dry season. Although frequently used for domestic use, the stored
water can also be used for small scale growing of high value horticultural crops which can be
particularly drought sensitive. It works well in conjunction with drip irrigation described above.
The technique is simple - run off from sloping roofs is collected in plastic gutters then diverted
through a down pipe into a storage tank. Covering the tank with some sort of temporary opaque
cover (e.g. tarpaulin or black plastic) is essential to prevent the growth of algae that may clog
up the system, and also the build up of mosquito larvae. The height of the tank will also
influence the operation and building. A tank at ground level is easier to build and may have a
larger storage capacity, but when water levels in the tank are low, the low output pressure may
restrict operations. A pump may be necessary to allow irrigation systems to work, which is an
added expense in fuel and maintenance. Raised tanks, just below roof level, have the
advantage of a greater head of pressure but require more structural work to build and this may
also restrict the size of the tank.