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 Coaching
Volleyball
Technical and
Tactical Skills

Cecile Reynaud
In cooperation with
American Sport Education Program

Human Kinetics
 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Coaching volleyball technical and tactical skills / American Sport

Education Program with Cecile Reynaud.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-5384-6 (soft cover)
ISBN-10: 0-7360-5384-0 (soft cover)
1. Volleyball--Coaching. I. Reynaud, Cecile, 1953- II. American Sport
Education Program.
GV1015.5.C63C616 2011
796.325--dc22
2010049782

ISBN-10: 0-7360-5384-0 (print)

ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-5384-6 (print)
Copyright © 2011 by Human Kinetics, Inc.
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information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the written permission of the publisher.
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 contents
preface iv

Part I Teaching and Evaluating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

chapter 1 Teaching Sport Skills 3
chapter 2 Evaluating Technical and Tactical Skills 9

Part II Teaching Technical Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

chapter 3 Offensive Technical Skills 23
chapter 4 Defensive Technical Skills 107

Part III Teaching Tactical Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

chapter 5 Offensive Tactical Skills 141
chapter 6 Defensive Tactical Skills 161

Part IV Planning for Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

chapter 7 Season Plans 197
chapter 8 Practice Plans 209

Part V Coaching Matches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

chapter 9 Preparing for Matches 233
chapter 10 Before, During, and After the Match 239

index 243
about the authors 249

iii
 preface

If you are a seasoned volleyball coach, surely you have experienced the frustration
of watching your players perform well in practice, only to find them underperform-
ing in matches. In your own playing days, you likely saw the same events unfold.
In practice, your teammates, or perhaps even you, could pass the serve and hit
the ball around the block and into the court just fine. You could perform these
skills properly, but you could not transfer that kind of performance to the match.
Although this book will not provide you with a magical quick fix to your players’
problems, it will help you prepare your players for match day. Whether you are a
veteran coach or are new to coaching, Coaching Volleyball Technical and Tactical
Skills will help you take your players’ games to the next level by providing you
with the tools you need in order to teach them the sport of volleyball.
Every volleyball coach knows the importance of technical skills. The ability to
serve and pass a variety of serves accurately; hit different types of sets to various
areas of the court; and dig the ball up, keeping the opponents frustrated by never
allowing the ball to hit the floor, can significantly affect the outcome of a match.
This book discusses the basic and intermediate technical skills necessary for your
players’ success, including offensive and defensive skills. You will learn how to
detect and correct errors in your players’ performances of those skills and then
help them transfer the knowledge and ability they gain in practice to matches.
Besides covering technical skills, this book also focuses on tactical skills, includ-
ing offensive skills such as hitting the ball with different speeds, as well as setting
the ball at different areas along the net. Your players will learn to identify which
shots work best for them and in what situations based on the opposing team’s
defense. The book discusses the tactical triangle, an approach that teaches players
to read a situation, acquire the knowledge they need to make a tactical decision,
and apply decision-making skills to the problem. To advance this method, the book
covers important cues that help athletes respond appropriately when they see a
play developing, including important rules, match strategies, and the strengths
and weaknesses of opponents.

iv
 In addition to presenting rigorous technical and tactical training to prepare your
athletes for match situations, this book also provides guidance in how to improve
your players’ match performance by incorporating gamelike situations into daily
training. We describe many traditional drills that can be effective as well as show
you how to shape, focus, and enhance drills and minigames to help players transfer
their technical skills to tactical situations that occur during matches. For example,
you can change a tedious serving and passing drill into an exciting, competitive
contest by keeping score of the number of perfect passes and how many times the
team can attack a quick set out of the middle of the court.
Coaching Volleyball Technical and Tactical Skills also covers planning at several
levels—the season plan, practice plans, and game plans. We offer a set of eight-
session practice plans based on the games approach that covers the length of the
practice session, the objective of the practice, the equipment needed, the warm-
up, practice of previously taught skills, teaching and practicing new skills, the
cool-down, and evaluation.
Of course, playing in matches is what your practices eventually lead to. This
book shows you how to prepare long before the first match by establishing practice
and match routines and addressing such issues as communicating with players
and parents, scouting your opponents, and motivating your players.

v
This page intentionally left blank
 Part I

Teaching and
Evaluating

Being a good coach requires more than simply knowing the sport of volleyball.
You have to go beyond the sport and find a way to teach your athletes how to
be better players. To improve your players’ performance, you must know how to
teach and evaluate them.
In chapter 1 we go over the fundamentals of teaching sport skills. We first pro-
vide a general overview of volleyball and talk about the importance of being an
effective teacher. Next, we define some important skills, helping you gain a better
understanding of technical and tactical skills before discussing the traditional and
games approaches to coaching.
We build on the knowledge of how to teach sports skills by addressing the
evaluation of technical and tactical skills in chapter 2. We discuss the importance
of evaluating athletes and review the core skills you should assess and how you
can best do so. This chapter stresses the importance of preseason, in-season,
and postseason evaluations and provides you with tools you can use to evaluate
your players.
By learning how to teach and evaluate your players, you will be better prepared
to help them improve their performance.

1
This page intentionally left blank
 chapter
1
Teaching
Sport Skills

The sport of volleyball is a game most people have played at some time in their
lives, whether in the backyard, on the beach, at picnics with family and friends, or
competitively with an organized team. The objective of the game is fairly simple—
keep the ball off the ground on your side of the court, and use up to three contacts
to hit it back over the net into the opposing team’s court. The team that does this
successfully will score a point. The team with the most points at the end of the
game, or set, wins that particular game, and the team that wins the most sets
wins the match. This sport, originally called mintonette, was invented in 1895 in
Massachusetts by William G. Morgan for businessmen at the YMCA who wanted
a less strenuous sport than basketball.
Volleyball has developed into a high-powered sport and is one of the most popu-
lar team sports. It is played at all levels by millions of people all over the world.
Having six players on one side of the net moving in a small court only 900 square
feet (81 square meters) in size while trying to stop the opponents from hitting
the ball into their court requires good physical and mental skills. Volleyball is the
ultimate team sport—the players must coordinate their movements by reading,
reacting, and moving as quickly as possible while the volleyball is in play. To make
the sport even more complex, the ball is always in the air when it is contacted by
a player, beginning with the serve. Several skills are performed while the players
are not even on the floor when they contact the ball, as in attacking or blocking.
This makes this sport very unique in that there is virtually no time to stop and
think before contacting the ball, nor can a player hold onto the ball or move while
in possession of the ball.

3 3
4 Coaching volleyball Technical and Tactical Skills

Offensively, the players receive a serve from the opposing team and pass the
volleyball to their setter. That player will then set the ball to one of their attackers,
who will jump in the air to hit the ball over the net back into the opposing team’s
court. Defensively, the players must position themselves in such a way that the
ball will deflect off their hands when blocking at the net back into the opposing
team’s court, and off their arms or hands up into their own court when they are
in the backcourt digging. Making sure the players have the proper techniques for
each skill will improve their ability to be successful. As the players gain experience
in the sport, they usually start to specialize in certain positions on the court, such
as setters, liberos, right-side (or opposite) hitters, middle hitters, and left-side (or
outside) hitters. Tactically, the game can be compared to football, with the net
serving as the line of scrimmage. The three front-row players are trying to hit
the ball around or off the three defensive players at the net, known as blockers,
and the strategies used to do this efficiently are what makes the game exciting to
watch and play.

Effective Teaching
Whether you have played the game of volleyball or not, effective coaching requires
you to learn the sport in a different way. Great volleyball players do not necessar-
ily make good coaches, and great coaches may not have been fantastic players.
Although it may be helpful to have played the game at a high level and to have
experience using complicated tactics and strategies, the ability to teach and train
a team of athletes will be an entirely different challenge. You must master the
transition from playing the game to teaching the game, a more difficult step than
most people realize. An athlete gradually gains a sense of how each skill feels—
how she has to move and think to perform successfully. As a teacher, you have
to search for ways to help athletes gain that sense, or feeling, of how to perform
skills, and you must understand that different athletes often perceive and learn
the same skill in different ways.
Additionally, you cannot be an effective teacher until you can accept responsibil-
ity for the performance of your athletes and team yet not take a poor performance
personally nor make it all about you. If you hide behind the excuse that your ath-
letes just can’t play, you will never be motivated to find the teaching strategy that
will produce improvement. But if you adopt the following credo—“The team will
reflect everything the coach has taught the players, or everything the coach has
allowed them to do”—you will understand that every player can improve. Even if
an athlete’s skill level is average, you can
• motivate her to hustle and give great effort on every contact,
• set up training opportunities for the athlete until she is able to perform the
skills consistently, and
• inspire the athlete to help the whole be greater than the sum of the individual
parts.
And if you continually search for new ways to teach the same skill, you will
eventually find a meaningful phrase, drill, or concept that triggers an athlete’s re-
actions in such a way that she finally starts showing improvement in areas where
she previously struggled. As a coach you have the responsibility to find a way
to teach, motivate, and inspire each athlete to improve her skills. This concept
alone—your acceptance of responsibility for each athlete’s performance—will pro-
 Teaching Sport Skills 5

duce creative, exciting, and extremely effective teaching, the kind of teaching that
in turn results in improved skills and better performance by both the individual
and, ultimately, the team.

Technical and Tactical Skills

A coach has the responsibility of patiently and systematically explaining and
drilling the athletes on the basic skills that make up the game. These skills, called
technical skills, are the fundamentals that provide each player with the tools to
execute the physical requirements of the game. Each day at practice, you must
also create situations on the court in which players need to use their technical
skills in a gamelike situation, forcing them to make decisions that simulate the
applications of the skills and the choices they will have to make in a game. These
skills, called tactical skills, are the bridge between practice performance and game
performance. Although the proper execution of technical skills is necessary for suc-
cess, the ability of athletes to make appropriate decisions, known as tactical skills,
is the key to having everything come together when it counts—in the actual game.
Obviously, other types of skills, such as pure physical capacity, mental skills,
communication ability, and character traits, all contribute to athletic performance
(Rainer Martens, Successful Coaching, Third Edition, Champaign, IL: Human Ki-
netics, 2004, p. 186-188). Although all these skills are important, effective teaching
of the technical and tactical skills of the game still provides the foundation for
successful volleyball coaching.
This book focuses on the essential basic to intermediate technical and tactical
skills in volleyball. The goal is to provide a resource that will help you improve
your understanding and instructional methods as you strive to teach your players
this exciting sport.

Technical Skills
Technical skills are defined as “the specific procedures to move one’s body to
perform the task that needs to be accomplished” (Martens, Successful Coaching,
p. 169). The proper execution of the technical skills in volleyball is, obviously,
crucial to successful performance. Most coaches, even those with little experience,
know what the basic technical skills of volleyball are: serving, passing, setting,
attacking, blocking, and digging. But the ability to teach athletes how to perform
those skills usually develops only over a long period, as a coach gains knowledge
and experience.
The goal of this book is to speed up the timetable of teaching skills, improving
your ability to
• clearly communicate the basic elements of each skill to the athletes,
• construct drills and teaching situations to rehearse those skills in practice,
• detect and correct errors in the athletes’ performance of skills, and
• help athletes transfer knowledge and ability from practice into games.
Effective coaches have the capacity to transfer their knowledge and understand-
ing of skills into improved performance of those skills by their athletes. This book
outlines a plan that will help you do just that by teaching you how to become a
master of the basic to intermediate technical skills of volleyball and assisting you
in providing your athletes with the resources necessary for success.
6 Coaching volleyball Technical and Tactical Skills

Tactical Skills
Mastery of the technical skills of volleyball is important, but athletes must also
learn the tactics of the game. Tactical skills are defined as “the decisions and ac-
tions of players in the contest to gain an advantage over the opposing team or
players” (Martens, Successful Coaching, p. 170). Basic volleyball resources might
focus on the technical skills of the game and may overlook the tactical aspects.
Coaches even omit tactical considerations from practice because they focus so
intently on teaching technical skills. For volleyball players to develop better as
overall players, they need to learn techniques and tactics together. One way you
can approach tactical skills is by focusing on three critical aspects, “the tactical
triangle”:*
• Reading the play or situation
• Acquiring the knowledge needed to make an appropriate tactical decision
• Applying correct decision-making skills to the problems at the correct time
This book as a whole provides you with the knowledge you need in order to
teach players how to use the tactical triangle. Part III covers important cues that
help athletes respond appropriately when they see a play developing, including
important rules, game strategies, and opponents’ strengths and weaknesses that
affect game situations, as well as ways to teach athletes how to acquire and use
this knowledge. Part III will also help you teach athletes how to make appropriate
choices in a given situation and show you how to empower players to recognize
emerging situations on their own and make sound judgments.
Perhaps the greatest frustration for a coach is to witness athletes making errors
in games on skills they have repeatedly done well in practice. For example, an at-
tacker can successfully hit the ball hard and down into the opposing team’s court
in practice, but in a game situation when a ball is set to her in a less than perfect
manner or she is in front of two strong blockers, she is not able to hit the ball past
the blockers. The transfer of skills from practice to the game can be difficult, but
you can reduce errors by placing the athletes in gamelike situations in practice
to work on tactical skill decisions. Only after rehearsing the tactical decision re-
peatedly in practice will the athletes be prepared to execute those decisions (while
maintaining their execution of the related technical skills) in the game.

Traditional Versus Games Approach

to Coaching
As mentioned previously, transferring skills from practices to games can be dif-
ficult. A sound background of technical and tactical training prepares athletes
for game situations. But you can surpass this level by incorporating gamelike
situations into daily training, further enhancing the likelihood that players will
transfer skills from practices to games. To understand how to accomplish this,
you must be aware of two approaches to coaching—the traditional approach and
the games approach.

*Adapted, by permission, from R. Martens, 2004, Successful coaching, 3rd ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinet-
ics), 215.
 Teaching Sport Skills 7

Part IV of this book provides examples of both the traditional approach and the
games approach to coaching. Although each style has its particular advantages,
the concept favored in this book is the games approach. The games approach
provides athletes with a competitive situation governed by clear objectives and
focused on specific individuals and concepts. The games approach creates a pro-
ductive and meaningful learning environment in which athletes are motivated
by both the structure of the drills and the improvements they make. Finally, the
games approach prepares athletes for competition because they will have already
experienced settings that closely resemble the tactical situations they will see in
the game.

Traditional Approach
Although the games approach to coaching has much merit, the traditional ap-
proach to coaching also has value. The traditional approach often begins with a
warm-up period, followed by individual drills, group drills, and then a substantial
team period (or scrimmage) at the end of the practice. The traditional approach
can be helpful in teaching the technical skills of volleyball. But unless you shape,
focus, and enhance the team training with gamelike situational drills and games,
the athletes may be unable to transfer the skills they learn in the drills into the
scrimmage situation in practice or, worse, into effective performance, especially
of tactical skills, in games.

Games Approach
The games approach emphasizes the use of games and minigames to help coaches
provide their athletes with situations that are as close as possible to how a real
game is played (Alan G. Launder, Play Practice, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics,
2001). But this method requires more than just putting the players on the court,
throwing out a ball, and letting them play. You should incorporate the following
three components any time you use the games approach:
1. Shaping
2. Focusing
3. Enhancing
Shaping play allows you to modify the game in a way that is conducive to learn-
ing the skills for that particular concept. You can shape play by modifying the
rules, the environment (playing area), the objectives of the game, and the number
of players (Launder, p. 56). In scrimmage situations the stronger players often
dominate, and the weaker players merely get through the scrimmage without
playing a strong, active role. The goal is to increase each player’s opportunities to
respond, so if you shape play by reducing the playing area or number of players,
every athlete will have the opportunity to gain more contacts as well as to learn
and practice the skills for her specific position on the court.
You also need to focus the athletes on the specific objectives of the game. Play-
ers are more apt to learn, or at least be open to learning, if they know why they
are playing the game and how the tactics they are rehearsing fit into the bigger
picture. Provide the athletes with clear objectives of the skill, drill, or game and a
straightforward explanation of how those objectives will help them become better
volleyball players not just in practice but also in competition.
8 Coaching volleyball Technical and Tactical Skills

Finally, you must play an active role throughout practices, enhancing play either
by stopping the game for the whole team at a teachable moment or by taking in-
dividual players aside and instructing them about how they could improve their
decision making or technical skills in that situation.
An example of a games approach to teaching tactical skills in volleyball is a
game called narrow-court triples. To set up the court, place an extra antenna in
the middle of the net and a line on the floor down the middle of the court (length-
wise on both sides of the net). One side of the court will have three players on it,
with two back deep to receive a serve and the third player at the net ready to set
the pass. Three other players are on the other side of the net, with one of them
serving the ball from behind the end line. Since the court has been made smaller,
the server will need to be more accurate. The opposing team receives the serve
and will pass it to the setter near the net. The setter will set the ball to one of the
two hitters on her side of the net, or she can dump the ball over the net to try
to score. The receiving team has a small area to cover and pass the ball, so they
should experience more success.
The defensive team has only half the court to block and dig, so they can nar-
row their focus on the setter and two attackers. They will learn to read the hitter’s
movements and position themselves around the blocker so they will be able to dig
up the volleyball. They must control the ball in a smaller court, so they will need to
become more accurate with their dig up to their setter. This small court with fewer
players teaches the athletes to be more accurate with their serving and attacking
and narrows their focus on defense to cover a smaller area. A smaller court and
fewer players also means more contacts per player in the same amount of time.
Once the athletes go back to a regulation-size court, they will see the difference
in how much they have learned.

Coaching volleyball is a challenging yet rewarding job. Volleyball coaches are

responsible not only for the development of good players but also for the develop-
ment of young men and women on and off the court. The emphasis of this book
is on the concepts and strategies of teaching the essential basic to intermediate
technical and tactical skills of volleyball, using both the traditional and games
approaches. The foundation of effective teaching this book provides will help you
master the art of helping your athletes refine and improve the array of skills and
techniques, and their varied applications, that make up the fast-paced, complex,
exciting game of volleyball.
 chapter
2
Evaluating
Technical and
Tactical Skills
Volleyball is the ultimate team sport. Players need to master many technical skills
and know how to apply those skills in tactical situations. Most of the focus in team
practices and individual training sessions is on the development and improvement
of volleyball skills. Coaches, however, must also be concerned about objectively
analyzing and evaluating those individual skills and using that information to
develop the team’s season and game plans. For example, decisions about starting
lineups, having players specialize in certain positions, and developing offensive
and defensive tactics can be made only if coaches have the necessary information
to make sound decisions.
In building a team, coaches should use specific and accurate evaluation tools
to assess the development of the individual parts that make up the whole of the
team. You must remember that basic physical skills contribute to the performance
of the technical and tactical skills of volleyball. In addition, a vast array of non-
physical skills, such as mental capacity, communication skills, and character train-
ing, overlay athletic performance and affect its development and should also be
considered (Rainer Martens, Successful Coaching, Third Edition, Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics, 2004). But even though all these skills are important, the focus
here is on evaluating the technical and tactical skills of volleyball. Please refer to
Successful Coaching, Third Edition, to learn more about how to judge those other
more intangible skills.
In this chapter we examine evaluation guidelines, exploring the specific skills
that should be evaluated and the tools to accomplish that evaluation. Evaluations
as described in this chapter will help you produce critiques of your volleyball play-
ers that are more objective, something you should continually strive for.

9 9
10 Coaching volleyball Technical and Tactical Skills

Guidelines for Evaluation

Regardless of the skill you are measuring and the evaluation tool you are using,
you should observe the basic guidelines that govern the testing and evaluation
process. These are as follows:
• Understanding the purpose of evaluation
• Motivating for improvement
• Providing objective measurement
• Effectively providing feedback
• Being credible

Understanding the Purpose of Evaluation

First, the athletes need to know and understand the purpose of the test and its
relationship to the game of volleyball. If you are evaluating a technical skill, the
correlation should be easy. But when you are evaluating physical skills or mental,
communication, and character skills, you must explain the correlation between
the skill and the aspect of the game that will benefit. Doing so speaks to the im-
portance of giving players ownership over their development.

Motivating for Improvement

Coaches must motivate the athletes to improve. Understanding the correlation of
the skill to volleyball will help, but sometimes the matches seem a long way away
during practices and training. For physical skills, elevating the status of the test-
ing process can help inspire the athletes. If you can create a gamelike atmosphere
with many players watching as you conduct the testing, athletes will compete with
more energy and enthusiasm than they would if you ran the tests in a more isolated
fashion. Goal boards and record boards listing all-time-best performances can
also motivate the athletes. The best of these boards have several categories, such
as the top 5 or top 10 performances, to give more athletes a reasonable chance to
compete for a spot on the board. Separating the team by positions is suggested.
The best motivation, though, is striving for a personal-best effort in physical
skills testing or an improved score, compared with the last evaluation, on measure-
ments of technical, tactical, communication, and mental skills. When an athlete
compares herself today to herself yesterday, she can always succeed and make
progress, regardless of the achievements of teammates. And when an athlete sees
personal progress, she will be motivated to continue to practice and train. This
concept, while focusing on the individual, does not conflict with the team concept.
Rather, you can enhance team development by simply reminding the team that if
every player gets better every day, the team will be getting better every day.

Providing Objective Measurement

All testing and evaluation must be unbiased, formal, and consistent. Athletes will
easily recognize flaws in the testing process and subsequently lose confidence
in the results. Coaches must be systematic and accurate, treating every athlete
the same way, for the test to have integrity and meaningful results. No athlete
should receive credit for a skill if she does not execute the test regimen perfectly.
 Evaluating Technical and Tactical Skills 11

You must mandate good form and attention to the details of the test. The same is
true of evaluation tools that are not quantitatively measured. A volleyball coach
who wants to evaluate technical skills must use the same tool for all athletes at
their position and score them fairly and consistently for the players to trust the
conclusions reached.

Effectively Providing Feedback

Coaches must convey feedback on testing and performance to the athletes pro-
fessionally and, if possible, personally. No athlete wants to fail, and all are self-
conscious to a certain extent when they don’t perform to their expectations or the
expectations of their coach. At the same time, each athlete has areas in which she
needs to improve, and you must communicate those needs to the athlete, espe-
cially if she does not see or understand that she needs to make the improvement.
Private regular meetings with athletes are crucial to the exchange of this informa-
tion. Factual results, comparative charts ranking each athlete, historical records
of previous test results, and even video analysis of the athlete’s performances can
discretely communicate both the positive areas of improvement and the areas
where progress needs to be made. Discuss both results and goals for each athlete
as well as a plan for how the athletes will reach their goals. If you have a large
number of athletes, you can accomplish these individual meetings in occasional
and subtle ways—by asking an athlete to stay for a few minutes after practice or
a workout, by going out to practice early and creating an opportunity to talk to
a player individually, or by calling a player into the office at regular times just to
talk. These one-on-one meetings are by far the best method to communicate to
athletes the areas in which they need to improve.

Being Credible
Finally, you must apply the principles you are asking of your players to the pro-
cess of evaluating them. You must be an expert in terms of your knowledge of the
technical and tactical skills of your sport so you can accurately and consistently
analyze and evaluate the skills that you see your players perform. You must un-
derstand the value and importance of the physical skills to convey the importance
of these skills to the game. You must exhibit outstanding communication skills
to be effective in your teaching, and you must exhibit those same skills in your
dealings with other staff members and coaching peers, especially when you are
visible to the players, so that you can establish credibility with the players regard-
ing communication.

Evaluating Skills
Clearly, players must know the technical skills demanded by their sport, and they
must know how to apply those skills in tactical situations when they compete. You
must remember, however, that basic physical skills contribute to the performance
of the technical and tactical skills, and so they must be consciously incorporated
into an athlete’s training plan. In addition, an array of nonphysical skills such as
mental capacity, communication skills, and character training also overlay all
athletic performance and affect its development.
12 Coaching volleyball Technical and Tactical Skills

As you evaluate your athletes, one concept is crucial: Each athlete should focus
on improving her own previous performance as opposed to comparing her perfor-
mance to that of teammates. Certainly, comparative data help an athlete see where
she ranks on the team and among other players in the same position or role, and
this data may motivate or help the athlete set goals. However, all rankings will
place some athletes on the team below others, and the danger of focusing solely
on this type of evaluation system is that athletes can easily become discouraged
if they consistently rank in the bottom of the team or position. Conversely, if the
focus of the evaluation is for every player to improve, compared with personal
scores at the last testing, then every player on the team has the opportunity to
be successful. Whether you are looking at physical skills or nonphysical skills,
encourage your athletes to achieve their own personal bests every time they are
tested or evaluated.

Evaluating Physical Skills

The essential physical skills for volleyball are strength, core strength, speed, agil-
ity, power, and flexibility. The training and evaluation of those six physical skills
are especially important in the off-season and preseason periods, when athletes
are concentrating on overall improvement. In-season evaluation, however, is
also important to ensure that any off-season gains, especially in strength, do not
deteriorate because the players and coaches are devoting much of their time and
attention to specific game plan preparation and practice.
Testing should occur at least three times a year—once immediately before
the volleyball season begins to gauge the athletes’ readiness for the season and
provide an initial or baseline score; once at the end of the season to measure
the retention of physical skills during competition; and once in the off-season to
evaluate the athletes’ progress and development in the off-season program. You
will be constantly evaluating your athletes throughout the season to make slight
adjustments as needed.
Of course, training programs can positively affect several skills. For example,
improvements in leg strength and flexibility will almost certainly improve speed.
Furthermore, no specific workout program will ensure gains for every athlete in
each of the six skill areas. Consequently, measurement of gains in these areas is
critical for showing you and the individual athletes where they are making gains
and where to place the emphasis of subsequent training programs.

Strength
Strength testing can be done safely and efficiently using various methods. The risk
of injury for the athlete is minimal because she is not in the weight room lifting
a maximal load. After a proper warm-up, the athlete performs a three-in-a-row
standing broad jump test to assess lower-body strength. The athlete stands at a
line with a tape measure stretched out in front and does three rapid consecutive
broad jumps off of and landing on both feet. Record the total distance jumped,
and repeat the test again. A third trial may be included if you are averaging the
result for a score, or the best of the trials may be used as the score.
To test upper-body strength, the athlete can perform a two-hand basketball chest
throw. The athlete stands at a line and chest-passes the basketball as far as pos-
sible along a tape measure stretched out in front on the floor. Make sure someone
is standing alongside the tape measure to see or mark where the ball lands so an
accurate measurement can be taken. The athlete should repeat this for a total of
 Evaluating Technical and Tactical Skills 13

three throws. Again, you may average the result for a score, or the best of the trials
may be used. Athletes can also do a one-minute push-up test (complete full-body
push-ups). Each athlete performs as many complete (in good form) push-ups as
possible in one minute. A second and perhaps third trial may be done as well,
with a rest period between. The same scoring options apply.
Athletes will begin to appreciate the need for good overall strength as they get
stronger and discover they have more control over what their bodies are doing.
They will be able to move quicker, jump higher, and have more control over their
skills as they play this fast-paced sport. They will be able to maintain their focus
and control when matches last several hours.

Core Strength
Like the proverbial chain that is only as strong as its weakest link, the core of the
body ultimately determines whether an athlete can put it all together and translate
her strength, speed, and agility into a successful performance on the volleyball
court. The core refers to the midsection of the body—the abdominal muscles, the
lower-back muscles, and the muscles of the hip girdle—that connect lower-body
strength and functions with upper-body strength and functions. Core strength is
essential for volleyball, particularly since several of the skills are done while the
athlete is in midair, but it is extremely difficult to isolate and test. The test for core
strength is to have the athlete perform bent-knee sit-ups for one minute. Make
sure the arms are folded across the chest to limit unnecessary pulling on the back
of the neck. Again one to three trials may be used, with rest periods in between,
either averaging the result for a score or using the best of the trials as the score.
The core must also be strong for volleyball athletes to play with great explosive-
ness—combining strength, power, and speed into serving, attacking, and blocking.
Every physical training program for volleyball, therefore, must include exercises
that strengthen and develop the core. This training program must go beyond sit-
ups and crunches, which are important but not comprehensive enough to develop
true core strength. Volleyball athletes must incorporate active exercises such as
lunges, step-ups, and jump squats to focus on development of the core. Imple-
ments such as weighted medicine balls, stability balls, and resistance bands may
be incorporated into the training program as well.

Speed
Speed testing for volleyball can focus on running a sprint shuttle the width of the
court (30 feet, or 9 m) three times, with the time recorded. The size of the court
is used as the measurement in order to relate the test as closely as possible to the
game situation. Have the athlete start in a ready position on the sideline. Start the
stopwatch when the athlete begins sprinting to the opposite sideline. The athlete
will reach down and touch that sideline with one hand, turn and run back to the
starting sideline, touch that sideline, and then sprint back to the other sideline,
running through it to stop the clock. This shuttle consists of three trips across
the court. The athlete will complete two or three trials and use the best time for
the score.
Even though the volleyball court is a small area relative to some other sports
courts, it is critical that athletes achieve maximum speed in their movement on
the court. Players may have to run down an errant pass, move quickly to pass
a hard serve, or use quick footwork to move to block or hit a slide. Players can
spend a lot of time training in other areas, but they need to know that their overall
success as volleyball players will depend on how fast they can move their bodies
from point A to point B.
14 Coaching volleyball Technical and Tactical Skills

Agility
Agility is important in most sports. It is thought of as a rapid body movement with
a change of direction, usually based on a response to some type of cue. Volleyball
requires that athletes change direction quickly in short spaces and use quality
footwork to get into proper position to receive a serve, set an out-of-system pass,
attack a set, cover a hitter, move to block the opposing team’s attacker, or dig up
an opponent’s spike. Agility and footwork are physical skills that must be trained
and measured. A simple agility test for volleyball is the T-test. Set three cones 15
feet (4.6 m) apart on a straight line. Place a fourth cone 10 feet (3 m) back from
the middle cone so that the cones form a T. For volleyball athletes, this basically
means one cone on each sideline, one in the middle of those two, and one at the
end line. The athlete starts behind the cone at the base of the T, or at the end
line. The coach gives the signal to go and starts the stopwatch. The athlete runs
forward to the middle cone, touches the cone, side-slides to the left cone (always
facing the net), touches that cone with the left hand, side-slides to the far cone on
the right, and touches that one with the right hand. The athlete then side-slides
back to the middle cone, touches that one, runs backward to the base of the T,
and touches the cone there, stopping the watch. This test measures the athlete’s
ability to plant, change directions quickly, and keep the core low in the athletic
body position frequently mentioned throughout the skills in this book.
In many situations in the sport of volleyball, players must maintain a balanced
body position but still be able to quickly change direction on the court. A player
in the back row playing defense will need to be ready to chase a deflected ball hit
off a blocker’s hands as well as move to a ball that hits the net, which changes the
anticipated flight of the ball.

Power
Power is another primary physical skill required for volleyball. The emphasis here
is on the lower-body explosiveness that helps athletes jump high when attacking
and blocking, chase down a bad pass to set, or quickly get to a ball dug off the
court. The two simplest and best tests for power are the standing long jump and
the vertical jump. Administer both tests with the athlete in a stationary position
so that the test measures pure explosiveness on one maximum effort unassisted
by a running start. Allow the athlete to take several trials, using the best effort as
the recorded score.
For the vertical jump, place a tape measure up the wall vertically. The athlete
stands with her side to the wall, both feet flat on the ground, and reaches up with
the hand closest to the wall. The point of the fingertips is marked or recorded.
This is called standing reach height. The athlete then stands slightly away from
the wall and jumps vertically as high as possible from a standing start, using both
the arms and legs to assist in projecting the body upward. The athlete attempts
to touch the wall at the highest point of the jump and reach. The difference in
distance between the standing reach height and the jump height is the score for
the vertical jump. The best of three attempts is recorded. A Vertec is a good piece
of freestanding equipment to measure the vertical jump with the most accuracy.
Since the sport of volleyball is played over a net set at a certain height, it is es-
sential that athletes use the power in their legs to elevate their bodies off the floor
so they can attack the volleyball at a higher contact point, therefore increasing
their success rate of hitting the ball down into the opposing team’s court. Being
able to jump high to get their hands across the net to block balls hit by the op-
ponent is also a highly desired skill.
 Evaluating Technical and Tactical Skills 15

Flexibility
Flexibility is the most neglected physical skill but one of the most important. In-
creases in flexibility will help an athlete improve performance in just about every
other physical skill. Flexibility is difficult to measure, but the classic sit-and-reach
test provides a reasonable indication of an athlete’s range and gives her a stan-
dard to improve on. This test involves sitting on the floor with legs stretched out
straight ahead. The heels of the feet are placed on each side of a line, with a tape
measure stretched out in front and the heels placed at the 12-inch (30 cm) mark.
Both knees should be kept flat on the floor (the tester may assist by holding them
down). With the palms facing downward and the hands on top of each other or
side by side, the player reaches forward over the legs and feet and along the tape
measure as far as possible. Ensure that the hands remain at the same level, not one
reaching farther forward than the other. After some practice reaches, the subject
reaches out and holds that position for one or two seconds while the distance is
recorded. Make sure there is no bouncing movement—the stretch must be slow,
steady, and held. The measurement can be either a plus or a minus from the 12-
inch mark. If the athlete reaches past her toes, the measurement is plus X inches;
if she can’t reach her toes, the measurement is minus X inches.
Although volleyball players are mostly on their feet, they often need to extend
their bodies to dig a ball or play a deflected ball. Good flexibility will help keep
an athlete from sustaining injuries such as a strained groin or hamstring muscle
and hopefully protect the joints from more serious injuries.

Evaluating Nonphysical Skills

Athletic performance is not purely physical; a number of other factors influence
it. You must recognize and emphasize mental skills, communication skills, and
character skills to enable your athletes to reach peak athletic performance.
Despite the importance of the physical, mental, communication, and character
skills, however, the emphasis in this book is on the coaching of essential technical
and tactical skills. For an in-depth discussion of teaching and developing both
physical and nonphysical skills, refer to chapters 9 through 12 in Rainer Martens’
Successful Coaching, Third Edition.

Mental Skills
Volleyball is a quick-moving game that requires players to play hard but smart;
maintain focus on their technique while implementing a game plan according to
their opponents’ strengths and weaknesses; stay positive with their teammates
when opponents have the momentum; and stay focused on the next play instead
of thinking about what just happened.
Most important to volleyball players’ success, however, is the mental ability to
understand the game and read cues that allow them to execute the proper skill
at the right time. They must work hard on every point and continually monitor
what is successful and not successful. Players must be ready to adapt to what
their opponents are doing offensively and defensively. A consistent performance
of technical skills requires knowledge of the game, discipline, and focus on the
right cues while maintaining composure as a team. The term mental toughness
might be the best and simplest way to describe the concentration and determina-
tion required to effectively execute the technical skills and appropriate tactical
skills in the course of a long volleyball match.
16 Coaching volleyball Technical and Tactical Skills

Communication Skills
Volleyball also requires communication skills at several levels—among the play-
ers on the court and between the coaches and the players during practices and
matches. As a coach, you must convey adjustments to the match plan and strategy
during time-outs and in between sets. Because communication skills are essential
in volleyball, you should spend considerable time coordinating your system of
communication as it pertains to offensive and defensive systems on the court and
out-of-system problem solving.

Character Skills
Finally, character skills help shape the performance of the team. Volleyball is
a game that requires (and reveals) character as officials make calls, the score
changes back and forth, and players are substituted in and out during a match.
Good character is critical for teammates to play hard for one another.

Evaluation Tools
Volleyball coaches should video record practices and matches to analyze and
evaluate athletes’ performance of basic technical and tactical skills. Video is useful
because the action is so quick it is difficult, if not impossible, to watch each of the
players on every rally. Video allows you to repeatedly review players in practice
or in a match, enabling you to evaluate each player on each play. The video also
becomes an excellent teaching tool in individual or team meetings because the
players can see themselves perform and listen to your comments evaluating that
performance. In addition, live delayed video feeds (such as a TiVo) during practices
can help athletes evaluate and correct their own performances.
You can use many different systems to evaluate what you see on video. The
most common system isn’t really a system at all—it is the subjective impression
you get when you watch the video, without taking notes or systematically evalu-
ating every player on every play. Because of limitations of time and staff, many
coaches use video in this manner, previewing the video, gathering impressions,
and then sharing those impressions with the player or players as they watch the
video together immediately at courtside or at a later time.
Many coaches, depending on the level of play, have video and computer software
that systematically breaks down the video by skills, players, certain rotations,
plays, and any number of criteria a coach is interested in. The focus can be on
specific techniques and tactical decisions by the players. The grading process can
be simple; for example, you can simply give the athlete a plus or a minus on each
play and score the total number of plusses versus the total number of minuses for
the game. Alternatively, you can score the athlete on each aspect of the play, giv-
ing her a grade for technique and a grade for her tactical decision making. More
elaborate grading systems keep track of position-specific statistics. Regardless of
the level of sophistication or detail of the grading instrument, most coaches use
a statistical system of some kind for evaluating player and team performance.
Most grading systems are based on a play-by-play (or rep-by-rep in practices)
 Evaluating Technical and Tactical Skills 17

analysis of performance, possibly coupled with an analysis of actual practice or

match productivity totals such as the ones listed previously. Here are some basic
statistics you may want to keep on your players, either individually or as a team:
• Points scored per game (set): total aces plus total blocks plus total kills divided
by total games (sets)
• Hitting efficiency: kills minus attack errors divided by total attack attempts
• Kill percentage: total number of kills divided by total attack attempts
• Ace-to-error ratio (A-E ratio): total number of aces divided by total number
of errors
• Passing efficiency: total number of points (based on a three-point system)
divided by total number of passes attempted. The three-point system is as
follows: three points for a perfect pass to the target area; two points if a
pass is close to the target area, but far enough away that setter cannot set
the middle attacker; one point if another player (other than the setter) has
to step in and set the ball; and zero points if the serve results in an ace.
• Perfect pass percentage: total number of perfect passes (a three using the
three-point system) divided by total number of passes
• Points per rotation: the difference between the number of points your team
scored in each rotation and the number of points the opponents scored in
each rotation; the results for each rotation will be a plus or minus

Athlete Evaluations
Coaches on USA Volleyball High Performance teams evaluate their players in specific areas, such as physical
skills, passing, setting, attacking, defending, and blocking. They also evaluate the players’ understanding of
the sport of volleyball along with their ability to process information while the ball is in play. Following is a
comprehensive list of different types of evaluations coaches may want to use with their teams.

• Physical skills: approach-jump height, block-jump height, shuttle run, upper-body strength, and lower-
body strength
• Passing skills: footwork, platform, overhead passing, accuracy, and communication
• Setting skills: footwork, hand and arm technique, accuracy, movement, isolation of hitters, out-of-sys-
tem effectiveness, and communication
• Attacking skills: footwork, arm-swing technique, timing, shot selection, out-of-system effectiveness, tran-
sition effectiveness, and communication
• Defending skills: anticipation, reading the setter and hitter, footwork, court and body positioning, ball
control, covering, floor skills technique, and communication
• Blocking skills: footwork, hand penetration, anticipation and reading of situation and hitter, and com-
munication
• Cognitive skills: preparation, coachability, self-motivation, understands directions, attempts to execute,
competitiveness, accepts role, assertiveness, team player, leadership, and conduct
• Knowledge of the game: team offense, team defense, and game and court sense
18 Coaching volleyball Technical and Tactical Skills

Figure 2.1, a and b, shows examples of an evaluation tool that allows you to
isolate technical and tactical skills. The tool breaks down the whole skill into its
component parts, enabling a more objective assessment of an athlete’s performance
than can be produced by statistics. By using these figures and the technical and

Figure 2.1a Technical Skill Evaluation: Spiking (right-handed)

Skill rating

Weak Strong
Key focal points 1 2 3 4 5 Notes
Approach
Accelerates, slow to fast 1 2 3 4 5
Right, left, right, left 1 2 3 4 5
Left foot forward on takeoff 1 2 3 4 5
Ball in front of hitting shoulder 1 2 3 4 5
Lands balanced on both feet 1 2 3 4 5

Arm swing
Both arms full swing, back and up 1 2 3 4 5
Reaches high 1 2 3 4 5
Arm-swing speed 1 2 3 4 5
Contact with the ball 1 2 3 4 5
Snaps wrist 1 2 3 4 5
Follows through 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 2.1b Tactical Skill Evaluation: Selecting the Best Hitter Option
by the Setter

Skill rating

Weak Strong
Key focal points 1 2 3 4 5 Notes
Reads the situation 1 2 3 4 5
Avoids distractions as discussed 1 2 3 4 5
in “Watch Out!”
Uses the appropriate knowledge 1 2 3 4 5
about the team strategy and
game plan
Uses the appropriate knowledge 1 2 3 4 5
about the rules
Uses the appropriate knowledge 1 2 3 4 5
about physical playing conditions
Uses the appropriate knowledge 1 2 3 4 5
about opponents’ strengths and
weaknesses
Uses the appropriate knowledge 1 2 3 4 5
about self and team
 Evaluating Technical and Tactical Skills 19

tactical skills in parts II and III as a guide, you can create an evaluation tool for
each of the technical and tactical skills you want to evaluate during your season.
In figure 2.1a, using the technical skill of spiking as an example, we have broken
down the skill by pulling out each of its key points.
As you may already know, evaluating tactical skills is more difficult because
there are many outside influences that factor into how and when the skill comes
into play. However, as a coach, you can use a similar format to evaluate your
players’ execution of tactical skills. You will need to do the legwork in breaking
down the skill into targeted areas; in figure 2.1b, we have used a generic format
to show you how you can break tactical skills down for the setter using the skills
found in chapters 5 and 6 as a guideline.
The sample evaluation tool shown in figure 2.1, a and b, constitutes a simple way
to use the details of each technical and tactical skill, providing an outline for both
the player and coach to review and a mechanism for understanding the areas in
which improvement is needed. The tool can also be used as a summary exercise.
After a match, after a week of practice, or after a preseason or spring practice ses-
sion, an athlete can score herself on all her essential technical and tactical skills,
including all the cues and focal points, and on as many of the corollary skills as
desired. You can also score the athlete and then compare the two scoresheets. The
ensuing discussion will provide both the player and you with a direction for future
practices and drills and will help you decide where the immediate focus of atten-
tion needs to be for the athlete to improve her performance. You can repeat this
process later so that the athlete can look for improvement in the areas where she
has been concentrating her workouts. As the process unfolds, a better consensus
between the athlete’s scoresheet and your scoresheet should occur.

You must evaluate athletes in many areas and in many ways. This process of
teaching, analyzing, evaluating, and motivating an athlete to improve her perfor-
mance defines the job of the coach: taking the athlete somewhere she could not
get to by herself. Without you, the athlete would not have a clear direction of the
steps that need to be taken or how to proceed to become a better player. The coach
provides the expertise, guidance, and incentive for the athlete to make progress.
The evaluation of the athlete’s technique might be substantially critical. You need
to be careful how criticism is presented, however, and avoid purely negative com-
ments. Try to catch your athletes doing the skills correctly as much as possible
and give feedback on that basis.
One final rule, however, caps the discussion of evaluating athletes. Athletes in
every sport and every age group want to know how much you care before they care
how much you know. You need to keep in mind that at times you must suspend
the process of teaching and evaluating to deal with an athlete as a person. You
must spend time with your athletes discussing topics other than their sport and
their performance. You must show each athlete that you have an interest and a
concern for her as a person, that you are willing to listen to each athlete’s issues,
and that you are willing to assist if doing so is legal and the athlete wishes to be
helped. Events in an athlete’s personal life can overshadow her athletic quests, and
you must be sensitive to that reality. You need to make time to get to know your
players as people first and athletes second. Athletes will play their best and their
hardest for a coach who cares. Their skills will improve, and their performance
will improve, because they want to reward the coach’s caring attitude for them
with inspired performance. They will finish their athletic careers for that coach
having learned a lifelong lesson that care and concern are as important as any
skill in the game of volleyball.
This page intentionally left blank
 Part iI

Teaching
Technical
Skills
Now that you know how to teach and evaluate sport skills, you are ready to dive
into the specific skills necessary for success in volleyball. This part focuses on
the basic and intermediate skills necessary for your players’ success, including
offensive technical skills related to serving, passing, setting, and hitting and de­
fensive technical skills related to blocking and digging.
Chapters 3 and 4 present the material in a way that is clear and easy to under­
stand. More important, you can immediately incorporate the information into your
practices. Whether you are a seasoned veteran or a new coach, you will find the
presentation of skills in this part helpful as you work with your athletes.
For each skill we first present a list of what we call the key points, which are
the most important aspects of the skill. This list is a road map to the proper exe­
cution of the skill. We give a detailed explanation of these key points, including
instructional photos and diagrams to guide you along the way.
At the end of each skill description is a table of common errors that includes
instructions for how to correct those errors in your athletes. We also include a
useful “At a Glance” section to guide you to other tools in the book that will help
you teach your athletes this particular skill—whether it is another technical skill
they must be able to perform to be successful or a tactical skill that uses this
technical skill.

21
This page intentionally left blank
 chapter
3
Offensive
Technical Skills
This chapter covers the offensive technical skills players must know to be success-
ful. In this chapter, you will find the following skills:

Skill Page number

Serving
Underhand serve 25
Sidearm serve 29
Standing floater serve 34
Jump floater serve 39
Topspin serve 43
Roundhouse serve 46
Jump spin serve 50
Passing
Forearm pass 55
Overhead pass 59
Front set 63
Back set 68
Lateral set 72
Jump set 76
One-hand set 80
Forearm set 84
Attacking
Front-row attack 88
Back-row attack 93
Quick attack 97
Slide 102

23
24 Coaching volleyball Technical and Tactical Skills

Serving
Serving is the only skill in volleyball where the individual player is in complete
control of the ball. Although there are many different types of serves, common
guiding principles should be applied to every serve. The objective of the serve is,
minimally, to put the ball in play and, maximally, to score a point. The easiest way
to score a point is to make the serve difficult to pass. Being able to serve different
types of serves will keep the opposing team off balance with their passing. Any
type of serve with good speed will give the opponents less time to react to the ball
coming over the net. This, in turn, gives them less time to get in a good position
to pass the ball properly or communicate with a teammate if the ball is served to a
seam between two players. An aggressive serve is a way of keeping the opponents
“out of their offensive system” and out of rhythm. Other variables to consider in
serving include the velocity of the serve, where the server is located along the end
line as well as the distance behind the end line, and the target or zone where the
ball is served into the opposing team’s court. Obviously players will miss serves
periodically. Remember, it is better to miss the serve long or wide than to serve it
into the net and not give the opponents an opportunity to decide whether or not
to play the ball.
There are several guiding principles that you and your players must be aware
of when serving:
• There is a point scored on every serve.
• The serve is the only skill in volleyball where the player has control over all
factors, such as location, velocity, and trajectory.
• If there is a serving error, the other team scores.
• An aggressive serve has a better chance of taking the opponents out of their
offensive system or rhythm.
• There should be more aces than errors.
• Players should use the same routine each serve, which includes taking a
deep breath, selecting a target, and serving.
• Simple, efficient mechanics lead to repeatability and more success.
• Always practice serves in gamelike situations.
Underhand Serve

A n underhand serve is a method of putting the ball in

play over the net by holding the ball below the waist,
tossing it slightly out of the hand, and hitting underneath Key Points
it with the other hand to send it over the net. The under- Following are the mo
hand serve is the easiest type of volleyball serve and is st important
components of an unde
usually taught to young, beginning players who may not rhand serve:
be physically strong enough to serve the ball over the net • Position square to the
using an overhand motion. target
• Short toss
• Contact with the ba
ll
Position Square to the Target • Follow-through to tar
get

The player should take a position somewhere

along the end line where she is comfortable serving
from and where she will move into the court to play
defense. She should be facing the serving target on
the other side of the net, with her front foot (foot
opposite her serving hand) pointing toward the target
and her body square to the target (see figure 3.1).
The player should be stable, with her knees slightly
bent in a balanced athletic stance. The upper body
should be leaned forward slightly, with the weight
on the back leg.

Figure 3.1 Player posi-

tioned square to the target
for the underhand serve.

Short Toss
The ball is held in the palm of the nonserving,
or nonhitting, hand. The player extends the
tossing hand out in front of her serving shoul-
der and holds the ball at about hip height. The
toss is very short out of the hand, just above
hip height (see figure 3.2). The toss is easier
to control than in the overhead serve, which
helps young players.
Figure 3.2 Player making a short
toss for the underhand serve.

(continued)

25
 Underhand Serve (continued)

Contact With the Ball

The ball must be contacted in the air when tossed out of the hand, and it is important
that the server look at the ball as the serving hand makes contact to ensure a solid serve.
The hand position used to contact the ball needs to provide a firm, flat surface. The
server can use a fully closed fist, a half-open fist, or even a stiff open hand (see figure
3.3). Ball contact should be just below the middle of the back of the ball, allowing it
to travel forward, up, and over the net. The serve can include a step that transfers the
player’s weight from the rear to the front foot (see figure 3.4), or the player can shift
the body weight forward without taking a step. Both options provide additional power
in getting the ball over the net.

a b

Figure 3.3 Positions of the serving

hand for an underhand serve: (a) fully
closed fist, (b) half-open fist, and (c)
open hand.
c

26
 At a Glance
The following parts of the
text offer ad­
ditional information on
the underhand
serve:

Sidearm serve
29
Standing floater serve
34
Jump floater serve
39
Topspin serve
43
Roundhouse serve
46
Jump spin serve
50
Forearm pass
55
Overhead pass
59
Aggressive serving
142
Figure 3.4 Player position prior to Team serve reception
contacting the ball for an underhand 146
serve with a step to shift body weight.

Follow-Through To Target
The follow-through of the serving hand
(the hand that makes contact with
the ball) should be shoulder high and
toward the court as if reaching over the
net (see figure 3.5). This is similar to a
release and follow-through in bowling.
The server should maintain this position
momentarily before entering the court
to play defense.

Figure 3.5 Player following through

toward the intended target.

(continued)

27
 Underhand Serve (continued)

Common Errors
Following are several common errors you may run into when teaching your athletes the
underhand serve.

Error Error correction

Server is not facing the intended target. Make sure the server concentrates on getting the
feet, hips, and shoulders square to the target before
the serve.

Server has the wrong foot forward. To maintain balance and have more power, the foot
opposite the serving hand should be forward so
body weight can be transferred by shifting the weight
forward or taking one small step.

Toss is inaccurate. The ball should be tossed just slightly out of the hand
and in line with the hitting shoulder before contact.

Serve lacks power. The ball should be tossed slightly in front of the hit­
ting hand toward the net so that shifting the body
weight can help provide more power. Tell the player
to speed up the arm swinging through to contact the
ball.

Server’s elbow is bent on contact. Make sure the server concentrates on keeping the
arm straight when swinging it back and then forward,
making the longer lever more accurate.

Server’s wrist or hand is loose. It is important to have a strong, solid hand and wrist
for better accuracy. Have the player practice serving
straight ahead at a wall to make sure there is control.

28
Sidearm Serve

T he sidearm serve is another method of introducing

the ball into play by hitting it over the net to the
opponents from a sideways position with a short toss. Key Points
The sidearm serve can also be used with young players. Fo llo wi ng are th e mo
Players not yet strong enough to get the ball over the net st im po rta nt
components of a sidea
using an overhand motion may be taught this technique rm serve:
in which the body rotates, or torques, providing even • Perpendicular posit
ion to the net
more power than the previous underhand serve. • Short toss and body
rotation
• Contact with the ba
ll
• Follow-through to tar
Perpendicular Position to the Net get

The player should take a position somewhere along

the end line where she is comfortable serving from and where she will move into the
court to play defense after the serve. The player should position her feet approximately
shoulder-width apart, with her nonhitting arm side to the net (see figure 3.6). She
should be stable, with her knees slightly bent in a balanced athletic stance. The player’s
upper body should lean forward slightly, with her weight on her back leg (the one that
is farthest from the net).

Figure 3.6 Player’s body posi-

tioned perpendicular to the net for
the sidearm serve.

(continued)

29
 Sidearm Serve (continued)

Short Toss and Body Rotation

The player holds the ball waist high in the palm of the nonhitting hand, away from
the body, in line with the nonhitting shoulder and slightly toward the net. The toss is
very short out of the hand, with contact quickly following.
As the toss is released, the hips and then the shoulders rotate toward the target,
providing torque into the contact and giving the serve more power (see figure 3.7).
This puts the weight on the front foot (see next section on weight transfer), with the
upper body facing the net during and after contact, allowing the athlete to run into
the court to a defensive position.

a b
Figure 3.7 Player making (a) a short toss and (b) rotating the body
for the sidearm serve.

30
Contact With the Ball
The server should look at the ball as it is contacted. The hitting arm is held out to the
side of the body away from the net and will swing through the ball toward the net (like
slamming a door). The contact hand position can be anything from a fully closed fist,
to a half-open fist, to an open hand as long as the contact surface is firm and flat (see
figure 3.8). The contact point on the hand should be facing toward the target area.

a b c
Figure 3.8 Positions of the serving hand for a sidearm serve: (a) fully closed
fist, (b) half-open fist, and (c) open hand.

The player shifts her weight during the

toss and contact. This can be done with
a slight step onto the front foot toward
the net (see figure 3.9) or simply a weight
transfer from the back foot to the front
foot nearest the net. The knees should
be bent, with shoulders slightly forward.

Figure 3.9 Player contacting the ball for

the sidearm serve with a step to shift body
weight.

(continued)

31
 Sidearm Serve (continued)

Follow-Through to Target
The follow-through of the serving hand (the one that makes contact with the ball)
should be shoulder high and over the net and into the court (see figure 3.10). The server
should maintain this position momentarily before entering the court to play defense.

At a Glance
the text offer
The following parts of
on the sidearm
additional information
serve:

25
Underhand serve
34
Standing floater serve
39
Jump floater serve
43
Topspin serve
46
Roundhouse serve
50
Jump spin serve
55
Forearm pass
59
Overhead pass
142
Aggressive serving
146
Team serve reception

Figure 3.10 Player following

through toward the intended
target for the sidearm serve.

32
Common Errors
Following are several common errors you may run into when teaching your athletes the
sidearm serve.

Error Error correction

Server loses balance. The player must use a balanced athletic stance, with
the knees bent and feet shoulder-width apart.

Server makes poor contact with the ball. The toss must be accurate and in line with the hitting
hand as the body rotates. Tell the server to look at the
ball to make sure the contact is solid.

Serve lacks power (ball does not go over Have the player swing the arm faster to give the serve
the net). more speed. Also work on core exercises to increase
the strength of the trunk of the body.

Serve lacks power (ball does not go over Follow-through needs to be complete, with the body
the net). rotated and the hand toward the net facing the target
over the net.

33
 Standing Floater Serve

Key Points
T his serve is the basic overhand serve technique used
by most players, from beginners to international ath-
letes. If a player is strong enough to throw the ball over
the net from the end line with an overhand motion, she
st important
Following are the mo can learn how to execute this type of serve. It is such an
nding floater
components of a sta effective serve because when done correctly, the ball floats
serve: (without spinning) and has an unpredictable path that
target
• Position square to the makes it very difficult to pass accurately.
an d bo dy
• To ss , ar m sw ing ,
rotation
• Contact with the ba
ll Position Square to the Target
get
• Follow-through to tar The player should take a position somewhere along the
end line, from which she will move into the court to play
defense. The player should begin with the foot on the
nonhitting side forward and her weight on the back foot (see figure 3.11). The front
foot, hips, and shoulders should face the target where she wants to serve the ball. The
knees should be bent slightly, with the body in a balanced athletic stance. The ball
should be held in the pads of the fingers of the nonhitting hand, about shoulder high
and in line with and slightly in front of the serving shoulder.

Figure 3.11 Player positioned

square to the target for the
standing floater serve.

34
Toss, Arm Swing, and Body Rotation
As she tosses the ball, the server should take a slight step forward with the front foot
(see figure 3.12) or simply begin to transfer her weight from the back to the front
foot. The ball for a floater serve is tossed, or more accurately, lifted, only as high as
the server can reach with the serving hand when extended. The ball should be in the
air only briefly, with lift–hit timing (see the next section for information on contacting
the ball). As the ball is lifted for the toss, the hitting-hand elbow is drawn back high (at
or above the shoulder), which rotates the hitting shoulder away from the ball. At the
height of the toss, the hips and then shoulders begin rotating toward the net, followed
by the elbow and then the hand reaching to the point of contact.

a b
Figure 3.12 Player (a) tossing the ball for a standing floater serve and
(b) taking a step to shift her weight.

(continued)

35
 Standing Floater Serve (continued)

Contact With the Ball

The eyes should focus on the ball, and the server should see the ball as it is contacted.
The player contacts the ball with a flat palm on the back of the ball, slightly below
center, and the palm faces the target upon contact. The player should keep the fingers
away from the ball and hit straight through. As we learned in the previous section, just
before contact, the weight is shifted forward, then the elbow and then the forearm are
brought forward, with the wrist extended and the hand rigid upon contact (see figure
3.13). The ball should be in front of and in line with the hitting shoulder.

Figure 3.13 Player contacting

the ball for the standing floater
serve.

36
Follow-Through to Target At a Glance
The follow-through of the hitting hand (palm is the contact The following parts of
the text offer
area) should be high, with the palm to the target (see figure additional information
on the standing
3.14). The server should hold this position momentarily floater serve:
before entering the court to play defense.
Underhand serve
25
Sidearm serve
29
Jump floater serve
39
Topspin serve
43
Roundhouse serve
46
Jump spin serve
50
Forearm pass
55
Overhead pass
59
Aggressive serving
142
Team serve reception
146

Figure 3.14 Player following

through to the target for the
standing floater serve.

(continued)

37
 Standing Floater Serve (continued)

Common Errors
Following are several common errors you may run into when teaching your athletes the
standing floater serve.

Error Error correction

Server contacts the ball with uneven Contact surface is the flat, rigid surface of the palm
surface, using the knuckles or fingers. of the hand, which keeps the ball from spinning and
makes it float.

Server’s wrist is loose. Tell the player to keep the wrist and forearm rigid on
contact.

Toss has spin. Have the server hold the ball with the inside pads of the
fingers and lift the ball up without any spin.

Toss is too low or too high. Tell the server to see how high the serving hand will be
on full reach and toss to that height.

Server steps forward with the same foot Make sure the player starts with the feet in a staggered
as the hitting arm. stance. Shifting the weight forward or stepping forward
onto the front foot will provide power for the serve.

Slow swing causes loss of power. The player needs to swing the serving hand through
faster to increase the speed of the serve and make solid
contact with the flat palm of the hand.

Server lacks control. Remind the server to watch the ball as it is contacted
to make sure there is solid contact. The palm should be
facing toward the target upon contact.

Toss is inconsistent. The server needs to get the feet in a good stance to
transfer the body weight, with the front foot at the end
line, but lift and serve the ball without taking a step. This
will force the server to make a good toss. The server
could also start with the hitting hand and elbow already
rotated back so there is one fewer motion and one
fewer variable. The toss must be in line with the hitting
shoulder. Have the server let the lifted ball drop several
times to ensure it is consistently tossed to the correct
spot.

38
Jump Floater Serve

T he jump floater serve is the same as the standing floater

serve except there is an approach and jump to make
contact with the ball. This type of serve allows the server Key Points
to contact the ball at a higher point, making the trajectory Following are the mo
of the serve flatter over the net and keeping the ball in st important
components of a jump
the air for a shorter period, giving the passer less time to floater serve:
react and adjust to the serve. If a player is strong enough • Position several ste
ps behind
to throw the ball over the net overhand from the end line, the end line
then she can learn how to execute this type of serve. It is • Approach for the se
such an effective serve because when done correctly, the rve
ball floats (without spinning) and has an unpredictable • Toss slightly toward
the net
path, which makes it very difficult to pass accurately. • Jump and swing
• Contact with the ba
ll
• Follow-through to tar
Position Several Steps Behind the End line landing on both feet
get,

The player should take a position somewhere along the

end line, from which she will move into the court to play
defense. The player must be far enough behind the end line that she can make her
approach and jump without going over the end line and committing a foot fault. The
player should begin with the foot on the nonhitting side forward and the weight on
the back foot. The ball should be held in both hands, about waist high and in line with
and slightly in front of the serving shoulder (see figure 3.15).

Figure 3.15 Player positioned several

steps behind the end line in preparation
for the jump floater serve.

(continued)

39
 Jump Floater Serve (continued)

Approach for the Serve

For a full three-step approach, the player steps forward with the foot on the nonhitting
side (see figure 3.16a), followed by a step onto the hitting-side foot (see figure 3.16b),
and then plants the nonhitting-side foot (slightly in front, closer to the net) and jumps
up off both feet (see figure 3.16c). This is the same basic footwork and approach used
in attacking the ball at the net, which we cover on page 88. An alternative is a two-step
approach. From the same starting position, the first step is taken with the hitting-side
foot, and then the nonhitting-side foot is planted so the player can jump off both feet.

a b c
Figure 3.16 Player taking a full three-step approach for the jump floater serve.

Toss Slightly Toward the Net

The ball may be tossed either with both hands or with the nonhitting hand as you saw
in figure 3.16, slightly out in front of the hitting shoulder as the server begins to take
the second step of the three-step approach. For a two-step approach, the toss is on the
first step. The toss should be 3 to 4 feet (.9 to 1.2 m) high and slightly toward the net
so the server can jump up and reach high to hit it.

40
Jump and Swing At a Glance
As the player lifts the ball for the toss, the hitting-hand elbow The following parts of
the text offer
is drawn back high, which rotates the hitting shoulder away additional infor matio
n on the jump
from the ball, as you saw in figure 3.16b. As the server jumps, floater serve:
and at the height of the toss, the hips and shoulders begin
rotating around a central axis toward the net, followed by
Underhand serve
the elbow and the hand to the point of contact. The ball 25
should be in front of and in line with the hitting shoulder. Sidearm serve
29
Standing floater serve
34
Contact With the Ball Topspin serve
43
Roundhouse serve
Throughout the entire motion, the server should focus on 46
the ball and should see the ball being contacted. The con- Jump spin serve
50
tact point is on the back of the ball, slightly below center, Forearm pass
with the palm of the hand. The wrist should be rigid and 55
cocked back slightly to keep the fingers away from the Overhead pass
59
ball. The server should hit straight through the ball, with Aggressive serving
the palm to the target throughout (see figure 3.17). 142
Team serve reception
146

Figure 3.17 Player contact-

ing the ball for the jump floater
serve.

(continued)

41
 Jump Floater Serve (continued)

Follow-Through to Target, Landing on Both Feet

The follow-through of the hitting hand should be high and into the court, with the
palm to the target, while the player lands balanced on both feet (see figure 3.18). The
server’s forward momentum should cause her to land inside the end line after contact
with the ball. She will then continue to move into her defensive position on the court.

Figure 3.18 Player following

through the ball and landing in
a balanced position on both feet
after hitting the jump floater
serve.

Common Errors
Following are several common errors you may run into when teaching your athletes the
jump floater serve.

Error Error correction

Toss is inconsistent. Practice this serve by tossing and jumping to serve without
the approach. Make sure the toss is in line with the hitting
shoulder.

Toss is too far in front or behind. Practice this serve by tossing and jumping to serve without
the approach. Remind the server to carry the ball forward
and lift toward the net.

Server gets the footwork confused. Use a spike approach.

Start with the more controllable two-step-approach footwork.

42
Topspin Serve

T he topspin serve is an overhand serve technique that

can be hit with tremendous power and is used by
intermediate to advanced players. This serve travels over Key Points
the net with good speed and topspin, bringing it down into Following are the mo
the court more quickly than a floater serve. Although the st important
components of a topsp
path of the ball is more predictable than for a floater serve, in serve:
the ball will drop faster and land in front of many passers • Position square to the
target
who are used to having the ball come right to them. It may • Toss and body rotat
also appear to be traveling past the end line, but the spin ion
• Contact with the ba
of the ball may bring it down into the court, keeping it ll
from going out of bounds. • Follow-through to tar
get

Position Square to the Target

The player should take a position somewhere along the end line, from which she will
move into the court to play defense. The player should begin facing the net, with the
foot opposite the serving arm forward and the weight on the back foot. The ball should
be held in the nonhitting hand at about shoulder height and in front of the hitting
shoulder, between the body and the net (see figure 3.19).

Figure 3.19 Player positioned

square to the target for the top-
spin serve.

(continued)

43
 Topspin Serve (continued)

Toss and Body Rotation

The toss for a topspin serve is 2 to 3 feet (.6 to
.9 m) directly over and in line with the hitting
shoulder. The ball is held in the palm of the
nonserving hand and tossed upward, spinning
forward toward the net with topspin. As the
server tosses the ball, the hitting-hand elbow
is raised high and back, rotating the shoulder
and hips away from the ball (see figure 3.20).
As the ball drops into the contact zone, the
hips and shoulder rotate forward toward the
net, followed by the elbow and then the hand
to the point of contact.

Figure 3.20 Player tossing the

ball overhead with topspin.

Contact With the Ball

The player must watch the ball to make good
contact. Contact is made with the heel of the
hand first and the fingers spread to allow a large
area for contact with the ball. The contact point
is on the back of the ball, slightly farther below
center than for a floater serve. At the top of the
arm swing, the wrist and fingers snap over the
top of the ball toward the target on the other
Figure 3.21 Player contacting
side of the net. This serve can be hit with a
the ball for the topspin serve simple weight shift from the rear foot onto the
using a weight shift from the front foot (see figure 3.21) or with a short step
back to front foot. with the front foot to provide power. The back
will be arched just before contact.

44
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
island, where they secretly landed at night with some
artillery, and by daylight the next morning got the latter
in place on the summit of Fort Holmes, which
completely commanded the lower fort, when they sent
a summons of surrender, which Captain Hanks, the
American commanding officer, had no option but to
obey.
Colonel Croghan, the hero of Sandusky, attempted to
regain possession of it, in 1814, with a competent force,
and after several demonstrations of his fleet about the
island, by which time was lost and panic in the enemy
allayed, he landed on the northern part of it, which is
depressed, and his army marched through thick woods,
most favorable for the operations of the Indians, to the
open grounds of Dousman's Farm, where the army was
met by Colonel McDouall, who was eligibly posted on an
eminence with but few regular troops, but a heavy force
of Indian auxiliaries and the village militia. Major
Holmes, who gallantly led the attack, swinging his
sword, was killed at a critical moment, and the troops
retreated before Colonel Croghan could reach the field
with a reinforcement. Thus ended this affair.
My attention was directed to the plaster stated to exist
on the St. Martin Islands. These islands compose a
small group lying about nine or ten miles north-
northeast of Michilimackinac. Captain Knapp, of the
revenue service, had been requested to take me to the
spot with the revenue cutter under his command. I was
accompanied by Captain Douglass, of the expedition,
and by Lieutenant John Pierce, U. S. A., stationed at the
fort.
The gypsum exists in a moist soil, not greatly elevated,
during certain winds above the lake. Pits had been dug
by persons visiting the locality for commercial purposes.
It occurs in granular lumps of a gray color, as also in
foliated and fibrous masses, white, gray, chestnut color,
or sometimes red. No difficulty was encountered in
procuring as many specimens as were required. This
group of islands is noticeable, also, for the large boulder
masses of hornblende and granite rock, which are found
imbedded in, or lying on the surface, along with
fragments of breccia, quartz, &c. This drift is more
abundant, on all the islands I have seen, as we
approach the north shores of Lake Huron. Having
completed the examination of these islands, we
returned to the harbor after an agreeable excursion.
To observe the structure and character of the Island of
Michilimackinac, I determined to walk entirely around it,
following the beach at the foot of the cliffs. This,
although a difficult task, from brush and debris, became
a practicable one, except on the north and northwest
borders, where there was, for limited spaces, no margin
of debris, at which points it became necessary to wade
in the water at the base of low precipitous rocks. In
addition to the reticulated masses of limestone covered
with calcspar from the fallen cliffs, the search disclosed
small tabular pieces of minutely crystallized quartz and
angular masses of a kind of striped hornstone, gray and
lead colored, which had been liberated from similar
positions in the cliffs. On passing the west margin of the
island, I observed a bed of a species of light-blue clay,
which is stated to part with its coloring matter in baking
it, becoming white.
While the British possessed the island, they attempted
to procure water by digging two wells at the site of Fort
George (now Holmes), but were induced to relinquish
the work without success, at the depth of about one
hundred feet. Among the fragments of rock thrown out,
are impressions of bivalve and univalve shells, with an
impression resembling the head of a trilobite. These are
generally in the condition of chalcedony, covered with
very minute crystals of quartz. I also discovered a drift
specimen of brown oxide of iron, on the north quarter.
This sketch embraces all that is important in its
mineralogical character.
This island appears to have been occupied by the
Indians, from an early period. Human bones have been
discovered at more than one point, in the cavernous
structure of the island; but no place has been so much
celebrated for disclosures of this kind, as the Skull Cave.
This cave has a prominent entrance, shaded by a few
trees, and appears to have been once devoted to the
offices of a charnel-house by the Indians. It is not
mentioned at all, however, by writers, till 1763, in the
month of June of which year the fort of old Mackinac on
the peninsula, was treacherously taken by the Sac and
Chippewa Indians. An extensive and threatening
confederation of the western Indians had then been
matured, and a large body of armed warriors was then
encamped around the walls of Detroit, under the
leadership of Pontiac, who held the garrison in close
siege day and night. The surrender of Canada to Great
Britain, which had followed the victory of General Wolfe
at Quebec, was distasteful to these Indians, and they
attempted the mad project of driving back beyond the
Alleghanies the English race; making a simultaneous
assault upon all the military posts west of that great line
of demarcation, and preaching and dealing out
vengeance to all who had English blood in their veins.
Alexander Henry, a native of Albany, [25] was one of
those enterprising men who had pushed his fortunes
West, with an adventure of merchandise, on the first
exchange of posts, and he was singled out for
destruction, as soon as the fort was taken. He had
taken refuge in the house of a Frenchman named
Longlade, where he was concealed in a garret by a
Pawnee slave, and where he hid himself under a heap
of birch-bark buckets, such as are employed in the
Indian country, in the spring season, in carrying the sap
of the sugar-maple. But this temporary reprieve from
the Indian knife seemed only the prelude to a series of
hairbreadth escapes, which impressed him as the direct
interposition of Providence. At length, when the scenes
of blood and intoxication began to abate a little, an old
Indian friend of his, called Wawetum, who had once
pledged his friendship, but who had been absent during
the massacre, sought him out, and having reclaimed
him by presents, in a formal council, took him into his
canoe and conducted the spared witness of these
atrocities three leagues across the waters of Lake Huron
in safety to this island.
To this place they were accompanied by the actors in
this tragedy to the number of three hundred and fifty
fighting men, [26] and he would now, under the
protection of Wawetum, have been safe from immediate
peril, but that in a few days a prize of two canoes of
merchandise in the hands of English traders was made,
amongst which was a large quantity of liquor. Hereupon,
Wawetum, foreseeing another carousal, and always
fearful of his friend, requested him to go up with him to
the mountain part of the island. Having ascended it, he
led him to this cave, and recommended him to abide
here in concealment until the debauch was over, when
he promised to visit him.
Breaking some branches at its mouth for a bed, he then
sought its recesses, and spreading his blanket around,
laid down and slept till morning. Daylight revealed to
him the fact that he had been reposing on dry human
bones, and that the cave had anciently been devoted by
the Indians as a sepulchre. On announcing this fact to
his deliverer, two days afterward, when he came to seek
him, Wawetum expressed his ignorance of it, and a
party of the Indians, who came to examine it in
consequence of the announcement, also concurred in
declaring that they had no tradition on the subject.
They conjectured that the bones were either due to the
period when the sea covered the earth—which is a
common belief with them—or to the period of the Huron
occupancy of this island, after that tribe were defeated
by the Iroquois, in the St. Lawrence valley.
So much for tradition.
This island has been long known as a prominent point in
the fur trade. But of this I am not prepared to speak. It
was selected by Mr. J. J. Astor, in 1816, as the central
point of outfit for his clerks and agents in this region;
and the warehouses erected for their accommodation
constitute prominent features in its modern
architecture. The capital annually invested in this
business is understood to be about three hundred
thousand dollars. This trade was deemed an object of
the highest consequence from the first settlement of
Canada, but it was not till 1766, agreeably to Sir
Alexander Mackenzie, that it commenced from
Michilimackinac. [27] The number of furred animals taken
in a single year, the same author states to be one
hundred and eighty-two thousand two hundred; of
which number, the astonishing proportion of one
hundred and six thousand were beavers. [28] Estimating
each skin at but one pound, and the foreign market
price at four dollars per pound, which are both much
below the average at this era, this item of beaver alone
would exceed by more than one-third the whole capital
employed, taking the data before mentioned, and leave
the seventy-six thousand smaller furred animals to be
put on the profit side. No wonder that acts of perfidy
arose between rivals, such as the shooting of Mr. Waden
at his own dinner-table, where he was entertaining an
opponent or copartner in the trade; or the foul
assassination of Owen Keveny on the Rainy Lakes. [29]
Indeed, the fur trade has for a long period been more
productive, if we are to rely on statements, than the
richest silver mines of Mexico or Peru.
Society at Michilimackinac consists of so many diverse
elements, which impart their hue to it, that it is not easy
for a passing traveller to form any just estimate of it.
The Indian, with his plumes, and gay and easy
costume, always imparts an oriental air to it. To this, the
Canadian, gay, thoughtless, ever bent on the present,
and caring nothing for to-morrow, adds another phase.
The trader, or interior clerk, who takes his outfit of
goods to the Indians, and spends eleven months of the
year in toil, and want, and petty traffic, appears to
dissipate his means with a sailor-like improvidence in a
few weeks, and then returns to his forest wanderings;
and boiled corn, pork, and wild rice again supply his
wants. There is in these periodical resorts to the central
quarters of the Fur Company, much to remind one of
the old feudal manners, in which there is proud
hospitality and a show of lordliness on the one side, and
gay obsequiousness and cringing dependence on the
other, at least till the annual bargains for the trade are
closed.
We were informed that there is neither school,
preaching, a physician (other than at the garrison), nor
an attorney, in the place. There are, however, courts of
law, a post-office, and a jail, and one or more justices of
the peace.
There is a fish market every morning, where may be
had the trout—two species—and the white fish, the
former of which are caught with hooks in deep water,
and the latter in gill nets. Occasionally, other species
appear, but the trout and white fish, which is highly
esteemed, are staples, and may be relied on in the
shore market daily; whole canoe-loads of them are
brought in.
The name of this island is said to signify a great turtle,
to which it has a fancied resemblance, when viewed
from a distance. Mikenok , and not Mackenok, is,
however, the name for a tortoise. The term, as
pronounced by the Indians, is Michinemockinokong,
signifying place of the Great Michinamockinocks, or
rock-spirits. Of this word, Mich is from Michau
(adjective-animate), great. The term mackinok, in the
Algonquin mythology, denotes in the singular, a species
of spirits, called turtle spirits, or large fairies, who are
thought to frequent its mysterious cliffs and glens. The
plural of this word, which is an animate plural, is ong,
which is the ordinary form of all nouns ending in the
vowel o. When the French came to write this, they cast
away the Indian local in ong, changed the sound of n to
l, and gave the force mack and nack, to mök and nök.
The vowel e, after the first syllable, is merely a
connective in the Indian, and which is represented in
the French orthography in this word by i. The ordinary
interpretation of great turtle is, therefore, not widely
amiss; but in its true meaning, the term enters more
deeply into the Indian mythology than is conjectured.
The island was deemed, in a peculiar sense, the
residence of spirits during all its earlier ages. Its cliffs,
and dense and dark groves of maples, beech, and
ironwood, cast fearful shadows; and it was landed on by
them in fearfulness, and regarded far and near as the
Sacred Island. Its apex is, indeed, the true Indian
Olympus of the tribes, whose superstitions and
mythology peopled it by gods, or monitos.
Since our arrival here, there has been a great number of
Indians of the Chippewa and Ottowa tribes encamped
near the town. The beach of the lake has been
constantly lined with Indian wigwams and bark canoes.
These tribes are generally well dressed in their own
costume, which is light and artistic, and exhibit
physiognomies with more regularity of features and
mildness of expression than it is common to find among
them. This is probably attributable to a greater
intermixture of blood in this vicinity. They resort to the
island, at this season, for the purpose of exchanging
their furs, maple-sugar, mats, and small manufactures.
Among the latter are various articles of ornament, made
by the females, from the fine white deer skin, or yellow
birch bark, embroidered with colored porcupine quills.
The floor mats, made from rushes, are generally more
or less figured. Mockasins, miniature sugarboxes, called
mo-cocks, shot-pouches, and a kind of pin and
needleholders, or housewives, are elaborately beaded.
But nothing exceeds in value the largest merchantable
mockocks of sugar, which are brought in for sale. They
receive for this article six cents per pound, in
merchandise, and the amount made in a season, by a
single family, is sometimes fifteen hundred pounds. The
Ottowas of L'Arbre Croche are estimated at one
thousand souls, which, divided by five, would give two
hundred families; and by admitting each family to
manufacture but two hundred pounds per annum,
would give a total of forty thousand pounds; and there
are probably as many Chippewas within the basins of
Lakes Huron and Michigan. This item alone shows the
importance of the Indian trade, distinct from the
question of furs.
During the time we remained on this island, the
atmosphere denoted a mean temperature of 55°
Fahrenheit. The changes are often sudden and great.
The island is subject to be enveloped in fogs, which
frequently rise rapidly. These fogs are sometimes so
dense, as to obscure completely objects at but a short
distance. I visited Round Island one day with Lieut.
Mackay, [30] and we were both engaged in taking views
of the fort and town of Michilimackinac, [31] when one of
these dense fogs came on, and spread itself with such
rapidity, that we were compelled to relinquish our
designs unfinished, and it was not without difficulty that
we could make our way across the narrow channel, and
return to the island. This fact enabled me to realize
what the old travellers of the region have affirmed on
this topic.
We were received during our visit here in the most
hospitable manner, as well as with official courtesy, by
Capt. B. K. Pierce, the commanding officer, Major
Puthuff, the Indian agent, and by the active and
intelligent agents of Mr. John Jacob Astor, the great
fiscal head of the Fur Trade in this quarter.

CHAPTER IV.
 Proceed down the north shore of Lake Huron to
the entrance of the Straits of St. Mary's—
Character of the shores, and incidents—
Ascend the river to Sault de Ste. Marie—
Hostilities encountered there—Intrepidity of
General Cass.

Having spent six days on the island, rambling about it,

and making ourselves as well acquainted with its
features and inhabitants as possible, we felt quite
recruited and cheered up, after the tedious delays along
the southern shores of Lake Huron. And we all felt the
better prepared for plunging deeper into the
northwestern forest. Before venturing into the
stronghold of the Chippewas, whose territories extend
around Lake Superior, it was deemed prudent to take
along an additional military force as far as Sault de Ste.
Marie. But five or six years had then passed since this
large tribe had been arrayed in hostilities against the
United States (in the war of 1814), and they were yet
smarting under the wounds and losses which they had
received at Brownstown and the River Thames, where
they had lost some prominent men. Generals Brown and
Macomb, [32] when making a reconnoissance, with their
respective staffs, a couple of years before, had been
fired on in visiting Gros Cape, at the foot of Lake
Superior, and although no one was killed on that
occasion, the circumstance was sufficient to indicate
their feeling.
This additional force was placed under the command of
Lieutenant John S. Pierce, U. S. A., a brother of the
commanding officer, [33] and of Franklin Pierce, President
of the United States. It consisted of twenty-two men,
with a twelve-oared barge. The whole expedition, now
numbering sixty-four persons, embarked at ten o'clock
on the 15th, with a fair wind, for our first destination, at
Detour, being the west cape of the Straits of St. Mary's.
The distance is estimated at forty miles, along a very
intricate, masked shore of islands, called Chenos. The
breeze carried us at the rate of five miles per hour. The
first traverse is an arm of the Lake, three leagues
across, over which we passed swimmingly. This traverse
is broken near its eastern terminus by Goose Island, the
Nekuhmenis (literally Brant Island) of the Chippewas—a
noted place of encampment for traders. We did not,
however, touch at it. A couple of miles beyond this
brought us to Outard Point, where the men rested a few
moments on their oars and paddles. This point forms
the commencement of those intricate channels which
constitute the Chenos group. Our steersman gave them,
however, a wide berth, and did not approach near the
shore till it began to be time to look out for the mouth
of the St. Mary's. After passing Point St. Vitel, a distance
of about thirty miles, the guides led into a sandy bay,
under the impression that we had reached the west
cape of the St. Mary's; but in this we were deceived.
While landing here a few moments, in a deep bay, the
animal called Kaug by the Chippewas (a porcupine), was
discovered and killed by one of the men, called Baptiste,
by a blow from a hatchet. Buffon gives two engravings
of this animal, as found in Canada, under separate
names; but it is apprehended that he has been misled
by the same animal seen in its summer and winter
dress. To the Indian, this animal is valuable for its quills,
which are dyed of bright colors, to ornament their
dresses, moccasons, shot-pouches, and other choice
fabrics of deer skin, or birch bark. This animal has four
claws on the fore paw, and five on the hinder ones. It
has small ears hid in the hair, and a bushy tail, with
coarse black and white hair. The specimen killed would
weigh eight pounds.
Soon after coming out from this indentation of the lake,
we came in sight of Point Detour, on turning which,
from E. to N., we found no longer use for sails.
Mackenzie places this point in north latitude 45° 54´.
The geology of this coast appears manifest. Secondary
compact limestone appears in place, in low situations,
on the reef of Outard Island and Point, and in the
approach to Point Detour. A ridge of calcareous
highlands appears on the mainland east of
Michilimackinac, stretching off towards Sault de Ste.
Marie, in a northeast direction. This ridge appears to
belong to a low mountain chain, of which the Island of
Michilimackinac may be deemed as one of the
geological links. Just before turning, we passed a very
heavy angular block of limestone, much covered with
moss, which could not have been far removed, in the
drift era, from its parent bed. The largest angle of this
stone, which I have since examined, must be eight or
ten feet. This block is of the ortho-cerite stratum of
Drummond Island. The shores are heavily charged with
various members of the boulder drift, with a fringe
beyond them of spruce and firs, giving one the idea of a
cold, exposed, and most unfavorable coast. Turning the
Point of Detour, we ascended the strait a few miles, and
encamped on its west shore, off Frying-pan Island, at a
point directly opposite the British post of Drummond
Island, which we could not perceive, but the direction of
which was clearly denoted by the sound of the evening
bugles.
The entrance into this strait forms a magnificent scene
of waters and islands, of which a map conveys but a
faint conception. The straits here appeared to be
illimitable, we seemed to be in a world of waters. It is
stated to be thirty miles across to Point Thessalon. The
large group of the Manatouline Islands, stretching
transversely through Lake Huron, terminates with the
isle Drummond—a name bestowed in compliment to the
bold leader, Col. Drummond, who led the night storming
party, and was blown up on the bastion of Fort Erie, in
1813. This station was first occupied on the withdrawal
of the British troops from Mackinac, in 1815. This day's
trip gave us a favorable idea of canoe travelling. It also
gave us an exalted idea of the gigantic system of these
lake waters, and their connecting straits. We had never
done gazing at the prospect before us, after turning the
Detour, and did not retire from our camp fires early. The
next morning we embarked at five o'clock, a light
dreamy mist hanging over the waters. When this
cleared away, we descried the ruined chimneys and
buildings of St. Joseph, the abandoned British post
burned by Col. Croghan, in 1814. [34] The day turned out
a fine one, and we proceeded up the straits with
pleasurable feelings, excited by the noble and novel
views of scenery continually before us. Keeping the
west side of a high limestone island called Isle a la
Crosse, we then entered a sheet of water called Lac
Vaseau, or Muddy Lake. We had proceeded northwardly
perhaps twenty miles, when we encountered another of
those large islands for which these straits are
remarkable, called Nebeesh, [35] or Sailor's Encampment
Island. Our guides held up on its western side, which
soon brought us to the first rapids, and the
commencement of St. Mary's River. A formation of
sandstone is here observed in the bed of the stream.
The waters are swift and shallow, and the men
encountered quite a struggle in the ascent, and so
much injured one of our canoes that it became
necessary to unlade and mend it. In the mean time, the
atmosphere put on a threatening aspect, with heavy
peals of thunder, but no rain followed till we again re-
embarked and proceeded five or six miles, when a
shower fell. It did not, however, compel us to land, and
by six o'clock in the afternoon, the sky again became
clear. We had now ascended the strait and river so far,
that it became certain we could reach our destination
before night, and the men worked with the greater
alacrity. At eight o'clock we had surmounted the second
rapid, called the Little Rapid, Nebeetung of the Indians,
where we encountered a swift current. We were now
within two miles of our destination. The whole river is
here embodied before the eye, and is a mile or three-
fourths of a mile wide, and the two separate villages on
the British and American shores began to reveal
themselves to view, with the cataract of the Sault de
Ste. Marie in the distance; and a beautiful forest of
elms, oaks, and maples on either hand. We ascended
with our flags flying, our little squadron being spread
out in order, and the Canadian boatmen raising one of
their enlivening songs. Long before reaching the place,
a large throng of Indians had collected on the beach,
who, as we put in towards the shore, fired a salute, and
stood ready to greet us with their customary bosho. [36]
We landed in front of the old Nolan house, [37] the
ancient headquarters of the Northwest Company; and
immediately formed our encampment on the wide
green, extending along the river. Daylight in this latitude
is protracted, and although we had ascended a
computed distance of forty-five miles, and had had the
mishap to break a canoe in the Nebeesh, there was
abundant light to fix our encampment properly. Lieut.
Pierce encamped his men on our extreme right. Leaving
an interval, Lieut. Mackay's escort came next, and our
tents formed the northern line of his encampment,
nearest to the Indians. The latter occupied a high
plateau, in plain view, several hundred yards west, with
an intervening gulley, and a plain, well-beat footpath.
We had, in case of difficulty, thirty-four muskets,
Pierce's command included, in addition to which, each
of the savans, or Governor's mess, were armed with a
short rifle. Our line may have looked offensively
demonstrative to the Chippewas, who regarded it, from
their ancient eminence, with unfriendly feelings. These
particulars are given from the perilous position we were
brought into next day.
Meantime, we passed a quiet night in our tents, where
the deep sound of the Falls fell on the wakeful ear,
interspersed with the distant monotonous thump of the
Indian täwäegon. It required but little observation, in
the morning, to explore the village of St. Mary's. It
consisted of some fifteen or twenty buildings of all
sorts, occupied by descendants of the original French
settlers, all of whom drew their living from the fur trade.
The principal buildings and outhouses were those of Mr.
John Johnston, and the group formerly occupied by the
Northwest Company. Most of the French habitations
stood in the midst of picketed lots. There were about
forty or fifty lodges, or two hundred Chippewas, fifty or
sixty of whom were warriors. But, although this place
was originally occupied as a missionary centre, by the
Roman Catholic missionaries of New France, about the
middle of the seventeenth century, no trace of the
ancient church could be seen, unless it was in an old
consecrated graveyard, which has continued to be used
for interments. Mr. Johnston, the principal inhabitant, is
a native of the County of Antrim, Ireland, where his
connections are persons of rank. He is a polite,
intelligent, and well-bred man, from a manifestly refined
circle; who, soon after the close of the American
Revolution, settled here, and married the daughter of a
distinguished Indian chief. [38] Although now absent on a
visit to Europe, his family received us with marked
urbanity and hospitality, and invited the gentlemen
composing the travelling family of Governor Cass to take
all our meals with them. Everything at this mansion was
done with ceremonious attention to the highest rules of
English social life; Miss Jane, the eldest daughter, who
had received her education in Ireland, presiding.
The Sault (from the Latin Saltus, through the French) or
Falls of St. Mary, is the head of navigation for vessels on
the lakes, and has been, from early days, a
thoroughfare for the Indian trade. It is equally
renowned for its white fish, which are taken in the
rapids with a scoop-net. The abundance and excellence
of these fish has been the praise of all travellers from
the earliest date, and it constitutes a ready means of
subsistence for the Indians who congregate here.
The place was chiefly memorable in our tour, however,
as the seat of the Chippewa power. To adjust the
relations of the tribe with the United States, a council
was convened with the chiefs on the day following our
arrival. This council was assembled at the Governor's
marquée, which was graced by the national ensign, and
prepared for the interview with the usual presents. The
chiefs, clothed in their best habiliments, and arrayed in
feathers and British medals, seated themselves, with
their usual dignity, in great order, and the business was
opened with the usual ceremony of smoking the peace
pipe. When this had been finished, and the
interpreter [39] taken his position, he was directed to
explain the views of the Government, in visiting the
country, to remind them that their ancestors had
formerly conceded the occupancy of the place to the
French, to whose national rights and prerogatives the
Americans had succeeded, and, by a few direct and
well-timed historical and practical remarks, to secure
their assent to its reoccupancy. The utmost attention
was bestowed while this address was being made, and
it was evident, from the glances of the hearers, that it
was received with unfriendly feelings, and several chiefs
spoke in reply. They were averse to the proposition, and
first endeavored to evade it by pretending to know
nothing of such former grants. This point being restated
by the American commissioner, and pressed home
strongly, was eventually dropped by them. Still, they
continued to speak in an evasive and desultory manner,
which had the effect of a negative. It was evident that
there was a want of agreement, and some animated
discussion arose among themselves. Two classes of
persons appeared among the chiefs. Some appeared in
favor of settling a boundary to the ancient precinct of
French occupancy, provided it was not intended to be
occupied by a garrison, saying, in the symbolic
language of Indians, that they were afraid, in that case,
their young men might kill the cattle of the garrison.
Gov. Cass, understanding this, replied that, as to the
establishment of a garrison, they need not give
themselves any uneasiness—it was a settled point, and
so sure as the sun that was then rising would set, so
sure would there be an American garrison sent to that
point, whether they renewed the grant or not. This
decisive language had a sensible effect. High words
followed between the chiefs. The head chief of the
band, Shingabawossin, a tall, stately man, of prudent
views, evidently sided with the moderates, and was
evasive in his speech. A chief called Shingwauk, or the
Little Pine, who had conducted the last war party from
the village in 1814, was inclined to side with the
hostiles. There was a chief present called Sassaba, a
tall, martial-looking man, of the reigning family of chiefs
of the Crane Totem, who had lost a brother in the battle
of the Thames. He wore a scarlet uniform, with
epaulets, and nourished a deep resentment against the
United States. He stuck his war lance furiously in the
ground before him, at the beginning of his harangue,
and, assuming a savage wildness of air, appeared to
produce a corresponding effect upon the other Indian
speakers, and employed the strongest gesticulation. His
address brought the deliberations to a close, after they
had continued some hours, by a defiant tone; and, as
he left the marquée, he kicked away the presents laid
before the council. Great agitation ensued. The council
was then summarily dissolved, the Indians went to their
hill, and we to our tents.
It has been stated that the encampment of the Indians
was situated on an eminence a few hundred yards west
from our position on the shore, and separated from us
by a small ravine. We had scarcely reached our tents,
when it was announced that the Indians had raised the
British flag in their camp. They felt their superiority in
number, and did not disguise their insolence. Affairs had
reached a crisis. A conflict seemed inevitable. Governor
Cass instantly ordered the expedition under arms. He
then called the interpreter, and proceeded with him,
naked-handed and alone, to Sassaba's lodge at the
hostile camp. Being armed with short rifles, we
requested to be allowed to accompany him as a body-
guard, but he decidedly refused this. On reaching the
lodge of the hostile chief, before whose door the flag
had been raised, he pulled it down with his own hands.
He then entered the lodge, and addressing the chief
calmly but firmly, told him that it was an indignity which
they could not be permitted to offer; that the flag was
the distinguishing symbol of nationality; that two flags
of diverse kind could not wave in peace upon the same
territory; that they were forbid the use of any but our
own, and should they again attempt it, the United
States would set a strong foot upon their rock and crush
them. He then brought the captured flag with him to his
tent.
In a few moments after his return from the Indian
camp, that camp was cleared by the Indians of their
women and children, who fled with precipitation in their
canoes across the river. Thus prepared for battle, we
momently expected to hear the war-whoop. I had
myself examined and filled my shot-pouch, and stood
ready, rifle in hand, with my companions, awaiting their
attack. But we waited in vain. It was an hour of
indecision among the Indians. They deliberated,
doubtingly, and it soon became evident that the crisis
had passed. Finding no hostile demonstration from the
hill, Lieuts. Pierce and Mackay directed their respective
commands to retire to their tents.
The intrepid act of Governor Cass had struck the
Indians with amazement, while it betokened a
knowledge of Indian character of which we never
dreamed. This people possess a singular respect for
bravery. The march of our force, on that occasion,
would have been responded to, instantly, by eighty or a
hundred Indian guns; but to behold an unarmed man
walk boldly into their camp and seize the symbol of
their power, betokened a cast of character which
brought them to reflection. On one person in particular
the act had a controlling effect. When it was told to the
daughter of Wäbojeeg (Mrs. Johnston), she told the
chief that their meditated scheme of resistance to the
Americans was madness; the day for such resistance
was passed; and this man, Cass, had the air of a great
man, and could carry his flag through the country. The
party were also under the hospitality of her roof. She
counselled peace. To these words Shingabowassin
responded; he was seconded by Shingwäkonce, or the
Little Pine. Of this effort we knew nothing at the
moment, but the facts were afterwards learned. It was
evident, before the day had passed, that a better state
of feeling existed among the Indians. The chief
Shingabowassin, under the friendly influences referred
to, renewed the negotiations. Towards evening a council
of the chiefs was convened in one of the buildings of
this Pocahontean counsellor, and the treaty of the 16th
June, 1820 (vide Ind. Treaties United States) signed. In
this treaty every leading man united, except Sassaba.
The Little Pine signed it, under one of his synonymous
names, Lavoine Bart. By this treaty the Chippewas cede
four miles square, reserving the right of a place to fish
at the rapids, perpetually. The consideration for this
cession, or acknowledgment of title, was promptly paid
in merchandise.
The way being thus prepared for our entry into Lake
Superior, it was decided to proceed the next day. Before
leaving this point, it may be observed that the falls are
produced by a stratum of red sandstone rock, which
crosses the bed of the St. Mary's at this place. The last
calcareous formation, seen in ascending the straits, is at
Isle a la Crosse. As we proceed north, the erratic block
stratum becomes heavier, and abraded masses of the
granite, trap, sandstone, and hornblende series are
confusedly piled together on the lake shores, and are
abundant at the foot of these falls. In the central or
middle channel, the waters leap from a moderate
height, from stratum to stratum, at two or three points,
producing the appearance, when seen from below, of a
mass of tumbling waves. The French word Sault
(pronounced so) accurately expresses this kind of
pitching rapids or falls. The Indians call it Bawateeg, or
Pawateeg, when speaking of the phenomenon, and
Bawating or Pawating, when referring to the place.
Paugwa is an expression denoting shallow water on
rocks. The inflection eeg is an animate plural. Ing is the
local terminal form of nouns. In the south or American
channel, there is no positive leap of the water, but an
intensely swift current, which is parted by violent jets,
between rocks, still permitting canoes, skilfully guided,
to descend, and empty boats to be drawn up. But these
falls are a complete check to ship navigation. The
descent of water has been stated by Colonel Gratiot, of
the United States Engineers, at twenty-two feet ten
inches. [40] They resemble a bank of rolling foam, and
with their drapery of trees on either shore, and the
mountains of Lake Superior in the distance, and the
moving canoes of fishing Indians in the foreground,
present a most animated and picturesque view.
To the Chippewas, who regard this spot as their ancient
capital, it is doubtless fraught with many associations,
and they regard with jealousy the advance of the
Americans to this quarter. This tribe, in the absence of
any older traditions, are regarded as the aboriginal
inhabitants of the place. They are, by their language,
Algonquins, and speak a pure dialect of it. They call
themselves Ojibwas. Bwa, in this language, denotes
voice, Ojibwamong signifies Chippewa language, or
voice. It is not manifest what the prefixed syllable
denotes. They are a numerous people, and spread over
many degrees of latitude and longitude. We have had
them constantly around us, in some form, since leaving
Detroit, and they extend to the Great Winnipeg Lake of
Hudson's Bay. They appear, at the French era of
discovery, to have been confined almost exclusively to
the north bank of the St. Lawrence, below the influx of
the Ottowa River, extending to Lake Nepising, and the
geographical position seems to have been the origin of
the name Algonquin.
Whilst encamped here, we witnessed the descent down
the rapids of eleven barges and canoes laden with furs
from the north. This trade forms the engrossing topic,
at this point, with all classes. Hazardous as it is, the
pursuit does not fail to attract adventurers, who appear
to be fascinated with the wild freedom of life in the
wilderness.

CHAPTER V.
Embark at the head of the portage at St. Mary's—
Entrance into Lake Superior—Journey and
incidents along its coasts—Great Sand Dunes
—Pictured Rocks—Grand Island—Keweena
peninsula and portage—Incidents thence to
Ontonagon River.

Having accomplished the object of our visit, at this

place, no time was lost in pushing our way into the
basin of Lake Superior. The distance to it is computed to
be fifteen miles above the Sault. It was nine o'clock of
the morning following the day of the treaty, when the
men began to take the canoes up the rapids, and
transport the provisions and baggage. This occupied
nearly the whole of the day. Taking leave of Lieutenant
Pierce, who returned with his command, from this point
and our hospitable hostess, we proceeded to the head
of the portage, long before the canoes and stores all
arrived. To while away the time, while the men were
thus employed, we tried our skill at rifle shooting. It was
six o'clock in the evening before the work of
transportation was finished, and the canoes loaded,
when we embarked. The view from the head of the
portage is imposing. The river spreads out like an arm
of the sea. In the distance appear the mountains of
Lake Superior.
We proceeded two leagues, and encamped at Point aux
Pins, on the Canadian shore. At six o'clock the next
morning we were again in our canoes, and crossed the
strait, which is here several leagues wide, to the west,
or Point Iroquois Cape. In this traverse we first beheld
the entrance into Lake Superior. The scene is
magnificent, and I could fully subscribe to the remark
made by Carver, "that the entrance into Lake Superior
affords one of the most pleasing prospects in the
world." The morning was clear and pleasant, with a
favoring breeze, but a tempest of wind and rain arose,
with severe thunder, soon after we had accomplished
the passage, which compelled us hastily to land on the
Point Iroquois shore. This storm detained us five or six
hours before the waters were sufficiently calm to
embark. Among the boulders, I picked up a fine
specimen of graphic granite, most perfectly
characterized. About two o'clock, we entered this great
inland sea. How feeble and inadequate are all
geographical attempts to describe this vast body of
water, with its imposing headlands, shores, and islands.
The St. Mary's River passes out between two prominent
capes, called Gros Cape and Point Iroquois. The former
rises up in elevated barren peaks of sienite and
hornblende rock; the latter consists of nearly equally
elevated masses of horizontal red sandstone, covered
with a dense forest. The line of separation is, perhaps,
three leagues, forming a geological gap, through which,
at ancient periods, the drift and boulder strata has been
forced, with an amazing power. For we find these
boulders, of the disrupted sienites, hornblende, trap,
and sandstone rocks of these northern latitudes heaped
in profusion along the entire shores of the river, and
cast out, far and wide, into the basin of Lake Huron.
There is a little island, called Isle des Iroquois, just off
the foot of the American cape, which is a noted
stopping-place for boat and canoe voyagers. On passing
this spot, the lake spreads out like a sea. Towards the
north, can be seen on the horizon the blue peaks of
distant mountains. Southerly, the Point Iroquois
formation of sandstone appears skirting the shore, at
several miles distance. At the computed distance of
fifteen miles, we passed the mouth of the Taquimenon
River. It was already evening when we came here, but
we were far out from shore, and the guides thought
best to keep on their course a league farther, which
brought us, at 11 o'clock at night, into the mouth of the
Onzig, or Shelldrake River. At this spot, we found an
encampment of Chippewa Indians, who were friendly,
and quite profuse in their salutation of bosho. At the
moment we were ready to embark, the next morning, a
brigade of traders' boats, on the route to
Michilimackinac, was descried, coming in to the same
point. This interview detained us till 8 o'clock. Within a
league, we met eighteen or twenty Chippewa canoes on
their journey towards the same point; and at the
computed distance of three leagues from the Onzig, we
reached, and turned the bleak shores of White-Fish
Point, called Namikong [41] by the Indians. Thus far, we
had been imbayed in an arm of the lake which
embraces Parisian Island, another link of the sandstone
formation; but here the lake, stretching westwardly,
displays itself in all its magnificence. On the left,
spreads a long line of sandy coast; on the right, an
illimitable expanse of water, which was bounded only by
the horizon. Beyond these features, there is not a
prominent object to catch the eye. The magnificence
which first pleases, at last tires. The change of course
brought the wind ahead, and we were soon compelled
to land on these bleak sandy wastes. While thus
detained, an express canoe from St. Mary's reached us
with letters. A couple of hours were employed in
dispatching this canoe on its return; meantime the wind
lulled, and we went on ten miles and encamped on the
sands.
The next morning, we were again in motion at five
o'clock. Twelve miles coasting along this unvaried shore,
brought us to the mouth of a stream called Neezhoda,
Seepe, [42] or Twin River, which is imprecisely called Two-
Hearted River by the traders. The peculiarity of this
stream consists in the union of two separate rivers, near
the point of its outlet. Seven leagues beyond this spot
brought us to the inlet called Grande Marais.
Immediately west of this begins an elevated naked
coast of sand-dunes, called Gitche Nägow, [43] or La
Grande Sables. To comprehend the geology of this
coast, it is necessary to state that it consists of several
heavy strata of the drift era, reaching a height of two or
three hundred feet, with a precipitous front on the lake.
The sands driven up by the lake are blown over these
heights, forming a heavy deposit. It is this sandy
deposit, falling down the face of the precipice, that
appears to convert the whole formation into dunes,
whereon the sandy coating rests, like a veil, over the
pebble and clay-drift. Their desert and Sahara-like
appearance is quite impressive to the travellers who
visit these coasts in boats or canoes. The number of
rapacious birds which are observed about these heights,
adds to the interest of the prospect. Dr. Wolcott, and
some other members of the party who ascended the
formation, reported a small lake on this elevation. The
sands were observed, in some places, to be deposited
over its vegetation so as to arrest its growth. The
largest trees were often half buried and destroyed. Not
less than nine miles of the coast, agreeably to voyageur
estimates, are thus characterized by dunes.
I found the sandstone formation of Cape Iroquois to
reappear at the western termination of these heights on
the open shores of the lake, where I noticed imbedded
nodules of granular gypsum. At this point, known to our
men as La Pointe des Grandes Sables, we pitched our
tents, at nightfall, under a very threatening state of the
atmosphere. The winds soon blew furiously, followed by
a heavy rain-storm—and sharp thunder and lightning
ensued. Our line of tents stood on a gently rising beach,
within fifty yards of the margin of the lake, where they
were prostrated during the night by the violence of the
waves. The rain still continued at early daylight, the
waves dashing in long swells upon the shore. At sunrise
the tempest abated, and by eight o'clock the
atmosphere assumed a calm and delightful aspect. It
was eleven o'clock, however, before the waves
sufficiently subsided to permit embarkation. Indeed, a
perfect calm now ensued. This calm proved very
favorable—as we discovered on proceeding three
leagues—to our passing the elevated coast of
precipitous rock, called Ishpäbecä, [44] and Pictured
Rocks. This coast, which extends twelve miles, consists
of a gray sandstone, forming a series of perpendicular
façades, which have been fretted, by the action of the
waves, into the rude architecture of pillared masses,
and open, cavernous arches. These caverns present
their dark mouths to observation as the voyager passes.
At one spot a small stream throws itself from the cliffs
into the lake at one leap. In some instances the cliffs
assume a castellated appearance. At the spot called the
Doric Rock, near the commencement of these
picturesque precipices, a vast entablature rests on two
immense rude pillars of the water-worn mass. At a point
called Le Portail, the vast wall of rock had been so
completely excavated and undermined by the lake, that
a series of heavy strata of rock rested solely on a single
pillar standing in the lake. The day was fine as we
passed these geological ruins, and we sat silently gazing
on the changing panorama. At one or two points there
are small streams which break the line of rock into
quadrangles. A species of dark red clay overlies this
formation, which has been carried by the rains over the
face of the cliffs, where, uniting with the atmospheric
sand and dust, it gives the whole line a pictorial
appearance. We almost held our breath in passing the
coast; and when, at night, we compared our
observations around the camp-fire, there was no one
who could recall such a scene of simple novelty and
grandeur in any other part of the world; and all agreed
that, if a storm should have arisen while we were
passing, inevitable destruction must have been our lot.
We came to Grand Island at a seasonable hour in the
evening, and encamped on the margin of its deep and
land-locked harbor. Our camp was soon filled with
Chippewas from a neighboring village. They honored us
in the evening by a dance. Among these dancers, we
were impressed with the bearing of a young and
graceful warrior, who was the survivor of a self-devoted
war-party of thirteen men, who, having marched
against their ancient enemies the Sioux, found
themselves surrounded in the plain by superior
numbers, and determined to sell their lives at the
dearest rate. To this end, they dug holes in the earth,
each of which thus becoming a fortification for its
inmate, who dared their adversaries till overpowered by
numbers. One person was selected to return with the
news of this heroic sacrifice; this person had but
recently returned, and it was from his lips that we heard
the tragic story.
My mineralogical searches along the shores this day
rewarded me with several water-worn fragments of
agate, carnelian, zeolite, and prase, which gave me the
first intimation of our approach to the trap and
amygdaloidal strata, known to be so abundant in their
mineral affluence in this quarter.
We left Grand Island the next morning at six o'clock,
and passing through a group of sandstone islands,
some of which had had their horizontality disturbed, we
came to the mouth of Laughing-fish River, where a
curious flux and reflux of water is maintained. From this
place, a line of sandstone coast was passed,
northwardly, till reaching its terminus on the bay of
Chocolate River. This is a large and deep bay, which it
would have required a day's travel to circumnavigate. To
avoid this, the men held their way directly across it,
steering N. 70° W., which, at the end of three leagues,
brought us to Granite Point. Here we first struck the old
crystalline rocks or primitive formation. This formation
stretches from the north shores of the Gitche
Sebeeng, [45] or Chocolate River, to Huron Bay, and gives
the traveller a view of rough conical peaks. These
characterize the coast for a couple of days' travel. They
are noted for immense bodies of iron ore, which is
chiefly in the condition of iron glance. [46] At Presque
Isle, it assumes the form of a chromate of iron in
connection with serpentine rock. We encamped on level
ground on a sandstone formation, in the rear of Granite
Point, and had an opportunity of observing the
remarkable manner in which the horizontal sandstone
rests upon and against the granitical, or, more truly,
sienitic eminences. These sandstone strata lap on the
shoulders of the primitive or crystalline rocks,
preserving their horizontal aspect, and forming distinct
cliffs along parts of the coast. This sandstone appears,
from its texture and position, to be the "old red
sandstone" of geologists.
The next morning (23d) we quitted our encampment at
an early hour, in a haze, and urged our way, with some
fluctuations of weather, an estimated distance of eleven
leagues. This brought us, at four o'clock in the
afternoon, to Huron River. Sitting in the canoe, in a
confined position, makes one glad at every opportunity
to stretch his limbs, and we embraced the occasion to
bathe in the Huron. The shore consists of a sandy plain,
where my attention was called to the Kinnikenik, a plant
much used by the Indians for smoking. It is the uva
ursi. I had seen it once before, on the expedition, at
Point aux Barques.
We inspected here, with much attention, an Indian
grave, as well from the care with which it was made, as
the hieroglyphics cut on the head-posts. The grave was
neatly covered with bark, bent over poles, and made
roof-shaped. A pine stake was placed at the head.
Between this and the head of the grave, there was
placed a smooth tablet of cedar wood, with
hieroglyphics. Mr. Riley, our interpreter, explained these.
The figure of a bear denoted the chief or clan. This is
the device called a Totem. Seven red strokes denoted
his scalp honors in Indian heraldry, or that he had been
seven times in battle. Other marks were not understood
or interpreted. A paling of saplings inclosed the space.
On the following morning, our camp was astir at the
customary early hour, when we proceeded to Point aux
Beignes, a distance of six miles. Attaining this point, we
entered Keweena Bay, coasting up its shores for an
estimated distance of three leagues. We were then
opposite the mouth of Portage River, but separated from
it a distance of twelve miles. I was seated in Lieutenant
Mackay's canoe. The whole squadron of five canoes
unhesitatingly put out. The wind was adverse; before
much progress had been made in crossing, three of our
flotilla, after struggling against the billows, put back;
but we followed the headmost one, which bore the
Governor's flag, and, seizing hold of the paddles to
relieve the men, we succeeded in gaining the river. The
other canoes came up the next morning, at seven
o'clock, when we all proceeded to cross the Portage
Lake, and up an inlet, which soon exhibited a rank
growth of aquatic plants, and terminated, after
following a very narrow channel, in a quagmire. We
had, in fact, reached the commencement of the
Keweena Portage.
Before quitting this spot, it may be well to say, that the
geology of the country had again changed. Portage
Lake lies, in fact, in the direction of the great copper-
bearing trap dyke. This dyke, estimating from the end
of the peninsula, extends nearly southwest and
northeast, probably seventy miles, with a breadth of ten
miles. It is overlaid by rubblestone and amygdaloid,
which latter, by disintegration, yields the agates,
carnelians, and other silicious, and some sparry
crystalline minerals, for which the central shores of Lake
Superior are remarkable. Nearly every part of this broad
and extensive dyke which has been examined, yields
veins, and masses of native copper, or copper ores.
The word was, when we had pushed our canoes into
the quagmire, that each of the gentlemen of the party
was to carry his own personal baggage across the
portage. This was an awkward business for most of us.
The distance was but two thousand yards, but little over
a mile, across elevated open grounds. I strapped my
trunk to my shoulders, and walked myself out of breath
in getting clear of the brushy part of the way, till
reaching the end of the first pause, or resting-place.
Here I met the Governor (Cass), who facetiously said:
"You see I am carrying two pieces," alluding to his
canoe slippers, which he held in his hands. "A piece," in
the trade, is the back load of the engagee.
On reaching the termination of the second "pause," or
rest, we found ourselves on a very elevated part of the
shore of Lake Superior. The view was limitless, the
horizon only bounding the prospect. The waves rolled in
long and furious swells from the west. To embark was
impossible, if we had had our baggage all brought up,
which was not the case. The day was quite spent before
the transportation was completed. This delay gave us
an opportunity to ramble about, and examine the shore.
In a boulder of serpentine rock, I found an imbedded
mass of native copper, of two pounds' weight. On
breaking the stone, it proved to be bound together by
thin filaments of this metal. Small water-worn fragments
of chalcedony, agate, carnelian, and other species of the
quartz family were found strewn along the beach,
together with fragments of zeolite. Masses of the two
former minerals were also found imbedded in
amygdaloid and trap-rock, thus denoting the parent
beds of rock. In the zeal which these little discoveries
excited on the subject of mineralogy, the Chippewa,
Ottowa, and Shawnee Indians attached to the
expedition participated, and as soon as they were made
acquainted with the objects sought, they became
successful explorers. They had noticed my devotion to
the topic, from the time of our passing the Islands of
Shawangunk, Michilimackinac, and Flat-rock Point, in
the basin of Lake Huron, where organic forms were
chiselled from the rock; and bestowed on me the name
of Paguäbëkiegä. [47]
It turned out the next morning, that the whole of the
baggage and provisions had not been brought up, nor
any of the canoes. This work was early commenced by
the men. About half the day was employed in the
necessary toil. When it was concluded, the wind on the
lake had become too high, blowing in an adverse
direction, to permit embarkation. Nothing remained but
to submit to the increased delay, during which we made
ourselves as familiar with the neighboring parts of the
lake shore as possible. During the time the expedition
remained encamped at the portage, I made a short
excursion up the peninsula northeastwardly,
accompanied by Captain Douglass, Mr. Trowbridge, and
some other persons. The results of this trip are
sufficiently comprehended in what has already been
stated respecting the geology and mineralogy of this
prominent peninsula.
On the following morning (27th) the wind proved fair,
and the day was one of the finest we had yet
encountered on this fretful inland sea. We embarked at
half-past four A. M., every heart feeling rejoiced to
speed on our course. The prominent headlands, west of
this point, are capped, as those on its south-eastern
border, with red sandstone. The wind proved full and
adequate to bear us on, without endangering our safety,
which enabled the steersmen to hold out boldly, from
point to point. We had not proceeded far beyond the
cliffs west of the portage, when the dim blue outlines of
the Okaug or Porcupine Mountains [48] burst on our
view. [49] Their prominent outline seemed to stretch on
the line of the horizon directly across our track. The
atmosphere was quite transparent, and they must have
been seen at the distance of sixty miles. Captain
Douglass thought, from the curve of the earth, that they
could not be less than eighteen hundred feet in height.
We successively passed the entrance of Little Salmon-
Trout, Graverod, Misery, and Firesteel Rivers, at the
latter of which a landing was made; when we again
resumed our course, and entered the Ontonagon River,
at half-past three in the afternoon. A large body of
water enters the lake at the spot, but its mouth is filled
up very much by sands. One of those curious refluxes is
seen here, of which a prior instance has been noticed,
in which its waters, having been impeded and dammed
up by gales of wind, react, at their cessation, with
unusual force. The name of the River Ontonagon [50] is,
indeed, due to these refluxes, the prized dish of an
Indian female having, agreeably to tradition, been
carried out of the river into the lake.
Captain Douglass made observations for the latitude of
the place, and determined it to be in north latitude 46°
52´ 2´´. The stationary distances of the route are given
in the subjoined list, in which it may be observed that
they are probably exaggerated about one-third by the
voyagers and northwest traders, who always pride
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