DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

COURSE MATERIALS

ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND DRIVES

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COURSE OUTCOME

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MODULE 1
DC MACHINES

INTRODUCTION TO DC MACHINES
 DC Machines are types of electrical machines that use dc current in the case of dc
motors and generates dc voltages in case of dc generator.

 DC motor transforms electrical power into mechanical power and the generator converts
mechanical power into electrical

 As in power, generation system, and industries mostly ac machines like an induction

motor, synchronous motor, generators are employed but the use of dc machines cannot be
denied due to its constant speed providing the capability.

 The physical construction and designing of both dc motors and generators are alike to
each other. The dc generator is used in some safe environment where is no need of
special protection and circuitry for the generator.
 While the motor is employed in such an environment where it can be easily affected by
environmental conditions like moisture, dust, so it needs a special structure that can
provide resistant to dust, fire, and some other related effects.
 As we are familiar with the common use of dc battery that used only for some limited
applications where less amount of energy is required but such applications where a large
amount of dc power is needed dc machines is the best replacement of the battery.

DC MACHINES CONSTRUCTION

 There are numerous parts are exits in the designing and structure of dc machines like rotor,
stator, windings and some others, all these part are described here with the detailed.

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DC Machines Yoke
 The yoke of machines is also known as the frame, the main working of this part is to
provide protection to the internal circuitry of a machine from the outer environment,
temperature, moisture, and some other factors.

 This part of the machine is constructed with the cast steel and cast iron.

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DC Machines Pole Core

 At stator of the dc machines, the poles are of an electromagnet the windings on these
poles are known as the field windings.

 The input provided at the stator connected with the field windings generate flux at the
stator and make poles electromagnet.

These poles are constructed with cast steel, cast iron.

DC Machines Field Windings

 These windings are wound at the sating part of machines on the poles at the stator. These
windings are constructed with copper. The current provided at these windings generates
flux and makes poles electromagnet.

DC Machines Armature Core

 The core of armature consists of a large no of slots and armature windings are located in
these slots.

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 It has less reluctance path for the interaction of stator flux with the armature windings,
this core is constructed with the less reluctance material like cast iron.
 And there are laminations of different substance is used to reduce the eddy current losses.

DC machines Armature Windings

 The windings wound on the rotor if the dc machine is known as the armature windings.
When the rotor rotates due to flux linking of stator the voltage induced in this part of
machines.

 These windings are constructed with copper like the stator windings.

DC Machines Commutator
 The commutator is slip rings mounted at the shaft of the machines the main purpose of
these commutators is to transmit current from the armature windings to the load.

 These commutators also convert ac power generated by the machine into the dc power,
we will discuss this phenomenon how ac converts into dc by these commutators in
coming tutorials.

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Carbon Brushes
 These brushes are connected with the commutators and get current from the commutator
and provides to the load.

 These are constructed with the carbon and their main function is to reduce the sparking at
load and machine connection points.

DC GENERATORS

What is a DC Generator?

A DC generator is an electrical machine whose main function is to convert mechanical energy

into electricity. When conductor slashes magnetic flux, an emf will be generated based on the
electromagnetic induction principle of Faraday‟s Laws. This electromotive force can cause a
flow of current when the conductor circuit is closed.

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Working Principle of DC Generator

We can see that in the first half of the revolution current always flows along ABLMCD, i.e.,
brush no 1 in contact with segment a. In the next half revolution, in the figure, the direction of
the induced current in the coil is reversed. But at the same time the position of the segments a
and b are also reversed which results that brush no 1 comes in touch with the segment b. Hence,
the current in the load resistance again flows from L to M. The waveform of the current through
the load circuit is as shown in the figure. This current is unidirectional.

The above content is the basic working principle of DC generator, explained by single loop
generator model. The positions of the brushes of DC generator are so that the change over of the
segments a and b from one brush to other takes place when the plane of rotating coil is at a right
angle to the plane of the lines of force. It is to become in that position, the induced EMF in the
coil is zero.

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EMF EQUATION OF A DC GENERATOR/MOTOR

As the armature rotates, a voltage is generated in its coils. In the case of a generator, the emf of
rotation is called the Generated emf or Armature emf and is denoted as Er = Eg. In the case of a
motor, the emf of rotation is known as Back emf or Counter emf and represented as Er = Eb.
The expression for emf is same for both the operations, i.e., for Generator as well as for Motor.
Derivation of EMF Equation of a DC Machine – Generator and Motor
Let,
 P – number of poles of the machine

 ϕ – Flux per pole in Weber.

 Z – Total number of armature conductors.

 N – Speed of armature in revolution per minute (r.p.m).

 A – number of parallel paths in the armature winding.

In one revolution of the armature, the flux cut by one conductor is given as:

Time taken to complete one revolution is given as:

Therefore, the average induced e.m.f in one conductor will be:

Putting the value of (t) from Equation (2) in the equation (3) we will get

The number of conductors connected in series in each parallel path = Z/A.

Therefore, the average induced e.m.f across each parallel path or the armature terminals is given
by the equation shown below:

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Where n is the speed in revolution per second (r.p.s) and given as:

For a given machine, the number of poles and the number of conductors per parallel path (Z/A)
are constant. Hence, equation (5) can be written as:

Where K is a constant and given as:

Therefore, the average induced emf equation can also be written as:

Where K1 is another constant and hence induced emf equation can be written as:

Where ω is the angular velocity in radians/second is represented as:

Thus, it is clear that the induced emf is directly proportional to the speed and flux per pole. The
polarity of induced emf depends upon the direction of the magnetic field and the direction of
rotation. If either of the two is reversed the polarity changes, but if two are reversed the polarity
remains unchanged.
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This induced emf is a fundamental phenomenon for all the DC Machines whether they are
working as a generator or motor.
If the DC Machine is working as a Generator, the induced emf is given by the equation shown
below:

Where Eg is the Generated Emf

If the DC Machine is working as a Motor, the induced emf is given by the equation shown
below:

In a motor, the induced emf is called Back Emf (Eb) because it acts opposite to the supply
voltage.
Induced emf of DC generator is

For Simple wave wound generator

Numbers of parallel paths are only 2 = A
Therefore,
Induced emf for wave type of winding generator

For Simple lap-wound generator

Here, number of parallel paths is equal to number of conductors in one path
i.e. P = A
Therefore,
Induced emf for lap-wound generator is

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TYPES OF DC GENERATOR AND ITS EQUATION

DC generators are classified based on the way in which the field windings are excited. The
different types of DC generator are shown below

Before getting into the topic, learn the construction of DC Generator and its working principle.

Separately excited DC Generator

It is a type of DC generator, in which the field windings are excited from a separate source of
supply. The following figure shows the circuit diagram of a separately excite dc generator.

In the above circuit diagram,

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If – Field current, Ia – Armature current, IL – Load current,

Ra – Armature winding resistance, V – terminal voltage
Let Vbr be the voltage drop at the brush contacts.
Armature current is given by, Ia = IL
Applying Kirchoff‟s Voltage Law to the armature circuit, Eg – Ia Ra – V – Vbr = 0
Thus, the generated Emf equation Eg = Ia Ra + V + Vbr
Power developed in the DC generator = Eg Ia
Power delivered to the load = V Ia

Self- Excited DC Generator

The self-excited generator produces DC output, whose field windings are excited by the current
produced by the generator itself. No separate source is used for filed excitation.
In this type of generators, some flux is already present in the poles due to residual magnetism.
When the armature is rotated with the residual flux, a small emf and hence some current is
induced in the armature conductors. This current will produce more flux, which in turn produces
more current to flow through the field winding. It will continue until the field current reaches its
rated value.
There are three types of self-excited DC generator based on the way, in which the field coils and
armature are connected. They are
1. Shunt-wound Generator

2. Series wound Generator

3. Compound wound Generator

DC Shunt Generator

In DC shunt type generator, the field windings are connected across or in parallel with the
armature conductors. The field winding has more number of turns and thin wire, having high
resistance.
The load is connected across the armature as shown in the diagram below. A small amount of
current will flow through the field winding and more current flows through the armature.

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In the above circuit diagram,

Ish – Shunt field current, Ia – Armature current, IL – Load current,
Ra – Armature winding resistance, V – terminal voltage, Vbr – Brush contact drop
Armature current is given by, Ia = IL + Ish
Shunt field current Ish = V/Rsh, Where Rsh – shunt field resistance
Terminal voltage equation is given by, V = Eg – Ia Ra – Vbr
Power developed in the DC generator = Eg Ia
Power delivered to the load = V IL

DC Series Generator

As the name says, the field winding is connected in series with the armature conductors. Such
generators are called a DC series Generator. They have less number of turns with a thick wire
having low resistance.
Here, the load is connected in series with the field winding and armature conductors. So all the
current flows through field winding and load.

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In the above circuit diagram,

Ise – Shunt field current, Ia – Armature current, IL – Load current,
Ra – Armature winding resistance, V – terminal voltage, Vbr – Brush contact drop
Armature current is given by, Ia = Ise = IL
Terminal voltage equation is given by, V = Eg – Ia Ra – Ia Rse – Vbr
Power developed in the DC generator = Eg Ia
Power delivered to the load = V IL

DC Compound Generator

DC compound generator has both shunt field winding and series field winding. One field
winding is connected in series with the armature and another field winding is connected in
parallel with the armature.
DC Compound generator can be classified into two different types based on the way of
connection
1. Long shunt DC Compound generator

2. Short shunt DC Compound generator.

Long shunt DC Compound generator

The below figure shows the circuit diagram of long shunt DC compound generator. In this, shunt
field winding is connected in parallel with a combination of series field winding and armature
conductors.

In the above circuit diagram,

Ish – Shunt field current, Ise – Shunt field current, Ia – Armature current, IL – Load current,
Ra – Armature winding resistance, V – terminal voltage, Vbr – Brush contact drop
Armature current is given by, Ia = Ise = IL + Ish
Shunt field current Ish = V/Rsh, Where Rsh – shunt field resistance
Terminal voltage equation is given by, V = Eg – Ia Ra – Ia Rse – Vbr
Power developed in the DC generator = Eg Ia
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Power delivered to the load = V IL

Short shunt DC Compound generator

In short shunt DC compound generator, the shunt field winding is connected across the armature
conductors and this combination is connected in series with a series field winding. The following
figure shows the circuit diagram of short shunt DC compound generator.

In the above circuit diagram,

Ish – Shunt field current, Ise – Shunt field current, Ia – Armature current, IL – Load current,
Ra – Armature winding resistance, V – terminal voltage, Vbr – Brush contact drop

CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS

Generally, following three characteristics of DC generators are taken into considerations: (i)
Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.), (ii) Internal or Total Characteristic and (iii) External
Characteristic.
These characteristics of DC generators are explained below.

1. OPEN CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTIC (O.C.C.) (E0/IF)

Open circuit characteristic is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load saturation

characteristic. This characteristic shows the relation between generated emf at no load (E 0) and
the field current (If) at a given fixed speed. The O.C.C. curve is just the magnetization curve and
it is practically similar for all type of generators. The data for O.C.C. curve is obtained by
operating the generator at no load and keeping a constant speed. Field current is gradually
increased and the corresponding terminal voltage is recorded. The connection arrangement to

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obtain O.C.C. curve is as shown in the figure below. For shunt or series excited generators, the
field winding is disconnected from the machine and connected across an external supply.

Now, from the emf equation of dc generator, we know that Eg = kɸ. Hence, the generated emf
should be directly proportional to field flux (and hence, also directly proportional to the field
current). However, even when the field current is zero, some amount of emf is generated
(represented by OA in the figure below). This initially induced emf is due to the fact that there
exists some residual magnetism in the field poles. Due to the residual magnetism, a small initial
emf is induced in the armature. This initially induced emf aids the existing residual flux, and
hence, increasing the overall field flux. This consequently increases the induced emf. Thus,
O.C.C. follows a straight line. However, as the flux density increases, the poles get saturated and
the ɸ becomes practically constant. Thus, even we increase the If further, ɸ remains constant and
hence, Eg also remains constant. Hence, the O.C.C. curve looks like the B-H characteristic.

The above figure shows a typical no-load saturation curve or open circuit characteristics for all
types of DC generators.

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Voltage Buildup in Self Excited Generator or Shunt DC Generator

A self-excited generator is also known as DC Shunt Generator, as the field winding is

connected in parallel with the armature. Thus, the armature voltage supplies the field current.
This type of generator supplies its own field excitation.
The equivalent circuit of a shunt DC Generator is shown in the figure below:

Equivalent Circuit of a Shunt DC Generator

Considering the above figure let us assume that the generator is working at no-load condition,
and the prime mover drives the armature at a certain speed. This generator will build up the
desired terminal voltage. The residual flux present in the field poles of the DC generator is
responsible for the voltage buildup. A small voltage Ear is generated and is given by the equation
shown below.

This voltage is of the order of 1 to 2 volts. This voltage causes a current If to flow in the field
winding of the generator. The field current is given by the equation.

The flux is increased by a magnetomotive force produced by the field current. As a result, of this,
the generated voltage Ea increases. This increased armature voltage increases the terminal
voltage. With the increase in the terminal voltage, the field current If increases further. This, in

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turn, increases flux and hence the armature voltage is further increases, and the process of
voltage buildup continues.
The voltage buildup curve of a DC shunt generator is shown below:

Voltage Buildup of a DC Shunt Generator

The generator is on no load during the process of voltage buildup, thus, the following equations
shown below give the steady-state operation.

Since the field current If in a shunt generator is very small, the voltage drop If Ra can be
neglected. Thus, equation (1) becomes:

The straight line given by V= IfRf shown in the above figure is known as Field Resistance Line.
The voltage buildup in the DC shunt generator for various circuit resistances is shown below:

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Effect of Field Resistance on No-Load Voltage

A decrease in the resistance of the field circuit reduces the slope of the field resistance line
resulting in a higher voltage. An increase in the resistance of the field circuit increases the slope
of the field resistance line, resulting in a lower voltage.
If the field circuit resistance is increased to Critical Resistance of the field (R C), the field
resistance line becomes tangent to the initial part of the magnetization curve.
If the value of field resistance is higher than the critical resistance of the field value, the
generator fails to excite. The curve shown below gives the variation of no-load voltage with the
fixed field resistance and the variable speed of the armature.

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Variation of No-Load Voltage with Speed

The magnetization curve varies with the speed and its ordinates for any field current is
proportional to the speed of the generator. If the field resistance is kept constant and the speed id
reduced, all the points on the magnetization curve are lowered.
At a particular speed, called the critical speed, the field resistance line becomes tangential to the
magnetization curve. Below the critical speed, the voltage will not build up.
The following conditions must be satisfied for voltage buildup in a self-excited DC generator.
 There must be a sufficient residual flux in the field poles.

 The field terminals should be connected in such a way that the field current increases flux
in the direction of residual flux.

 The field circuit resistance should be less than the critical field circuit resistance.

If there is no residual flux in the field poles, disconnect the field from the armature circuit and
apply a DC voltage to the field winding.
This process is called Flashing the Field.

2. INTERNAL OR TOTAL CHARACTERISTIC (E/IA)

An internal characteristic curve shows the relation between the on-load generated emf (Eg) and
the armature current (Ia). The on-load generated emf Eg is always less than E0 due to
the armature reaction. Eg can be determined by subtracting the drop due to demagnetizing effect

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of armature reaction from no-load voltage E 0. Therefore, internal characteristic curve lies below
the O.C.C. curve.

3. EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTIC (V/IL)

An external characteristic curve shows the relation between terminal voltage (V) and the load
current (IL). Terminal voltage V is less than the generated emf Eg due to voltage drop in the
armature circuit. Therefore, external characteristic curve lies below the internal characteristic
curve. External characteristics are very important to determine the suitability of a generator for a
given purpose. Therefore, this type of characteristic is sometimes also called as performance
characteristic or load characteristic.
Internal and external characteristic curves are shown below for each type of generator.

Characteristics Of Separately Excited DC Generator

If there is no armature reaction and armature voltage drop, the voltage will remain constant for
any load current. Thus, the straight line AB in above figure represents the no-load voltage vs.
load current IL. Due to the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction, the on-load generated emf
is less than the no-load voltage. The curve AC represents the on-load generated emf Eg vs. load
current IL i.e. internal characteristic (as Ia = IL for a separately excited dc generator). Also, the
terminal voltage is lesser due to ohmic drop occurring in the armature and brushes. The curve
AD represents the terminal voltage vs. load current i.e. external characteristic.

Characteristics Of DC Shunt Generator

To determine the internal and external load characteristics of a DC shunt generator the machine
is allowed to build up its voltage before applying any external load. To build up voltage of a
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shunt generator, the generator is driven at the rated speed by a prime mover. Initial voltage is
induced due to residual magnetism in the field poles. The generator builds up its voltage as
explained by the O.C.C. curve. When the generator has built up the voltage, it is gradually
loaded with resistive load and readings are taken at suitable intervals. Connection arrangement is
as shown in the figure below.

Unlike, separately excited DC generator, here, I L≠Ia. For a shunt generator, Ia=IL+If. Hence, the
internal characteristic can be easily transmitted to Eg vs. IL by subtracting the correct value of
If from Ia.

During a normal running condition, when load resistance is decreased, the load current increases.
But, as we go on decreasing the load resistance, terminal voltage also falls. So, load resistance
can be decreased up to a certain limit, after which the terminal voltage drastically decreases due
to excessive armature reaction at very high armature current and increased I 2R losses. Hence,
beyond this limit any further decrease in load resistance results in decreasing load current.
Consequently, the external characteristic curve turns back as shown by dotted line in the above
figure.

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Characteristics Of DC Series Generator

The curve AB in above figure identical to open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) curve. This is
because in DC series generators field winding is connected in series with armature and load.
Hence, here load current is similar to field current (i.e. I L=If). The curve OC and OD represent
internal and external characteristic respectively. In a DC series generator, terminal voltage
increases with the load current. This is because, as the load current increases, field current also
increases. However, beyond a certain limit, terminal voltage starts decreasing with increase in
load. This is due to excessive demagnetizing effects of the armature reaction.
Characteristics Of DC Compound Generator

The above figure shows the external characteristics of DC compound generators. If series
winding amp-turns are adjusted so that, increase in load current causes increase in terminal
voltage then the generator is called to be over compounded. The external characteristic for over
compounded generator is shown by the curve AB in above figure.
If series winding amp-turns are adjusted so that, the terminal voltage remains constant even the
load current is increased, then the generator is called to be flat compounded. The external

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characteristic for a flat compounded generator is shown by the curve AC.

If the series winding has lesser number of turns than that would be required to be flat
compounded, then the generator is called to be under compounded. The external characteristics
for an under compounded generator are shown by the curve AD.

DC MOTORS

A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
The working of DC motor is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force.
The direction of the mechanical force is given by Fleming’s Left-hand Rule and its magnitude
is given by F = BIL Newton.
The working of the AC motor (Induction motor and Synchronous Motor) is different from the
DC motor.
There is no basic difference in the construction of a DC generator and a DC motor. In fact, the
same DC machine can be used interchangeably as a generator or as a motor.
Like generators, there are different types of DC motors which are also classified into shunt-
wound, series-wound and compound-wound dc motors.
DC motors are seldom used in ordinary applications because all electric supply companies
furnish alternating current.
However, for special applications such as in steel mills, mines, and electric trains, it is
advantageous to convert alternating current into direct current in order to use dc motors. The
reason is that the speed/torque characteristics of DC motors are much more superior to that of
AC motors.
Therefore, it is not surprising to note that for industrial drives, DC motors are as popular
as three-phase induction motors.

DC Motor Principle

A machine that converts DC electrical power into mechanical power is known as a Direct
Current motor.
DC motor working is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force.
The direction of this force is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule and magnitude is given by;
F = BIL Newtons
According to Fleming‟s left-hand rule when an electric current passes through a coil in a
magnetic field, the magnetic force produces a torque that turns the DC motor.
The direction of this force is perpendicular to both the wire and the magnetic field.

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Basically, there is no constructional difference between a DC motor and a DC generator. The

same DC machine can be run as a generator or motor.

Working of DC Motor

Consider a part of a multipolar DC motor as shown in the figure below. When the terminals of
the motor are connected to an external source of DC supply:
 the field magnets are excited developing alternate North and South poles

 the armature conductors carry currents.

All conductors under North-pole carry currents in one direction while all the conductors under

The armature conductors under N-pole carry currents into the plane of the paper (denoted as ⊗
South-pole carry currents in the opposite direction.

(denoted as ⨀ in the figure).

in the figure). And the conductors under S-pole carry currents out of the plane of the paper

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Since each armature conductor is carrying current and is placed in the magnetic field,
a mechanical force acts on it.
On applying Fleming’s left-hand rule, it is clear that force on each conductor is tending to
rotate the armature in the anticlockwise direction. All these forces add together to produce
a driving torque which sets the armature rotates.

When the conductor moves from one side of a brush to the other, the current in that conductor is
reversed. At the same time, it comes under the influence of the next pole which is of opposite
polarity. Consequently, the direction of the force on the conductor remains the same.
It should be noted that the function of a commutator in the motor is the same as in a generator.
By reversing current in each conductor as it passes from one pole to another, it helps to develop
a continuous and unidirectional torque.
The torque produced is given by,

Here α (alpha) is the angle between the plane of the armature turn and the plane of reference or
the initial position of the armature which is here along the direction of magnetic field.
The presence of the term cosα in the torque equation very well signifies that unlike force the
torque at all position is not the same. It, in fact, varies with the variation of the angle α (alpha).

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To explain the variation of torque and the principle behind the rotation of the motor let us do a
stepwise analysis.

Step 1:
Initially considering the armature is in its starting point or reference position where the angle
α =0.

Since, α = 0, the term cos α = 1, or the maximum value, hence torque at this position is
maximum given by τ = BILw. This high starting torque helps in overcoming the initial inertia of
rest of the armature and sets it into the rotation.

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Step 2:
Once the armature sets in motion, the angle α between the actual position of the armature and its
initial reference position goes on increasing in the path of its rotation until it becomes 90 o from
its initial position. Consequently, the term cosα decreases and also the value of torque.
The torque in this case is given by τ = BILwcosα which is less than BIL w when α is greater than
0o.

Step 3:
In the path of the rotation of the armature a point is reached where the actual position of the rotor
is exactly perpendicular to its initial position, i.e. α = 90o, and as a result the term cosα = 0.
The torque acting on the conductor at this position is given by,

i.e. virtually no rotating torque acts on the armature at this instance. But still the armature does
not come to a standstill, this is because of the fact that the operation of DC motor has been
engineered in such a way that the inertia of motion at this point is just enough to overcome this
point of null torque. Once the rotor crosses over this position the angle between the actual
position of the armature and the initial plane again decreases and torque starts acting on it again.
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 MRT 201 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND DRIVES

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BACK EMF IN DC MOTOR

When the current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, the torque induces on the
conductor, the torque rotates the conductor which cuts the flux of the magnetic field. According
to the Electromagnetic Induction Phenomenon “when the conductor cuts the magnetic field,
EMF induces in the conductor”
The Fleming right-hand rule determines the direction of the induced EMF.
According to Fleming Right Hand Rule, if we hold our thumb, middle finger and index finger of
the right hand by an angle of 90°, then the index finger represents the direction of the magnetic
field. The thumb shows the direction of motion of the conductor and the middle finger
represents the emf induces on the conductor.
On applying the right-hand rule in the figure shown below, it is seen that the direction of the
induced emf is opposite to the applied voltage. Thereby the emf is known as the counter emf or
back emf.
The back emf is developed in series with the applied voltage, but opposite in direction, i.e., the
back emf opposes the current which causes it.

The magnitude of the back emf is given by the same expression shown below:

Where Eb is the induced emf of the motor known as Back EMF, A is the number of parallel paths
through the armature between the brushes of opposite polarity. P is the number of poles, N is the
speed, Z is the total number of conductors in the armature and ϕ is the useful flux per pole.
A simple conventional circuit diagram of the machine working as a motor is shown in the
diagram below:

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In this case, the magnitude of the back emf is always less than the applied voltage. The
difference between the two is nearly equal when the motor runs under normal conditions.
The current induces on the motor because of the main supply. The relation between the main
supply, back emf and armature current is given as Eb = V – IaRa.

ADVANTAGES / SIGNIFICANCE OF BACK EMF IN DC MOTOR

1. The back emf opposes the supply voltage. The supply voltage induces the current in the coil
which rotates the armature. The electrical work required by the motor for causing the current
against the back emf is converted into mechanical energy. And that energy is induced in the
armature of the motor. Thus, we can say that energy conversion in the DC motor is possible
only because of the back emf.
The mechanical energy induced in the motor is the product of the back emf and the armature
current, i.e., EbIa.
2. The back emf makes the DC motor self-regulating machine, i.e., the back emf develops the
armature current according to the need of the motor. The armature current of the motor is
calculated as

:
Let‟s understand how the back emf makes motor self-regulating.
 Consider the motor is running at no-load condition. At no load, the DC motor requires
small torque for controlling the friction and windage loss. The motor withdraws less
current. As the back emf depends on the current their value also decreases. The
magnitude of the back EMF is nearly equal to the supply voltage.

 If the sudden load is applied to the motor, the motor becomes slow down. As the speed of
the motor decreases, the magnitude of their back emf also falls down. The small back emf
withdraw heavy current from the supply. The large armature current induces the large
torque in the armature, which is the need of the motor. Thus, the motor moves
continuously at a new speed.

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 If the load on the motor is suddenly reduced, the driving torque on the motor is more than
the load torque. The driving torque increases the speed of the motor which also increases
their back emf. The high value of back emf decreases the armature current. The small
magnitude of armature current develops less driving torque, which is equal to the load
torque. And the motor will rotate uniformly at the new speed.

Relation between Mechanical power (Pm), supply voltage (Vt) and Back EMF (Eb)
The back emf in the dc motor is expressed as:
Where Eb – Back Emf
Ia – Armature Current
Vt – Terminal Voltage
Ra – Resistance of Armature
The maximum power developed on the motor is expressed by

On differentiating the above equation we get

From the back emf equation, we get

On substituting the IaRa in the above equation, we get

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The above equation shows that the maximum power is developed in the motor when the back
emf is equal to half of the supply voltage.
TYPES OF DC MOTOR
A Direct Current Motor, DC is named according to the connection of the field winding with the
armature. Mainly there are two types of DC Motors. One is Separately Excited DC Motor and
other is Self-excited DC Motor.
The self-excited motors are further classified as Shunt wound or shunt motor, Series wound or
series motor and Compound wound or compound motor.
The dc motor converts electrical power into mechanical power. The construction of the dc motor
and generator are the same. But the dc motor has a wide range of speed and good speed
regulation in electric traction.
The working principle of the dc motor is based on the principle that the current-carrying
conductor is placed in the magnetic field and a mechanical force is experienced by it.
The DC motor is generally used in the location that requires a protective enclosure, for example,
drip-proof, the fireproof, etc. according to the requirements. The detailed description of the
various types of motor is given below.

Separately Excited DCMotor

As the name signifies, the field coils or field windings are energised by a separate DC source as
shown in the circuit diagram shown below:

Separately Excited DC Motor

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Self Excited DC Motor

As the name implies self-excited, hence, in this type of motor, the current in the windings is
supplied by the machine or motor itself. Self-excited DC Motor is further divided into shunt
wound, and series wound motor. They are explained below in detail.

Shunt Wound Motor

This is the most common types of DC Motor. Here the field winding is connected in parallel
with the armature as shown in the figure below:

Shunt Wound DC Motor

The current, voltage and power equations for a shunt motor are written as follows.
By applying KCL at junction A in the above figure.
The sum of the incoming currents at A = Sum of the outgoing currents at A.

Where,
I is the input line current
Ia is the armature current
Ish is the shunt field current
Equation (1) is the current equation.
The voltage equations are written by using Kirchhoff‟s voltage law (KVL) for the field winding
circuit.

For armature winding circuit the equation will be given as:

The power equation is given as:

Power input = mechanical power developed + losses in the armature + loss in the field.

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Multiplying equation (3) by Ia we get the following equations.

Where,
VIa is the electrical power supplied to the armature of the motor.

Series Wound Motor

In the series motor, the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding. The
connection diagram is shown below:

Series Wound Motor

By applying the KCL in the above figure:

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Where,
Ise is the series field current
The voltage equation can be obtained by applying KVL in the above figure.

The power equation is obtained by multiplying equation (8) by I we get

Power input = mechanical power developed + losses in the armature + losses in the field

Comparing the equation (9) and (10), we will get the equation shown below:

Compound Wound Motor

A DC Motor having both shunt and series field windings is called a Compound Motor. The
connection diagram of the compound motor is shown below:

Compound Motor
The compound motor is further subdivided as Cumulative Compound Motor and Differential
Compound Motor. In a cumulative compound motor the flux produced by both the windings is
in the same direction, i.e.

In differential compound motor, the flux produced by the series field windings is opposite to the
flux produced by the shunt field winding, i.e.

The positive and negative sign indicates that the direction of the flux produced in the field
windings.
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TORQUE EQUATION OF A DC MOTOR

When a DC machine is loaded either as a motor or as a generator, the rotor conductors carry
current. These conductors lie in the magnetic field of the air gap.
Thus, each conductor experiences a force. The conductors lie near the surface of the rotor at a
common radius from its centre. Hence, a torque is produced around the circumference of the
rotor, and the rotor starts rotating.
When the machine operates as a generator at a constant speed, this torque is equal and opposite
to that provided by the prime mover.
When the machine is operating as a motor, the torque is transferred to the shaft of the rotor and
drives the mechanical load. The expression is the same for the generator and motor.
When the current-carrying current is placed in the magnetic field, a force is exerted or it which
exerts turning moment or torque F x r. This torque is produced due to the electromagnetic effect,
hence is called Electromagnetic torque.
The torque which is produced in the armature is not fully used at the shaft for doing the useful
work. Some part of it gets lost due to mechanical losses. The torque which is used for doing
useful work in known as the shaft torque.
Since,

Multiplying the equation (1) by Ia we get

Where,
VIa is the electrical power input to the armature.
I2aRa is the copper loss in the armature.
We know that,
Total electrical power supplied to the armature = Mechanical power developed by the
armature + losses due to armature resistance
Now, the mechanical power developed by the armature is Pm,

Also, the mechanical power that rotates the armature can be given regarding torque T and speed
n.

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Where n is in revolution per seconds (rps) and T is in Newton-Meter.

Hence,

But,

Where N is the speed in revolution per minute (rpm) and

Where n is the speed in (rps).

Therefore,

So, the torque equation is given as:

For a particular DC Motor, the number of poles (P) and the number of conductors per parallel
path (Z/A) are constant.

Where

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Thus, from the above equation (5) it is clear that the torque produced in the armature is directly
proportional to the flux per pole and the armature current.
Moreover, the direction of electromagnetic torque developed in the armature depends upon the
current in armature conductors. If either of the two is reversed the direction of torque produced is
reversed and hence the direction of rotation. But when both are reversed, and direction of torque
does not change.

STARTING OF DC MOTORS

A starter is a device to start and accelerate a motor. A controller is a device to start the motor,
control and reverse the speed of the DC motor and stop the motor. While starting the DC motor,
it draws the heavy current which damages the motor.
The starter reduces the heavy current and protects the system from damage.

NEED OF STARTERS FOR DC MOTORS

The dc motor has no back emf. At the starting of the motor, the armature current is controlled by
the resistance of the circuit. The resistance of the armature is low, and when the full voltage is
applied at the standstill condition of the motor, the armature current becomes very high which
damage the parts of the motor.
Because of the high armature current, the additional resistance is placed in the armature circuit at
starting. The starting resistance of the machine is cut out of the circuit when the machine gains
its speeds. The armature current of a motor is given by:

Thus, Ia depends upon E and Ra, if V is kept constant. When the motor is first switched ON, the
armature is stationary. Hence, the back EMF Eb is also zero. The initial starting armature current
Ias is given by the equation shown below:

Since, the armature resistance of a motor is very small, generally less than one ohm. Therefore,
the starting armature current Ias would be very large.
For example – if a motor with the armature resistance of 0.5 ohms is connected directly to a 230
V supply, then by putting the values in the equation (2) we will get,

This large current would damage the brushes, commutator and windings.

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As the motor speed increases, the back EMF increases and the difference (V – E) go on
decreasing. This results in a gradual decrease of armature current until the motor attains its stable
speed and the corresponding back EMF. Under this condition, the armature current reaches its
desired value. Thus, it is found that the back EMF helps the armature resistance in limiting the
current through the armature.
Since at the time of starting the DC Motor, the starting current is very large. At the time of
starting of all DC Motors, except for very small motors, an extra resistance must be connected in
series with the armature. This extra resistance is added so that a safe value of the motor is
maintained and to limit the starting current until the motor has attained its stable speed.
The series resistance is divided into sections which are cut out one by one, as the speed of the
motor rises and the back EMF builds up. The extra resistance is cut out when the speed of the
motor builds up to its normal value.

POWER FLOW DIAGRAM IN DC MACHINES

There are 2 main categories of dc machines first one is DC motor and the second one is DC
generator. The motor converts electrical power into the mechanical power and dc generator
transforms mechanical power into electrical power. During these power conversions either
mechanical to electrical or electrical to mechanical, some power losses occur that decrease the
quantity of power conversion.
Due to these power losses heating produces that affect the operation of dc machines. Due to
these power losses the efficiency of machines also decreases. In today‟s post, we will have a
detailed look at these power losses and their effects on machines. Also, discuss how we can
reduce these power losses. So let‟s get started with the Power Flow and Losses in Dc Machines.

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Power Flow and Losses in DC Machines

 The efficiency of any dc machine either dc motor or generator is given as.

=(Pout/Pin) x 100%
 If we define the losses that we will find that it is the difference between input and output
power of dc machines.

 In the mathematical expression, it can be defined as.

 There are 5 main types of losses that occur in dc machines either its motor or generator.

 Copper Losses or I2R Losses

 Brush Losses

 Core Losses

 Mechanical Losses

 Stray Losses

Now we discuss all these losses one by one with the detailed.

Copper Losses

 As you can understand from the name of these losses that are copper losses mean that
losses occur at the windings of machines.

 There are 2 types of windings first one is field winding that exists at the stator and the
second one is armature windings that exit at the rotor, at these two windings coppers
losses occurs.

 The value of these losses for armature and copper windings can be given as.

Armature winding losses = PA =IA2R A

Field winding losses = PF= IF2R F

 In these two above given equations.

 PA stands for armature losses.

 PF field windings losses.

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 IA is current passing through the armature winding.

 IF is current passing through the stator windings.

 RA is armature resistance.

 RF is field windings resistance.

Brush Losses

 These losses occur at the carbon brushes that are connected with the output terminals
and commutators of machines.

 The mathematical expression for these brushes is given as.

PBD=VBDIA
 In this equation.

 PBD is the loss at the carbon brushes.

 VBD voltage losses at the brushes.

 IA is the armature current.

 The purpose that the brush losses are found in this way is that the voltage drop at the
brushes remains same at the different values of currents.

Core Losses in DC Machines

 There are two types of copper losses in dc machines first one is eddy current losses and
the second one is hysteresis losses.

Eddy Current losses

 If we discuss Faraday law that says that the rate of change of flux in any conductor
produces a voltage in that conductor.

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EMF =dø/dt
 If we apply this law on dc machine that we come to know that when the rotor of the
machine rotates in the field of the rotor than voltage induces in the rotor that current
starts to flow through the armature winding this current known as eddy current.

 The mathematical expression for these current is given as.

Pe = KexBmax2 x f2 x t2 x V
 We can describe here the component of this equation as.

 Pe stands the power losses due to eddy currents.

 Ke is constant for these currents.

 B is flux density.

 f is the frequency.

 t is the thickness of the materials used.

 V is the volume of the core of machines

Hysteresis loss

 The cause of these losses is the energy required to magnetize and demagnetize the core of
the machine.

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 With the increment in current for magnetization of core, the value of flux also increases.

 But when we decrease the current that used for magnetization the value of corresponding
flux don not decreases with the current.

 When the value of the current becomes zero then there is some value of flux exits in the
core.

 To minimize the flux in the core and external force is applied that causes hysteresis
losses. The opposite polarity of field is provided to the core that minimizes the ramming
flux in the machine.

 The negative magnetization depends on the material used for the construction of core.

 The mathematical expression for these losses is given as.

Pb= η x B max n x f x V
 In this equation.

 Pb denotes the hysteresis losses

 Η is Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient. Its value is from 1.5 to 2.5l

 Bmaxn is flux density.

 f is frequency.

 V is volume of material used for core construction.

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 In the given figure, you can see the curve for these losses.

Mechanical Losses

 These losses occur in dc machines due to the mechanical effects that occur in dc
machines. These are 2 main facts that cause to mechanical losses first one is friction and
second is windage

 Friction losses occur due to the bearings that exit the shaft of machines. The windage
losses occur due to the air among the rotatory portion and their casing.

 These losses changes with the cube of speed of revolution of the machine.

DC Machines Power-Flow Diagram

 One of the simple methods to find the values of different losses in dc machines is to draw
their power flow diagram.

 In the given figure, you can see the power diagram of dc generator.

 In this figure the mechanical power is input and after eliminating stray losses, mechanical
losses (friction and windage losses), core losses than we have an electrical output that is
given here.

Input as mechanical power.

Pconv= tindwm
Output power is given here.

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 MRT 201 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND DRIVES
Pconv=EAIA

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 But, this is not the power that gets at the output terminals. Before reaching at the output
terminal copper losses and brush losses also subtract from it.

 In the given figure the dc motor power flow diagram is given it is the reverse of dc
generator power flow figure.

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THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

INTRODUCTION
The motor is used to convert an electrical form of energy into mechanical form. According to the
type of supply, motors are classified as AC motors and DC motors. In today post, we will discuss
the different types of three phase induction motors with working and applications.
The induction motor especially three phase induction motors are widely used AC motor to
produce mechanical power in industrial applications. Almost 80% of the motor is a three-phase
induction motor among all motors used in industries. Therefore, the induction motor is the most
important motor among all other types of motor.
What is a 3-Phase Induction Motor?
A three phase induction motor is a type of AC induction motors which operates on three phase
supply as compared to the single phase induction motor where single phase supply is needed to
operate it. The three phase supply current produces an electromagnetic field in the stator winding
which leads to generate the torque in the rotor winding of three phase induction motor having
magnetic field.
CONSTRUCTION OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
Like any electric motor, a 3-phase induction motor has a stator and a rotor. The stator carries a 3-
phase winding (called stator winding) while the rotor carries a short-circuited winding (called
rotor winding).
Only the stator winding is fed from the 3-phase supply. The rotor winding derives its voltage and
power from the externally energized stator winding through electromagnetic induction and
hence the name.
A 3-phase induction motor has two main parts
1. Stator

2. Rotor

The rotor is separated from the stator by a small air-gap which ranges from 0.4 mm to 4 mm,
depending on the power of the motor.
1. STATOR OF 3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
The stator consists of a steel frame that encloses a hollow, cylindrical core made up of thin
laminations of silicon steel to reduce hysteresis and eddy current losses.
A number of evenly spaced slots are provided on the inner periphery of the laminations. The
insulated conductors are connected to form a balanced 3-phase star or delta connected circuit.

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The 3-phase stator winding is wound for a definite number of poles as per the requirement of
speed. Greater the number of poles, lesser is the speed of the motor and vice-versa.
When 3-phase supply is given to the stator winding, a rotating magnetic field of constant
magnitude is produced. This rotating field induces currents in the rotor by electromagnetic
induction.
As the name suggests, the stator is a stationary part of the motor. The stator of the induction
motor consists of three main parts;
 Stator Frame

 Stator Core

 Stator Winding

Stator Frame
The stator frame is the outer part of the motor. The function of the stator frame is to provide
support to the stator core and stator winding.
It provides mechanical strength to the inner parts of the motor. The frame has fins on the outer
surface for heat dissipation and cooling of the motor.
The frame is casted for small machines and it is fabricated for a large machine. According to the
applications, the frame is made up of die-cast or fabricated steel, aluminum/ aluminum alloys, or
stainless steel.

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Stator Core
The function of the stator core is to carry the alternating magnetic flux which produces hysteresis
and eddy current loss. To minimize these losses, the core is laminated by high-grade steel
stampings thickness of 0.3 to 0.6 mm.
These stampings are insulated from each other by varnish. All stampings stamp together in the
shape of the stator core and fixed it with the stator frame.
An inner layer of the stator core has a number of slots.
Stator Winding
The stator winding is placed inside the stator slots available inside the stator core. Three-phase
winding is placed as a stator winding. And three-phase supply is given to the stator winding.
The number of poles of a motor depends on the internal connection of the stator winding and it
will decide the speed of the motor. If the number of poles is greater, the speed will less and if the
number of poles is lesser than the speed will high. The poles are always in pairs. Therefore, the
total number of poles always an even number. The relation between synchronous speed and
number poles is as shown in the below equation,
NS = 120f / P
Where;
 f = Supply Frequency

 P = Total Number of Poles

 Ns = Synchronous Speed

As the end of winding connected to the terminal box. Hence, there are six terminals (two of each
phase) in the terminal box.
According to the application and type of starting methods of motors, the stator winding is
connected in star or delta and it is done by the connection of terminals in the terminal box.

2. ROTOR OF 3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The rotor, mounted on a shaft, is a hollow laminated core having slots on its outer periphery. The
winding placed in these slots (called rotor winding) may be one of the following two types:
1. Squirrel Cage Type

2. Wound Rotor Type

The construction of the stator is same in both types of induction motors. We will discuss the
types of rotors used in 3-phase induction motors in the following section of types of three phase
induction motors.

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TYPES OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

Three phase motors are classified mainly in two categories based on the rotor winding (Armature
coil winding) i.e. squirrel cage and slip ring (wound rotor motor).
 Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

 Slip-ring or Wound Rotor Induction Motor

SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION MOTOR

The shape of this rotor is resembling the shape of the cage of a squirrel. Therefore, this motor is
known as a squirrel cage induction motor.
The construction of this type of rotor is very simple and rugged. So, almost 80% of the induction
motor is a squirrel cage induction motor.
The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core and has slots on the outer periphery. The slots
are not parallel but it is skewed at some angle. It helps to prevent magnetic locking between the
stator and rotor teeth. It results in smooth operation and reduces the humming noise. It increases
the length of the rotor conductor due to this the rotor resistance is increased.
The squirrel cage rotor consists of rotor bars instead of the rotor winding. The rotor bars are
made up of aluminum, brass, or copper.
Rotor bars are permanently shorted by end rings. So, it makes a complete close path in the rotor
circuit. The rotor bars are welded or braced with the end rings to provide mechanical support.
The rotor bars are short-circuited. Therefore, it is not possible to add external resistance to the
rotor circuit.
In this type of rotor, the slip rings and brushes are not used. Hence, the construction of this type
of motor is simpler and more robust.

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SLIP-RING OR WOUND ROTOR INDUCTION MOTOR

Slip-ring induction motors are also known as wound rotor motor. The rotor consists of a
laminated cylindrical core with slots on the outer periphery. The rotor winding is placed inside
the slots.
In this type of rotor, the rotor winding is wounded in such a way that, the number of poles of
rotor winding is the same as the number of poles of the stator winding. The rotor winding can be
connected as a star or delta.
End terminals of rotor windings are connected to the slip-rings. So, this motor is known as a slip-
ring induction motor.
The external resistance can easily connect with the rotor circuit through the slip-ring and
brushes. And it is very useful for controlling the speed of the motor and improving the starting
torque of the three-phase induction motor.
An electrical diagram of slip-ring three-phase induction motor with external resistance is shown
in the below figure.

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The external resistance is used only for the starting purpose. If it is remains connected during the
running condition, it will increase the rotor copper loss.
High rotor resistance is good for the starting condition. So, the external resistance is connected
with the rotor circuit during the starting condition.
When motor running near the speed of the actual speed, the slip-rings are short-circuited by the
metal collar. By this arrangement, the brushes and external resistance is removed from the rotor
circuit.
This reduces the rotor copper loss as well as friction in brushes. The rotor construction is a little
bit complicated compared to the squirrel cage motor due to the presence of brushes and slip-
rings.
The maintenance of this motor is more. So, this motor only used when variable speed control
and high starting torque are needed. Otherwise, the squirrel cage induction motor is more
preferred over slip-ring induction motor.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Induction Motors

Advantages

The advantages of induction motor are listed as below,

 The construction of a motor is very simple and robust.

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 The working of an induction motor is very simple.

 It can operate in any environmental condition.

 The efficiency of the motor is very high.

 The maintenance of an induction motor is less compared to other motors.

 It is a single excited motor. Hence, it needs only one supply of source. It does not
require external DC supply for excitation like a synchronous motor.

 The induction motor is a self-starting motor. So, it does not require any extra
auxiliaries for the starting purpose for normal operation.

 The cost of this motor is very less compared to other motors.

 The life span of this motor is very high.

 Armature reaction is less.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of the motor are listed as below;

 During light load condition, the power factor is very less. And it draws more current.
So, the copper loss is more which reduce the efficiency during light load condition.
 The starting torque of this motor (squirrel cage induction motor) is not less.
 The induction motor is a constant speed motor. For the application where variable
speed requires, this motor is not used.
 Speed control of this motor is difficult.
 The induction motor has a high starting inrush current. This causes a reduction in
voltage at the time of starting.

Application of 3-Phase Induction Motors

The induction motor is mostly used in industrial applications. The squirrel cage induction
motors are used in residential as well as industrial applications especially where the speed
control of motors is not needed such as:
 Pumps and submersible

 Pressing machine

 Lathe machine

 Grinding machine
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 Conveyor

 Flour mills

 Compressor

 And other low mechanical power applications

The slip ring motors are used in heavy load applications where the high initial torque is needed
such as:
 Steel mills

 Lift

 Crane Machine

 Hoist

 Line shafts

 and other heavy mechanical workshops etc

WORKING PRINCIPLE THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

For explaining the principle of operation of a three-phase induction motor, consider a portion of
the three-phase induction motor as shown in the figure.

The working of the three-phase induction motor is based on the principle of electromagnetic
induction.
When three-phase stator winding of an induction motor is energized from a 3 phase supply,
a rotating magnetic field is set up which rotates around the stator at synchronous speed (Ns).

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Synchronous Speed,
Ns = 120 f/P
Where,
f = frequency
P = Number of Poles
(For more details about rotating magnetic field, read Production of rotating magnetic field).
This rotating field passes through the air gap and cuts the rotor conductors, which are
stationary.
An EMF gets induced in every rotor conductor due to the relative speed between the rotating
magnetic flux and the stationary rotor. Since the rotor circuit is short-circuited, currents start
flowing in the rotor conductors.
The current-carrying rotor conductors are placed in the magnetic field produced by the stator.
Consequently, a mechanical force acts on the rotor conductors. The sum of the mechanical
forces on all the rotor conductors produces a torque which tends to move the rotor in the same
direction as the rotating field.
The fact that the rotor is urged to follow the stator field (i.e., rotor moves in the direction of
stator field) can be explained by Lenz’s law.
According to Lenz’s law, the direction of rotor currents will be such that they tend to oppose the
cause of producing them.
Now, the cause producing the rotor currents is the relative speed between the rotating field and
the stationary rotor conductors.
Hence to reduce this relative speed, the rotor starts running in the same direction as that of the
stator field and tries to catch it. This is how a three-phase induction motor starts running.

SLIP IN INDUCTION MOTOR

We have seen above that the rotor rapidly accelerates in the direction of the rotating magnetic
field.

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In practice, the rotor can never reach the speed of stator flux. If it did, there would be no relative
speed between the stator field and rotor conductors, no induced rotor currents and, therefore, no
torque to drive the rotor.
The friction and windage would immediately cause the rotor to slow down. Hence, the rotor
speed (N) is always less than the stator field speed (N s). This difference in speed depends upon
load on the motor.
The difference between the synchronous speed N s of the rotating stator field and the actual rotor
speed N is called slip in a three-phase induction motor.
Slip is usually expressed as a percentage of synchronous speed i.e.,
Slip, s = (Ns – N)/Ns × 100 %
The quantity N s – N is sometimes called slip speed.
When the rotor is stationary (i.e., N = 0), slip, s = 1 or 100 %.

Why the slip is never zero in an induction motor?

When the actual speed of the rotor is equal to the synchronous speed, the slip is zero. For the
induction motor, this condition will never happen.
Because when the slip is zero, both speeds are equal and there is no relative motion. Therefore,
no EMF induced in the rotor circuit and rotor current is zero. Hence, the motor cannot run.

In an induction motor, the change in slip from no-load to full-load is hardly 0.1% to 3% so that
it is essentially a constant-speed motor.
Why the slip is never zero in an induction motor?
When the actual speed of the rotor is equal to the synchronous speed, the slip is zero. For the
induction motor, this condition will never happen.
Because when the slip is zero, both speeds are equal and there is no relative motion. Therefore,
no EMF induced in the rotor circuit and rotor current is zero. Hence, the motor cannot run.
Development of Induced Torque in a Three Phase Induction Motor
 In a given diagram we can see that the cage rotor of three-phase induction motor.

 At this rotor, we have supplied 3-phase inputs at stating part of the motor and we can see
that 3-currents moving in the stator.

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 These 3 currents create a rotating magnetic field (Bs) which is revolving in an

anticlockwise direction.

 The speed of this rotating magnetic field can be measured by the given formula.

nsync =120f/p
 In this equation.

 nsync shows the speed of the rotating magnetic field.

 f is the frequency of the system.

 (P) is no of the pole in the motor.

 The revolving field (Bs) when linked with the rotor then it induce emf in the rotor which
is explained as.

eind= (v x B) x I
 In this equation:

 V is the rotation of the rotor with respect to the field.

 B is the rotating magnetic field.

 L is the length of the rotor (we can say that it is the length of bars in the field).

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 It is the comparative motion of the rotor associated with the magnetic field which
induced a voltage on the bars of the rotor.

 The direction of the Speed of rotor bars which are located on top is ninety degrees to the
magnetic field which causes to generate emf in these bars out of the page, but in lower
bars the direction of emf induced in the page.

 Though, as the rotor assemblage has inductive properties, the highest rotor current (I)
lags the highest rotor voltage (V).

 The current moving in the rotor causes to generate a rotor magnetic field which is
denoted as BR.

Tind = kBR x Bs
 It is the induced torque in the motor.

 The resultant torque is in an anticlockwise direction. The rotation direction of the rotor
depends on the direction of induced torque, as torque direction is anticlockwise, so the
rotor also moves in an anticlockwise direction.

 There is a fixed higher limit to the speed of a motor, but. If the rotor of the motor is
moving on the synchronous speed, so bars of the rotor would be static with respect to the
field and there will be no emf induced in the rotor.

 If induced emf is zero, then there will be no current in the rotor and no field.

Tind = kBR x Bs
 In this above equation, we can see that torque also depends on the rotor‟s emf if there is
no rotor emf then there will be no torque, so the motor will slow down and stops
working.

TORQUE SLIP CHARACTERISTICS OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The torque slip curve for an induction motor gives us the information about the variation of
torque with the slip. The slip is defined as the ratio of difference of synchronous speed and actual
rotor speed to the synchronous speed of the machine. The variation of slip can be obtained with
the variation of speed that is when speed varies the slip will also vary and the torque
corresponding to that speed will also vary.
The curve can be described in three modes of operation-

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The torque-slip characteristic curve can be divided roughly into three regions:
 Low slip region

 Medium slip region

 High slip region

Motoring Mode
In this mode of operation, supply is given to the stator sides and the motor always rotates below
the synchronous speed. The induction motor torque varies from zero to full load torque as the
slip varies. The slip varies from zero to one. It is zero at no load and one at standstill. From the
curve it is seen that the torque is directly proportional to the slip.
That is, more is the slip, more will be the torque produced and vice-versa. The linear relationship
simplifies the calculation of motor parameter to great extent.
Generating Mode
In this mode of operation induction motor runs above the synchronous speed and it should be
driven by a prime mover. The stator winding is connected to a three phase supply in which it
supplies electrical energy. Actually, in this case, the torque and slip both are negative so the
motor receives mechanical energy and delivers electrical energy. Induction motor is not much
used as generator because it requires reactive power for its operation.
That is, reactive power should be supplied from outside and if it runs below the synchronous
speed by any means, it consumes electrical energy rather than giving it at the output. So, as far as
possible, induction generators are generally avoided.
Braking Mode

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In the Braking mode, the two leads or the polarity of the supply voltage is changed so that the
motor starts to rotate in the reverse direction and as a result the motor stops. This method of
braking is known as plugging. This method is used when it is required to stop the motor within a
very short period of time. The kinetic energy stored in the revolving load is dissipated as heat.
Also, motor is still receiving power from the stator which is also dissipated as heat. So as a result
of which motor develops enormous heat energy. For this stator is disconnected from the supply
before motor enters the braking mode.
If load which the motor drives accelerates the motor in the same direction as the motor is
rotating, the speed of the motor may increase more than synchronous speed. In this case, it acts
as an induction generator which supplies electrical energy to the mains which tends to slow
down the motor to its synchronous speed, in this case the motor stops. This type of breaking
principle is called dynamic or regenerative breaking.

STARTING METHODS OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

An induction motor is similar to a poly-phase transformer whose secondary is short circuited.

Thus, at normal supply voltage, like in transformers, the initial current taken by the primary is
very large for a short while. Unlike in DC motors, large current at starting is due to the absence
of back emf. If an induction motor is directly switched on from the supply, it takes 5 to 7 times
its full load current and develops a torque which is only 1.5 to 2.5 times the full load torque. This
large starting current produces a large voltage drop in the line, which may affect the operation of
other devices connected to the same line. Hence, it is not advisable to start induction motors of
higher ratings (generally above 25kW) directly from the mains supply.
Various starting methods of induction motors are described below.

Direct-On-Line (DOL) Starters

Small three phase induction motors can be started direct-on-line, which means that the rated
supply is directly applied to the motor. But, as mentioned above, here, the starting current would
be very large, usually 5 to 7 times the rated current. The starting torque is likely to be 1.5 to 2.5
times the full load torque. Induction motors can be started directly on-line using a DOL starter
which generally consists of a contactor and a motor protection equipment such as a circuit
breaker. A DOL starter consists of a coil operated contactor which can be controlled by start and
stop push buttons. When the start push button is pressed, the contactor gets energized and it
closes all the three phases of the motor to the supply phases at a time. The stop push button de-
energizes the contactor and disconnects all the three phases to stop the motor.
In order to avoid excessive voltage drop in the supply line due to large starting current, a DOL
starter is generally used for motors that are rated below 5kW.

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Starting Of Squirrel Cage Motors

Starting in-rush current in squirrel cage motors is controlled by applying reduced voltage to the
stator. These methods are sometimes called as reduced voltage methods for starting of
squirrel cage induction motors. For this purpose, following methods are used:

1. By using primary resistors

2. Autotransformer

3. Star-delta switches

1. Using Primary Resistors:

Obviously, the purpose of primary resistors is to drop some voltage and apply a reduced voltage
to the stator. Consider, the starting voltage is reduced by 50%. Then according to the Ohm's law
(V=I/Z), the starting current will also be reduced by the same percentage. From the torque
equation of a three phase induction motor, the starting torque is approximately proportional to
the square of the applied voltage. That means, if the applied voltage is 50% of the rated value,
the starting torque will be only 25% of its normal voltage value. This method is generally used
for a smooth starting of small induction motors. It is not recommended to use primary
resistors type of starting method for motors with high starting torque requirements.
Resistors are generally selected so that 70% of the rated voltage can be applied to the motor. At
the time of starting, full resistance is connected in the series with the stator winding and it is
gradually decreased as the motor speeds up. When the motor reaches an appropriate speed, the
resistances are disconnected from the circuit and the stator phases are directly connected to the
supply lines.

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2. Auto-Transformers:

Auto-transformers are also known as auto-starters. They can be used for both star connected or
delta connected squirrel cage motors. It is basically a three phase step down transformer with
different taps provided that permit the user to start the motor at, say, 50%, 65% or 80% of line
voltage. With auto-transformer starting, the current drawn from supply line is always less than
the motor current by an amount equal to the transformation ratio. For example, when a motor is
started on a 65% tap, the applied voltage to the motor will be 65% of the line voltage and the
applied current will be 65% of the line voltage starting value, while the line current will be 65%
of 65% (i.e. 42%) of the line voltage starting value. This difference between the line current and
the motor current is due to transformer action. The internal connections of an auto-starter are as
shown in the figure. At starting, switch is at "start" position, and a reduced voltage (which is
selected using a tap) is applied across the stator. When the motor gathers an appropriate speed,
say upto 80% of its rated speed, the auto-transformer automatically gets disconnected from the
circuit as the switch goes to "run" position.
The switch changing the connection from start to run position may be air-break (small motors) or
oil-immersed (large motors) type. There are also provisions for no-voltage and overload, with
time delay circuits on an autostarter.

3. Star-Delta Starter:

This method is used in the motors, which are designed to run on delta connected stator. A two
way switch is used to connect the stator winding in star while starting and in delta while running
at normal speed. When the stator winding is star connected, voltage over each phase in motor
will be reduced by a factor 1/(sqrt. 3) of that would be for delta connected winding. The starting
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torque will 1/3 times that it will be for delta connected winding. Hence a star-delta starter is
equivalent to an auto-transformer of ratio 1/(sqrt. 3) or 58% reduced voltage.

Starting Of Slip-Ring Motors

Slip-ring motors are started with full line voltage, as external resistance can be easily added in
the rotor circuit with the help of slip-rings. A star connected rheostat is connected in series with
the rotor via slip-rings as shown in the fig. Introducing resistance in rotor current will decrease
the starting current in rotor (and, hence, in stator). Also, it improves power factor and the torque
is increased. The connected rheostat may be hand-operated or automatic.
As, introduction of additional resistance in rotor improves the starting torque, slip-ring motors
can be started on load.
The external resistance introduced is only for starting purposes, and is gradually cut out as the
motor gathers the speed.

CONCEPT OF ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD

The fundamental principle of operation of AC machines is the generation of a rotating

magnetic field, which causes the rotor to turn at a speed that depends on the speed of rotation of
the magnetic field.
We’ll now explain how a rotating magnetic field can be generated in the stator and air gap of
an AC machine by means of alternating currents.

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Figure – Two-pole three-phase stator

Consider the stator shown in Figure 1, which supports windings a-a′, b-b′ and c-c′. The coils
are geometrically spaced 120◦ apart, and a three-phase voltage is applied to the coils. The
currents generated by a three-phase source are also spaced by 120◦, as illustrated in Figure 2
below.

Figure – Three-phase stator winding currents

The phase voltages referenced to the neutral terminal would then be given by the expressions //

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where ωe is the frequency of the AC supply, or line frequency. The coils in each winding are
arranged in such a way that the flux distribution generated by any one winding is approximately
sinusoidal.
Such a flux distribution may be obtained by appropriately arranging groups of coils for each
winding over the stator surface. Since the coils are spaced 120◦ apart, the flux distribution
resulting from the sum of the contributions of the three windings is the sum of the fluxes due to
the separate windings, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure – Flux distribution in a three-phase stator winding as a function of angle of rotation

Thus, the flux in a three-phase machine rotates in space according to the vector diagram of
Figure 4, and the flux is constant in amplitude. A stationary observer on the machine‟s stator
would see a sinusoidally varying flux distribution, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure – Rotating flux in a three-phase machine

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Since the resultant flux of Figure 3 is generated by the currents of Figure 2, the speed of rotation
of the flux must be related to the frequency of the sinusoidal phase currents. In the case of the
stator of Figure 1, the number of magnetic poles resulting from the winding configuration is 2.
However, it is also possible to configure the windings so that they have more poles. For
example, Figure 5 depicts a simplified view of a four-pole stator.

Figure – Four-pole stator

In general, the speed of the rotating magnetic field is determined by the frequency of the
excitation current f and by the number of poles present in the stator p according to

where ns (or ωs) is usually called the synchronous speed.

Now, the structure of the windings in the preceding discussion is the same whether the AC
machine is a motor or a generator. The distinction between the two depends on the direction of
power flow. In a generator, the electromagnetic torque is a reaction torque that opposes rotation
of the machine; this is the torque against which the prime mover does work.
NOTE: In a motor, on the other hand, the rotational (motional) voltage generated in the
armature opposes the applied voltage. This voltage is the counter (or back) emf. Thus, the
description of the rotating magnetic field given thus far applies to both motor and generator
action in AC machines.
As described aabove, the stator magnetic field rotates in an AC machine, and therefore the rotor
cannot “catch up” with the stator field and is in constant pursuit of it.
The speed of rotation of the rotor will therefore depend on the number of magnetic poles
present in the stator and in the rotor.
The magnitude of the torque produced in the machine is a function of the angle γ between the
stator and rotor magnetic fields. Precise expressions for this torque depend on how the magnetic
fields are generated and will be given separately for the two cases of synchronous and induction
machines.

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MODULE III
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

The single-phase motors are more preferred over a three-phase induction motor for domestic,
commercial applications. Because form utility, only single-phase supply is available. So, in this
type of application, the three-phase induction motor cannot be used.

CONSTRUCTION OF SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

A single phase induction motor is similar to the three phase squirrel cage induction motor except
there is single phase two windings (instead of one three phase winding in 3-phase motors)
mounted on the stator and the cage winding rotor is placed inside the stator which freely rotates
with the help of mounted bearings on the motor shaft.
The construction of a single-phase induction motor is similar to the construction of a three-phase
induction motor.
Similar to a three-phase induction motor, single-phase induction motor also has two main parts;
 Stator

 Rotor

Stator
In stator, the only difference is in the stator winding. The stator winding is single-phase winding
instead of three-phase winding. The stator core is the same as the core of the three-phase
induction motor.
In a single-phase induction motor, there are two winding are used in stator except in shaded-pole
induction motor. Out of these two windings, one winding is the main winding and the second is
auxiliary winding.
The stator core is laminated to reduce the eddy current loss. The single-phase supply is given to
the stator winding (main winding)
Rotor
Rotor of single-phase induction motor is the same as a rotor of squirrel cage induction motor.
Instead of rotor winding, rotor bars are used and it is short-circuited at the end by end-rings.
Hence, it makes a complete path in the rotor circuit. The rotor bars are braced to the end-rings to
increase the mechanical strength of the motor.
The rotor slots are skewed at some angle to avoid magnetic coupling. And it also used to make a
motor run smooth and quiet.
The following fig shows the stator and rotor of a 1-phase induction motor.

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WORKING OF SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Single-phase AC supply is given to the stator winding (main winding). The alternating current
flowing through the stator winding produces magnetic flux. This flux is known as the main flux.
Now we assume that the rotor is rotating and it is placed in a magnetic field produced by the
stator winding. According to Faraday‟s law, the current start flowing in the rotor circuit it is a
close path. This current is known as rotor current.
Due to the rotor current, the flux produced around the rotor winding. This flux is known as rotor
flux.
There are two fluxes; main flux which is produced by stator and second is the rotor flux
which is produced by the rotor.
Interaction between main flux and rotor flux, the torque produced in the rotor and it starts
rotating.
The stator field is alternating in nature. The speed of the stator field is the same as synchronous
speed. The synchronous speed of the motor depends on the number of pole and supply
frequency.
It can represent by two revolving fields. These fields are equal in magnitude and rotating in the
opposite direction.
Let say Φm is a maximum field induced in the main winding. So, this field is divided into two
equal parts and that is Φm/2 and Φm/2.

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Out of these two fields, one field Φf is rotating in an anticlockwise direction and the second field
Φb is rotating in a clockwise direction. Therefore, the resultant field is zero.
Φr = Φf – Φb

Φr = 0
Now consider the resultant field at different instants.

When a motor starts, two fields are induced as shown in the above figure. These two fields are
the same magnitude and opposite direction. So, resultant flux is zero.
In this condition, the stator field cannot cut by rotor field and resultant torque is zero. So, the
rotor cannot rotate but it produces humming.

Now consider after the rotation of 90˚, both filed are rotated and pointing in the same direction.
Therefore, the resultant flux is a summation of both fields.
Φr = Φf + Φb

Φr = 0
In this condition, the resultant filed is equal to the maximum field induced by the stator. Now,
both fields rotate separately and it is alternative in nature.
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So, both fields cut by the rotor circuit and EMF induced in the rotor conductor. Due to this EMF,
the current starts flowing in the rotor circuit and it induces a rotor flux.
Due to the interaction between stator flux and rotor flux motor continues to rotate. This theory is
known as Double Revolving Theory or double field revolving theory.
Now, from the above explanation, we can conclude that the single-phase induction motor is not
self-starting.
To make this motor self-starting motor, we need stator flux rotating in nature instead of
alternating nature. This can be done by various methods.
Single-phase induction motor can be classified according to starting methods.

Types of Single-phase Induction Motors

The single-phase induction motors are classified as;

 Split Phase Induction Motor

 Shaded Pole Induction Motor

 Capacitor Start Induction Motor

 Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Induction Motor

 Permanent Capacitor Induction Motor

Split Phase Induction Motor

In this type of motor, an extra winding is wounded on the same core of the stator. So, there are
two windings in the stator.
One winding is known as the main winding or running winding and second winding is known as
starting winding or auxiliary winding. A centrifugal switch is connected in series with the
auxiliary winding.
The auxiliary winding is highly resistive winding and the main winding is highly inductive
winding. The auxiliary winding has few turns with a small diameter.
The aim of auxiliary winding is to create a phase difference between both fluxes produced by the
main winding and rotor winding.

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The connection diagram is as shown in the above figure. The current flowing through the main
winding is IM and current flowing through the auxiliary winding is IA. Both windings are parallel
and supplied by voltage V.
The auxiliary winding is highly resistive in nature. So, the current I A is almost in phase with
supply voltage V.
The main winding is highly inductive in nature. So, the current IM lags behind the supply voltage
with a large angle.
The total stator flux is induced by the resultant current of these two winding. As shown in the
phasor diagram, the resultant current is represented as (I). It will create a phase difference
between fluxes and resultant flux produces a rotating magnetic field. And the motor starts
rotating.
Auxiliary winding only uses to start the motor. This winding is not useful in running condition.
When the motor reaches 75 to 80 % of synchronous speed, the centrifugal switch opens. So, the
auxiliary winding is out from the circuit. And motor runs on only main winding.
The phase difference creates by this method is very small. Hence, the starting torque of this
motor is poor. So, this motor is used in low starting torque applications like a fan, blower,
grinder, pumps, etc.

Shaded Pole Induction Motor

As compared to other types of single-phase induction motor, this motor has a different
construction and working principle. This type of motor does not require auxiliary winding.
This motor has stator salient pole or projecting pole and the rotor is the same as squirrel cage
induction motor. The stator poles are constructed specially to create a rotating magnetic field.
A pole of this motor is divided into two parts; shaded part and un-shaded part. It can be created
by cutting pole into unequal distances.
A copper ring is placed in the small part of the pole. This ring is a highly inductive ring and it is
known as a shaded ring or shaded band. The part at which shaded ring is paced is known as
shaded part of the pole and the remaining part is an unshaded part.
The construction of this motor is as shown in the below figure.

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When an alternating supply passing through the stator winding, an alternating flux induced in the
stator coil. Due to this flux, some amount of flux will link with shaded ring and current will flow
through a shaded ring.
According to Len‟z law, the current passing through coil is opposite in nature, and flux produced
due to this coil will oppose the main flux.
The shaded ring is a highly inductive coil. So, it will oppose the main flux when both fluxes are
in the same direction and it will increase the main flux when both fluxes are in the opposite
direction.
So, it will create a phase difference between the main flux (stator flux) and rotor flux. By this
method, a phase difference is very less. Hence, the starting torque is very less. It is used in
applications like toy motor, fan, blower, record player, etc

Capacitor Start Induction Motor

This type of motor is an advanced version of the Split phase induction motor. The disadvantage
of split-phase induction is low torque production. Because in this motor, the phase difference
created is very less.
This disadvantage compensates in this motor with the help of a capacitor connected in series
with auxiliary winding. The circuit diagram of this motor is as shown in the below figure.

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The capacitor used in this motor is a dry-type capacitor. This is designed to use with alternating
current. But this capacitor is not used for continuous operation.
In this method also, a centrifugal switch is used which disconnects the capacitor and auxiliary
winding when the motor runs 75-80% of synchronous speed.
The current through auxiliary will lead the supply voltage by some angle. This angle is more
than the angle increased in a split-phase induction motor.
So, the starting torque of this motor is very high compared to the split-phase induction motor.
The starting torque of this motor is 300% more than the full load torque.
Due to high starting torque, this motor is used in the applications where high starting torque is
required like, a Lath machine, compressor, drilling machines, etc.

Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Induction Motor

In this type of motor, two capacitors are connected in parallel with series in auxiliary winding.
Out of these two capacitors, one capacitor is used only for starting (starting capacitor) and
another capacitor is connected permanently with the motor (running capacitor).
The circuit diagram of this figure is as shown in the below figure.

The starting capacitor has high capacitance value and a running capacitor has low capacitance
value. The starting capacitor is connected in series with a centrifugal switch that will open when
the speed of the motor is 70% of synchronous speed.

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During running conditions, both running winding and auxiliary winding connected with motor.
The starting torque and efficiency of this motor are very high.
Therefore, this can be used in the application where high starting torque is required like a
refrigerator, air conditioner, ceiling fan, compressor, etc.

Permanent Capacitor Induction Motor

The low-value capacitor is connected constantly with the auxiliary winding. Here, the capacitor
has low capacitance.
The capacitor is used to increase the starting torque but it is low compared to the capacitor start
induction motor.
The circuit diagram and phasor diagram of this motor is as shown in the below figure.

The power factor and efficiency of this motor are very high and also it has a high starting torque
that is 80% of full load torque.
This type of motor is used in the application like an exhaust fan, blower, heater, etc.

Applications of Single Phase Induction Motors

Single phase motors are not self starting and less efficient than three phase induction motor and
available in 0.5HP to 15HP and still they are widely used for multiple purposes such as:
 Clocks

 Refrigerators, freezers and heaters

 Fans, table fans, ceiling fan, exhaust fans, air coolers and water coolers.

 Blowers

 Washing machines

 machine tools

 Dryers

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 Type writers, photostats and printers

 Water pumps and submersible

 Computers

 Grinders

 Drilling machines

 Other Home instrument, equipment and devices etc.

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ALTERNATORS

CONSTRUCTION OF ALTERNATOR/ SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

 The AC generator (alternator) or synchronous generator is a machine which converts the

mechanical power or energy into electrical power.

 The construction of an alternator is very similar to the DC generator but the main
difference between them in DC generator the armature winding is the rotating part and
field winding is the stationary part whereas in an alternator the armature winding is
stationary and field winding is the rotary part.

Stator
 As the name suggests it is the stationary part of the machine and it is made up of special
magnetic material which can allow high magnetic permeability and low magnetic
hysteresis such as fabricated steel.

Alternator stator
 The stator core is laminated to minimize the effect of eddy current losses.The lamination
is insulated from each other by a thin coating of an oxide and has space between them to
allow passage of cool air flow.

 For the small machine, the laminations are stamped out in the complete ring structure and
for the large machine, the laminations are divided into the number of segments.

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 The slots are provided in the inner periphery of the core and the armature conductors or
coils are assembled in it.

 Generally, open slots are used permitting easy installation or removal of the stator coil.

 The fractional number of slots per pole is used in order to eliminate the harmonic in the
waveform.

 The armature winding of an alternator is usually connected in star and its neutral is
connected to the ground.

Why is the Armature winding of an Alternator connected in Star?

 The phase voltages in star connection are 57.7 % of the line voltages, i.e. the armature
winding in star connection is less exposed to voltage as compared to the delta connection
which in turn prove more economic if we consider insulation, breakdown strength, the
requirement of conductor material etc.

 In star connection, if the neutral is grounded then it also provides a path for the Zero-
Sequence currents during faults, whereas in the delta connection the zero sequence
currents flow within the delta circuit and hence increasing the load on the winding.

Rotor
 The revolving field structure of the electrical machine is called as the rotor. In a
synchronous generator, the rotor carries a field winding which is supplied by the DC
source.

 The DC source is also called an exciter which is generally a small d.c shunt or
compounded generator mounted on the shaft of the alternator.

There are two types of rotor construction

 Salient Pole Type

 Cylindrical Type (non-salient pole)

Salient (or projecting Pole) Type

 The salient pole type rotor is used for low and medium speed machines (less than 1200
rpm) and have the large diameter and small axial length.

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Salient Pole Rotor

 The poles are made up of thick steel lamination to reduce eddy current heating loss and it
is attached to a rotor by means of the dovetail joint.

 In salient pole rotor, the poles are always projected in the outward direction as shown in
the figure.

 The field winding in the salient pole type is connected in series in such a way that when
the field winding is energised by the exciter, then adjacent poles will have opposite
polarities. The number of poles does not affect the number of phases in the alternator
output.

 To reduce the effect of haunting damper winding is provided in the pole faces. They
don‟t let the motor to oscillate abruptly, they damp the oscillations thus increasing the
stability of the machine.

 Salient pole rotor found application for diesel engine and water turbine because they both
required medium speed (120-1000 rpm).

 The pole and Pole shoe cover 2/3 of the pole pitch.

 The rating of salient pole rotor is less than 500 kW.

Disadvantage of Salient Pole Rotor

The salient pole rotor has following disadvantages

 The salient pole rotor cause excessive windage looses if they are driven at high speed and
it also increases the noise produced by an alternator.

 The construction of salient pole rotor cannot withstand high mechanical stress.
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 The speed of an alternator is inversely proportional to the numbers of pole required (Ns =
120f/p) so to operate a salient pole type alternator, a large number of poles are required
which increases the diameter of the generator thus increasing space requirement for
installation and initial cost due to extra material used.

Smooth Cylindrical Type | Non-Salient Pole Alternator

 This type of Rotor is used for steam driven alternator i.e turbo alternator which runs at
very high speed.

Cylindrical Type Rotor

 The Rotor is made up of smooth solid forgings of alloy steel cylinder having the number
of slots along the outer periphery.

 The field windings of cylindrical type rotor are connected in series to the slip rings
through which they are excited by the DC exciter.

 The top portion of the slot is covered with the help of steel or manganese wedges and
the unslotted portion of the cylinder acts as the poles of an alternator.

 The field windings are arranged in such a way that its flux density is maximum on the
polar central line.

 In cylindrical rotor, the pole doesn‟t project out from the smooth surface of the rotor
hence they maintain the uniform air gap between stator and rotor.

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 Since steam turbine runs at very high speed, therefore, they required less number of poles
hence the diameter of the rotor is small and axial or rotor length is large.

Advantages of Cylindrical Rotor type Alternator

 The main advantages of the cylindrical rotor are that their construction has mechanical
robustness and gives noiseless operation at very high speed (1500-3000 rpm).

 The flux distribution is nearly uniform sine wave hence better waveform is obtained.

 The hunting effect is very rare in the cylindrical rotor, therefore, there is no need to
provide damper winding except in case of assisting the alternator for synchronising
purpose.

Types Of Alternator

The alternator can be divided into different types based on their application, prime mover,
design, output power, and cooling.

Alternator Based on their Output Power

 Single Phase Alternator

 Two-Phase Alternator

 Three Phase Alternator

Single Phase Alternator

The single phase alternator produces a continuous single alternating voltage. The armature coils
are connected in series forming a Single circuit in which output voltage is generated.

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Single phase Alternator

In the above figure, the stator has four poles which are evenly spaced around the stator frame.
The rotor also consists 4 poles and each pole has opposite polarity to its neighbours which are
angled at 90 degrees. Each coil also has opposite winding to its neighbours. This configuration
allows the lines of force at 4 poles to be cut by 4 coils at the same amount at a given time. At
each 90-degree rotation, the voltage output polarity is switched from one direction to the other.
Therefore, there are 4 cycles of the AC output in one rotation.
Single-phase generators are used as standby generators in case of the main power supply is
interrupted and for supplying temporary power on construction sites.

Two-Phase Alternator

Two-Phase Alternator
In a two-phase alternator, there are two single-phase windings spaced physically so that the ac
voltage induced in one is 90° out of phase with the voltage induced in the other. The windings
are electrically separate from each other. Suppose in the first quarter first winding produce
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maximum flux, then the second winding generates zero flux and in the second quarter the second
winding generates maximum flux and first winding generate zero flux. This condition establishes
a 90° relation between the two phases.

Three Phase Alternator

Three-phase-alternator
A three-phase alternator has 3 sets of single-phase windings arrangement so that the voltage
induced in each winding is 120° out of phase with the voltages in the other two windings. These
windings are connected in the star to provide a three-phase output.

Advantages of Three-phase Alternator

 The three-phase alternator gives the most constant output than the single phase alternator.

 Three phase power supply is more economical than the other two phases because three
separate single-phase voltage can be delivered at the same time from the power system.

Alternator based on their applications

According to their application usage, the alternator can be divided into 5 main part.
 Automotive Type Alternator

 Diseal electric locomotive Alternator

 Brushless type Alternator

 Marine Type Alternator

 Radio Alternator

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Alternator based on their Prime-mover

 Turbo Generator

 Hydro Generator

 Diseal Engine driven Alternator

Alternator Based on Type of their Design

 Salient pole Rotor

 Smooth cylindrical Rotor

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF ALTERNATORS

The working principle of an alternator is very simple. It is just like the basic principle of DC
generator. It also depends upon Faraday‟s law of electromagnetic induction which says the
current is induced in the conductor inside a magnetic field when there is a relative motion
between that conductor and the magnetic field.

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For understanding working of alternator let us think about a single rectangular turn placed in
between two opposite magnetic poles as shown above.

Say this single turn loop ABCD can rotate against axis a-b. Suppose this loop starts rotating
clockwise. After 90o rotation the side AB or conductor AB of the loop comes in front of S-pole
and conductor CD comes in front of N-pole. At this position the tangential motion of the

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conductor AB is just perpendicular to the magnetic flux lines from N to S pole. Hence, the rate of
flux cutting by the conductor AB is maximum here and for that flux cutting there will be an
induced current in the conductor AB and the direction of the induced current can be determined
by Fleming‟s right-hand rule. As per this rule the direction of this current will be from A to B.
At the same time conductor CD comes under N pole and here also if we apply Fleming right-
hand rule we will get the direction of induced current and it will be from C to D.
Now after clockwise rotation of another 90 o the turn ABCD comes at the vertical position as
shown below. At this position tangential motion of conductor AB and CD is just parallel to the
magnetic flux lines, hence there will be no flux cutting that is no current in the conductor.
While the turn ABCD comes from a horizontal position to a vertical position, the angle between
flux lines and direction of motion of conductor, reduces from 90 o to 0o and consequently the
induced current in the turn is reduced to zero from its maximum value.

After another clockwise rotation of 90o the turn again comes to horizontal position, and here
conductor AB comes under N-pole and CD comes under S-pole, and here if we again apply
Fleming right-hand rule, we will see that induced current in conductor AB, is from point B to A
and induced current in the conductor CD is from D to C.

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As at this position the turn comes at a horizontal position from its vertical position, the current in
the conductors comes to its maximum value from zero. That means current is circulating in the
close turn from point B to A, from A to D, from D to C and from C to B, provided the loop is
closed although it is not shown here. That means the current is in reverse of that of the previous
horizontal position when the current was circulating as A → B → C → D → A.
While the turn further proceeds to its vertical position the current is again reduced to zero. So if
the turn continues to rotate the current in turn continually alternate its direction. During every
full revolution of the turn, the current in turn gradually reaches to its maximum value then
reduces to zero and then again it comes to its maximum value but in opposite direction and again
it comes to zero. In this way, the current completes one full sine wave cycle during each 360 o
revolution of the turn. So, we have seen how alternating current is produced in a turn is rotated
inside a magnetic field. From this, we will now come to the actual working principle of an
alternator.
Now we place one stationary brush on each slip ring. If we connect two terminals of an external
load with these two brushes, we will get an alternating current in the load. This is our elementary
model of an alternator.

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Having understood the very basic principle of an alternator, let us now have an insight into its
basic operational principle of a practical alternator. During the discussion of the basic working
principle of an alternator, we have considered that the magnetic field is stationary and conductors
(armature) is rotating. But generally in practical construction of alternator, armature conductors
are stationary and field magnets rotate between them. The rotor of an alternator or a synchronous
generator is mechanically coupled to the shaft or the turbine blades, which is made to rotate at
synchronous speed Ns under some mechanical force results in magnetic flux cutting of the
stationary armature conductors housed on the stator.
As a direct consequence of this flux cutting an induced emf and current starts to flow through the
armature conductors which first flow in one direction for the first half cycle and then in the other
direction for the second half cycle for each winding with a definite time lag of 120 o due to the
space displaced arrangement of 120o between them as shown in the figure below. This particular
phenomenon results in three-phase power flow out of the alternator which is then transmitted to
the distribution stations for domestic and industrial uses.

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EMF EQUATION OF ALTERNATORS

The emf induced by the alternator or synchronous generator is three phase alternating in nature.
Let us derive the mathematical equation of emf induced in alternator.
Let,
Z = number of conductors in series per phase.
Z = 2T, where T is the number of coils or turns per phase. One turn has two coil sides or
conductor as shown in the below diagram.
P = Number of poles.
f = frequency of induced emf in Hertz
Φ = flux per pole in webers.
Kp = pitch factor, Kd = distribution factor,
Kf = Form factor
N = Speed of the rotor in rpm(revolutions per
minute) N/60 = Speed of the rotor in revolutions per
second. Time taken by the rotor to complete one
revolution, dt = 1/(N/60)= 60/N second

Single turn coil

In one revolution of the rotor, the total flux Φ cut the by each conductor in the stator poles, dΦ =
ΦP weber
By faraday‟s law of electromagnetic induction, the emf induced is proportional to rate of change
of flux.

We know, the frequency of induced emf

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Submitting the value of N in the induced emf equation, We get

If there are Z conductors in series per phase,

RMS value of emf per phase = Form factor x Average value of induced emf = 1.11 x 4 Φ f
T RMS value of emf per phase = 4.44 Φ f T volts
The obtained above equation is the actual value of the induced emf for full pitched
coil or concentrated coil. However, the voltage equation gets modified because of the winding
factors.

Actual induced emf per phase = 4.44 Kp Kd Φ f T volts = 4 Kf Kp Kd Φ f T volts

VOLTAGE REGULATION OF ALTERNATORS

The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in its terminal voltage when full
load is removed, keeping field excitation and speed constant, divided by the rated terminal
voltage.
 The value of the regulation not only depends on the load current but also on the
power factor of the load.

 For lagging and unity p.f. conditions there is always drop in the terminal voltage
hence regulation values are always positive.

 While for leading capacitive load conditions, the terminal voltage increases as
load current increases. Hence regulation is negative in such cases.

 The relationship between load current and the terminal voltage is called
load characteristics of an alternator.

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DETERMINATION OF VOLTAGE REGULATION
1. In the case of small machines, the regulation may be found by direct loading.

 The alternator is driven at synchronous speed and the terminal voltage is adjusted to
its rated value V.

 The load is varied until the wattmeter and ammeter (connected for the purpose) indicate
the rated values at desired p.f. Then the entire load is thrown off while the speed and
field excitation are kept constant.

 The open-circuit or no-load voltage E0 is read.

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V = Rated terminal voltage

E0= No load induced e.m.f.
2. In the case of large machines, the cost of finding the regulation by direct loading
becomes prohibitive.

 Hence, other indirect methods are used as discussed below.

 It will be found that all these methods differ chiefly in the way the no-load voltage E0 is
found in each case.

1. The electromotive force (emf) method or synchronous impedance method

2. MMF method (or) ampere turn method

3. Zero power factor method

4. S.A (American standards association) method.

Let we see,
 The electromotive force (emf) method or synchronous impedance method: Even
though this method gives the inconsistent result of voltage regulation it is quite useful
because we consider drop due to armature reaction as drop due to synchronous
reactance. It gives regulation more than actual value so it is called a pessimistic method.

 MMF method (or) ampere turn method: In MMF method, the reverse procedure is
applied, i.e, each emf is replaced by an equivalent MMF. Here drop due to
synchronous reactance is considered as drop due to armature reaction. It gives
regulation less than actual value so it is called an optimistic method.

 Zero power factor method: It is also called a general method or Potier triangle
method. Armature voltage and field currents are plotted and maintain the armature
current at zero power factor lag called zero power factor characteristic.

 S.A (American standards association) method: This method is the combination of both
MMF and zero power factor method.

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DETERMINATION OF VOLTAGE REGULATION OF ALTERNATORS USING EMF

METHOD
The voltage regulation of alternator by EMF method involves the EMF quantities of all the
armature parameters (armature resistance, Armature leakage reactance, armature reaction). The
drop due to armature reaction is not considered, because it does not occur due to any of the
physical element but due to interaction of armature flux with main flux.

Hence, in order to quantify the voltage drop due to armature reaction, armature winding is
assumed to have a fictitious reactance called armature reaction reactance X ar Ω/phase.

Now, the Sum of armature leakage reactance and armature reaction reactance is
called synchronous reactance of an alternator XS.
XS = XL + Xar
In EMF method, the voltage drop due to armature resistance (R a) and the drop due to
synchronous reactance(XS) is considered, both the drops are emf quantities.
The impedance of armature winding is expressed as ZS = Ra + jXS Ω/phase, which is nothing but
the synchronous impedance of an alternator and since the drop due to the synchronous
impedance is considered, this method is called synchronous impedance method.
This method is also called pessimistic method, because the voltage regulation obtained by this
method is more than the actual value.
The EMF method requires the following data‟s to determine the voltage regulation of alternator.
 Armature resistance/phase

 Open circuit characteristics (OCC)

 Short circuit characteristics (SCC)

Armature Resistance per phase

Armature Resistance per phase can be obtained by conducting stator resistance test on the
alternator. It is done by connecting the dc voltage supply to the stator armature winding and the
corresponding current is measured.
By doing so, the dc stator resistance is calculated and then by using the formula Rac = 1.6 Rdc the
ac stator resistance is determined.

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MODULE 4
SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES

UNIVERSAL MOTORS

The type of motor which operates on both DC and single phase AC supply is called Universal
Motor. The universal motor is also called an ac series motor. The universal motor works at
approximately the same speed and output on either DC or AC single-phase supply.
The universal motor is a series-wound motor that means field winding and armature windings
are connected in series. It has high starting torque and variable speed characteristics. It runs at
dangerously high speed when run at no load.
Universal motors are designed for commercial frequencies from 50Hz or 60Hz to DC zero
frequency and for voltage rating 250V to 1.5V.
Universal motors are generally used in Electric hand drills, vacuum cleaners, electric shaver,
sewing machines, and in many more applications.
This motor is a commutator type motor.
If an ac series motor is connected to an AC supply it will rotate and exert one-directional torque
because the current flowing in both field and armature is the same and reverse at the same time.
The direction of torque developed in DC series motor is determined by both field polarity and the
direction of current flowing through armature winding.

Construction Of Universal Motor

The construction of a universal motor is identical to the construction of a DC series motor. It is a

series-wound motor that means field and armature windings are connected in series. the universal
motor diagram is shown below

Universal-Motor-Diagram

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Types of Universal Motor

Generally constructed in two types

 Non compensated with concentrated pole type

 Compensated with distributed field type

Non compensated with concentrated pole types

The non compensated type universal motor has 2 salient poles like DC series motor except the
laminated core. The laminated stator is constructed to reduced eddy current losses because the
flux is alternating when it operated on AC supply.
The armature is wound type same as small dc motor, it has laminated core having straight or
skewed slots and commutator to which armature winding leads are connected.

Compensated with Distributed field type

It has a stator same as the split-phase motor and wound type armature similar to that small dc
motor.
In compensated type motor, compensating winding is used to reduced reactance voltage drop in
armature when it operated on AC supply. This voltage is caused by the transformer action due to
alternating flux.
If compensated winding connected in series with armature and field winding in such a case
motor is called a conductively compensated motor. the connection diagram is shown below.

conductively compensated motor

And in other cases, if compensating winding short-circuited on itself in such a case motor is
called inductively compensated and received excitation voltage by transformer action since it is
inductively coupled. the circuit diagram is shown in the below image.

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Inductively compensated universal-motor

Working Principle of Universal Motor( AC Series Motor)

Let,
DC series motor connected to single-phase ac supply and the same current flowing through the
field and armature windings., hence the ac reversal from positive to negative cycle or from
negative cycle to positive will simultaneously affect both field flux polarity and the current
direction through armature winding. This shows that the direction of torque developed will
remain positive and rotor rotation will continue in the same direction. Thus, independent of
supply fed. universal motors working principle is the same as the DC series motor works.
The nature of torque developed will be pulsating and frequency will be twice the supply
frequency. thus universal motor(ac series motor) can run on both DC and single phase AC
supply.
AC series motor specially design to run on DC supply suffers following drawbacks when it
operated on a single phase AC source.
Its efficiency is low due to hysteresis and eddy current losses.
 Its Power factor is low due to the large reactance of field and armature winding.

 Sparking at the brushes is more.

To overcome the above drawbacks of dc series motor to run efficiently on ac supply

following constructional modifications are done.
 Field core is constructed using a material that has low hysteresis losses and it laminated
to reduced eddy current.

 The field winding is constructed with small numbers of turns due to this pole area
increase and flux density decreases this reduced iron losses and reactive voltage drop.

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 The number of armature conductors increases to achieve the required torque with low
flux.

 Compensation winding is used to reduced armature reaction and increase commutation.

Advantages of Universal Motor

 Universal motor produced high torque at intermediate speed.

 High speed from above 3600 to 25000rpm.

 High power output in a small size suitable for portable tools.

Disadvantages
 Due to brushes, service requirements are increases.

 Create radio and television interference due to brush sparking.

 Careful balancing must be required during working to reduced vibrations.

Application of Universal Motor

 Universal motors are used in shaving machines, Vaccum cleaners.

 Used in drinking and food mixers, portable drill, sewing machine, in tiles cutter.

STEPPER MOTOR

How a stepper motor works?

Stepper motors work on the principle of electromagnetism. There is a soft iron or magnetic rotor
shaft surrounded by the electromagnetic stators. The rotor and stator have poles which may be
teethed or not depending upon the type of stepper. When the stators are energized the rotor
moves to align itself along with the stator (in case of a permanent magnet type stepper) or moves
to have a minimum gap with the stator (in case of a variable reluctance stepper). This way the
stators are energized in a sequence to rotate the stepper motor. Get more information about
working of stepper motors through interesting images at the stepper motor Insight.

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Fig. 2: General Overview Of Internal Structure And Working Of Typical Stepper Motor

TYPES OF STEPPER MOTOR

By construction the step motors come into three broad classes:

1. Permanent Magnet Stepper
2. Variable Reluctance Stepper
3. Hybrid Step Motor

1. Permanent Magnet Stepper :

The rotor and stator poles of a permanent magnet stepper are not teethed. Instead the rotor have
alternative north and south poles parallel to the axis of the rotor shaft.

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Fig. 3: Crossectional Diagram Of Two Phase Permanent Stepper Motor

When a stator is energized, it develops electromagnetic poles. The magnetic rotor aligns along
the magnetic field of the stator. The other stator is then energized in the sequence so that the
rotor moves and aligns itself to the new magnetic field. This way energizing the stators in a fixed
sequence rotates the stepper motor by fixed angles.

Fig. 4: Diagram Explaining Working Of Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

The resolution of a permanent magnet stepper can be increased by increasing number of poles in
the rotor or increasing the number of phases.

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Fig. 5: Figure Showing Ways To Increase Resolution Of Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

2. Variable reluctance stepper :

The variable reluctance stepper has a toothed non-magnetic soft iron rotor. When the stator coil
is energized the rotor moves to have a minimum gap between the stator and its teeth.

Fig. 6: Basic Diagram Of Two-Phase Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

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The teeth of the rotor are designed so that when they are aligned with one stator they get
misaligned with the next stator. Now when the next stator is energized, the rotor moves to align
its teeth with the next stator. This way energizing stators in a fixed sequence completes the
rotation of the step motor.

Fig. 7: Diagram Explaining Working Of Variable Reluctance Stepper

The resolution of a variable reluctance stepper can be increased by increasing the number of
teeth in the rotor and by increasing the number of phases.

Fig. 8: Figure Showing Ways To Increase Resolution Of Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

3. Hybrid stepper :

A hybrid stepper is a combination of both permanent magnet and the variable reluctance. It has a
magnetic teethed rotor which better guides magnetic flux to preferred location in the air gap.

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Fig. 9: Construction Of Two phase Hybrid Motor

The magnetic rotor has two cups. One for north poles and second for the south poles. The rotor
cups are designed so that that the north and south poles arrange in alternative manner. Check out
the insight of a Hybrid Stepper Motor.

Fig. 10: Diagram Showing Internal Structure Of Magnetic Rotor In Hybrid Motor

The Hybrid motor rotates on same principle of energizing the stator coils in a sequence.

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Fig. 11: Diagram Explaining Working Of Hybrid Stepper Motor

Stepping Modes

There are three stepping modes of a stepper motor. The stepping mode refers to the pattern of
sequence in which stator coils are energized.
1. Wave drive (One phase ON at a time)
2. Full drive (Two phase ON at a time)
3. Half drive (One and two phase ON at a time)

1. Wave drive :
In wave drive stepping mode only one phase is energized at a time.

Fig. 14: Wave Drive Stepping Mode Pattern In Stepper Motor

2. Full Drive :
In full drive, two phases are energized at a time.

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Fig. 15:Full Drive Stepping Mode pattern In Stepper Motor

3. Half Drive :
In half drive, alternately one and two phases are energized. This increases the resolution of the
motor.

Fig. 16: Half Drive Stepping Mode Pattern In Stepper Motor

Advantages:
1. The rotation angle is proportional to the input pulses.

2. Full torque at standstill.

3. Very low-speed synchronous rotation is possible to achieve.

4. There are no brushes so it is reliable.

5. Speed is directly proportional to the frequency of the input as pulses; hence a wide range
of rotational speed can be realized.

6. Low speed with high precision.

Disadvantages:
1. No feedback system.
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2. Low effitiency.

3. May produce more noise.

4. Difficult to operate at very high speed.

5. For the smooth move, micro stepping is required.

Applications:
1. Factory automation.

2. Packaging.

3. Material handling.

4. Aerospace industry especially in avionics.

5. 3D pictures acquisition system.

6. Laser measurements.

7. Robotics.

SERVO MOTORS/ SERVO MECHANISMS

A servo motor is a basic electrical device that is used to rotate or move the gadgets with great
precision and accuracy at different angles and with different velocities. It is a closed-loop
feedback-controlled system. The main feature that distinguishes it from other motors is its
propensity to work accurately with distance and precise angles. It can rotate the object in both
counterclockwise as well as in a clockwise direction with the same capability. Servo motors are
usually rated in kg/cm while other motors are usually rated in KVA. It means how much weight
does a motor can lift if the load is suspended at a specific distance from the shaft of motor.it is of
great importance in industrial application where accurate movements are required.
There are practically two types of servo motor depending how it is powered
 AC servo Motor

 DC servo motor

AC servo motor is powered with an AC source while DC servo motor is powered with a DC
source. AC servo motor has less efficiency, operates smoothly, delivers low power, small weight,
and low maintenance is required. Whereas, DC servo motor has high efficiency, delivers high
power, large weight, and requires time to time maintenance. AC motor finds its applications in
high speed working.
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Construction

Servo motor is conventionally constructed by using the ordinary motor, position sensors, gear
system and a controlled circuit. The controller can be any microcontroller like Arduino, STM,
TIVA, etc. While position sensor can be Encoder for AC servo motors used in Industries and it is
a potentiometer for DC servo motors.
The Servo motor is DC motor or AC Motors which has 5 following parts:-
1. Stator Winding: This type of winding wound on the stationary part of the motor. It is
also known as field winding of the motor.

2. Rotor Winding: This type of winding wound on the rotating part of the motor. It is also
known as an armature winding of the motor.

3. Bearing: These are of two types,i.e, font bearing and back bearing which are used for the
movement of the shaft.

4. Shaft: The armature winding is coupled on the iron rod is known as the shaft of the
motor.

5. Encoder: It has the approximate sensor which determines the rotational speed of motor
and revolution per minute of the motor.

A DC servo motor is constructed by using DC motor which has armature and field winding
coupled with gearbox, controller and Potentiometer, while AC servo motor is constructed using
an Induction motor consisting of rotor and stator with gear system and Encoders.

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Mechanism of Servo Motor

It consists of three basic types:

1. Controlling Device

2. Output Sensor

3. Feedback system

The servo motor works on the phenomenon of the automatic closed-loop system. The controller
is required for this closed-loop system. This controller is composed of a comparator and a
feedback path. It has one output and two inputs. In this, for producing an output signal, the
comparator is used to compare the required reference signal and this output signal is sensed by
the sensor. The input signal for the motor is termed as a feedback signal. On the basis of the
feedback signal, the motor starts working. Comparator signal is called a logic signal of the
motor. The motor would be ON for the desired time when the logical difference is higher and the
motor would be OFF for the desired time when the logical difference is lower. Basically, a
comparator is used to decide that motor would be ON or OFF. Proper functioning of the motor
can be done with the help of a good controller.

Working

Servo motor is basically a closed loop feedback system. A closed loop feedback system controls
the output of the system by varying input. The output is compared with a reference signal and
error is generated; this error signal is the input signal to controller which generates a PWM
according to the error. PWM is the input of the motor, the output of the motor is sensed by
position sensor and this is compared with input and again error signal is generated This process
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continues until the error signal is zero, means there is no difference between output and
referenced signal. The amount of rotation is determined by the duty cycle of the pulse. The
figure below shows that if ON time of the pulse is less than a specific time period, it rotates
below 90 degree and if it is greater, than it rotates till 180 degrees.
In DC servo motors the input signal is applied to dc motors which in turns rotates the shaft and
gears, the rotation of gears is basically our output which is fed back to potentiometer whose
knobs rotates and changes its resistance. As resistance is changed so voltage is varied which is
error signal that is fed into controller and accordingly PWM is generated.
The DC motor has armature and field winding, one of the winding is provided with fixed voltage
while the other winding is powered with varying error signal. Let‟s assume we are using
armature-controlled method in which torque depends upon the armature current which means
error signal is provided to armature which controls the torque of the motor.
In AC servomotors we have two parts rotor and stator. A stator has two windings reference
winding and controlled winding which are displaced by 90 degrees. Fixed signal is applied at
reference winding while a variable error signal is applied at the controlled winding.
As error signal is applied to the stator both the windings produce a flux which is at a phase
difference with each other, so torque is produced, and rotor starts rotating. After that the output is
fed back to encoder which sense the speed and accordingly send signal to microcontroller.
Controlling of Servo Motor:
The servo motors can be controlled by the method PWM i.e., Pulse Width Modulation. These
send electric signals of inconsistent width to the motor. The width pulse is varied in the range of
1 millisecond to 2 milliseconds and transfer this to the servo motors with repeating 50 times in a
second. The width of the pulse controls the angular position of the rotating shaft. In this, three
terms are used which shows the controlling of the servomotor i.e., a maximum pulse, minimum
pulse and repetition rate.
For example, The servo moves with the pulse of 1 millisecond to turn motor towards 0˚ whereas
a pulse of 2 milliseconds to turn motor towards 180˚ Between the angular positions, the pulse
width interchange by itself. Therefore, the servo turns to the 90˚ with the pulse of width 1.5
milliseconds.

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There are three wires or leads in every servo motors. The two wires used from positive supply
and ground supply whereas the third wire is used to control the signal.

Applications of Servo Motors

Here are some applications used to control speed when the servo is over headed or over rotating:
 They are used to control the positioning and movement of elevators in radio controlled
airplanes

 They play an important role in robotics information of robot because of their smooth
switching on or off and accurate positioning.

 They are used in hydraulic systems to maintain hydraulic fluid in the aerospace industry.

 In radio controlled toys these are also used.

 They are used to extend or replay the disc trays in electronic devices such as DVDs or
Blue-ray Disc players.

 They are used to maintain the speed of vehicles in the automobile industries.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Servo Motors

Advantages:
 The driver will increase the current to the motor coil when we place a heavy load on the
motor as it attempts to rotate the motor.

 In servo motor, the High-speed operation will be possible.

Disadvantages:
 The cost will be higher.

 The servo motor is not suitable for precision control of rotation because the servo motor
is trying to rotate according to the command pulses, but lags behind.
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SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

Synchronous motor and induction motor are the most widely used types of AC motor.
Construction of a synchronous motor is similar to an alternator (AC generator). A
same synchronous machine can be used as a synchronous motor or as an alternator.
Synchronous motors are available in a wide range, generally rated between 150kW to 15MW
with speeds ranging from 150 to 1800 rpm.

Construction Of Synchronous Motor

The construction of a synchronous motor (with salient pole rotor) is as shown in the figure at
left. Just like any other motor, it consists of a stator and a rotor. The stator core is constructed
with thin silicon lamination and insulated by a surface coating, to minimize the eddy current and
hysteresis losses. The stator has axial slots inside, in which three phase stator winding is placed.
The stator is wound with a three phase winding for a specific number of poles equal to the rotor
poles.
The rotor in synchronous motors is mostly of salient pole type. DC supply is given to the rotor
winding via slip-rings. The direct current excites the rotor winding and creates electromagnetic
poles. In some cases permanent magnets can also be used. The figure above illustrates
the construction of a synchronous motor very briefly.

Working Of Synchronous Motor

The stator is wound for the similar number of poles as that of rotor, and fed with three phase AC
supply. The 3 phase AC supply produces rotating magnetic field in stator. The rotor winding is
fed with DC supply which magnetizes the rotor. Consider a two pole synchronous machine as
shown in figure below.
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 Now, the stator poles are revolving with synchronous speed (lets say clockwise). If the
rotor position is such that, N pole of the rotor is near the N pole of the stator (as shown in
first schematic of above figure), then the poles of the stator and rotor will repel each
other, and the torque produced will be anticlockwise.

 The stator poles are rotating with synchronous speed, and they rotate around very fast and
interchange their position. But at this very soon, rotor can not rotate with the same angle
(due to inertia), and the next position will be likely the second schematic in above figure.
In this case, poles of the stator will attract the poles of rotor, and the torque produced will
be clockwise.

 Hence, the rotor will undergo to a rapidly reversing torque, and the motor will not start.

But, if the rotor is rotated upto the synchronous speed of the stator by means of an external force
(in the direction of revolving field of the stator), and the rotor field is excited near the
synchronous speed, the poles of stator will keep attracting the opposite poles of the rotor (as the
rotor is also, now, rotating with it and the position of the poles will be similar throughout the
cycle). Now, the rotor will undergo unidirectional torque. The opposite poles of the stator and
rotor will get locked with each other, and the rotor will rotate at the synchronous speed.
Characteristic Features Of A Synchronous Motor
 Synchronous motor will run either at synchronous speed or will not run at all.

 The only way to change its speed is to change its supply frequency. (As Ns = 120f / P)

 Synchronous motors are not self starting. They need some external force to bring them
near to the synchronous speed.

 They can operate under any power factor, lagging as well as leading. Hence, synchronous
motors can be used for power factor improvement.

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Application Of Synchronous Motor

 As synchronous motor is capable of operating under either leading and lagging power
factor, it can be used for power factor improvement. A synchronous motor under no-load
with leading power factor is connected in power system where static capacitors can not
be used.

 It is used where high power at low speed is required. Such as rolling mills, chippers,
mixers, pumps, pumps, compressor etc.

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INTRODUCTION TO POWER ELECTRONICS

INTRODUCTION

he study of controlling the flow of electrical energy with the help of electronic circuits is defined
as Power Electronics.
The subject of Power Electronics is the merger of the field of electrical power system and solid
state electronic devices. It is the discipline that involves the study, analysis, and design of circuits
that convert electrical energy from one form to another.

What is the difference between the linear Electronics and Power Electronics?

The specifications in linear Electronics are Gain and Bandwidth. Whereas the specifications in
Power Electronics are Efficiency and Distortion.
Study of Power Electronics involves (but not limited to)
 Power Semiconductor Devices – Construction, Characteristics, Operation, protection
(Just remember that there is huge difference between signal level semiconductor devices
and Power semiconductor devices. Power semiconductor devices have to handle high
voltage and current. In order to withstand the high voltage/current ratings, power
devices construction is different from the construction of their low power counterparts)

 Energy storage elements

 Various Power Converter Topologies

 Control Strategies, Drive circuits of Topologies

 EMI, EMC, Heat Dissipation techniques

Applications of Power Electronics:

We can realise the applications of Power Electronics everywhere in our day-to-day life (home,
office, factory, car, hospital, theatre etc.)

Some of the typical applications are

 Domestic and theatre lighting

 Industrial Process in the chemical, paper and steel industries

 Motor drives from food mixers, washing machines through to lifts and locomotives

 Power supplies for laboratories and uninterruptible power for vital loads

 Generation and transmission control

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Industrial Applications:
 Industrial applications mainly consist of two areas, motor control and power supplies.
The motors which are controlled vary from very large(used in steel mills) to smaller
ones( used in machine tools). Power supplies for battery charging, induction heating,
electroplating and welding.

Consumer Applications:
 Consumer applications cover many different areas in the home, such as audio amplifiers,
heat controls, light dimmers, security systems, motor control for food mixers and hand
power tools.

Transportation Applications:
 Transportation applications like motor drives for electric vehicles, locomotives. In
addition to this non-motor drive applications like traffic signal control, vehicle electronic
ignition and vehicle voltage regulation.

Aerospace Applications:
 Aerospace and defence applications include VLF transmitters, power supplies for space
and aircraft; and switching using solid state relays and contactors.

SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER(SCR)

We know that the diode allows electric current in one direction and blocks electric current in
another direction. In other words, the diode converts the AC current in to DC current. This
unique behavior of the diodes makes it possible to build different types of rectifiers such as half
wave, full wave and bridge rectifiers. These rectifiers converts the Alternating Current into
Direct Current.
The half wave, full wave, and bridge rectifiers uses normal p-n junction diodes (two layer
diodes). So if the voltage applied to these diodes is high enough, then the diodes may get
destroyed. So the rectifiers cannot operate at high voltages.
To overcome these drawback, scientists have developed a special type of rectifier known as
Silicon Controlled Rectifier. These rectifiers can withstand at high voltages.

Silicon Controlled Rectifier Definition

A Silicon Controlled Rectifier is a 3 terminal and 4 layer semiconductor current controlling

device. It is mainly used in the devices for the control of high power. Silicon controlled rectifier
is also sometimes referred to as SCR diode, 4-layer diode, 4-layer device, or Thyristor. It is made
up of a silicon material which controls high power and converts high AC current into DC current
(rectification). Hence, it is named as silicon controlled rectifier.
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What is Silicon Controlled Rectifier?

Silicon controlled rectifier is a unidirectional current controlling device. Just like a normal p-n
junction diode, it allows electric current in only one direction and blocks electric current in
another direction. A normal p-n junction diode is made of two semiconductor layers namely P-
type and N-type. However, a SCR diode is made of 4 semiconductor layers of alternating P and
N type materials.

The principle of p-n-p-n switching was developed by Tanenbaum, Goldey, Moll and Holonyak
of Bell Laboratories in 1956. The silicon controlled rectifier was developed by a team of power
engineers led by Gordon Hall and commercialized by Frank W. Frank W. "Bill" Gutzwiller in
1957. In the early days of this device development, it is often referred by names like SCR and
controlled rectifier. However, now-a-days, this device is often referred by Thyristor.
Silicon controlled rectifiers are used in power control applications such as power delivered to
electric motors, relay controls or induction heating elements where the power delivered has to be
controlled.

Silicon Controlled Rectifier Symbol

The schematic symbol of a silicon controlled rectifier is shown in the below figure. A SCR diode
consists of three terminals namely anode (A), cathode (K), Gate (G). The diode arrow represents
the direction of conventional current.

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Construction of Silicon Controlled Rectifier

A silicon controlled rectifier is made up of 4 semiconductor layers of alternating P and N type

materials, which forms NPNP or PNPN structures. It has three P-N junctions namely
J1, J2, J3 with three terminals attached to the semiconductors materials namely anode (A), cathode
(K), and gate (G). Anode is a positively charged electrode through which the conventional
current enters into an electrical device, cathode is a negatively charged electrode through which
the conventional current leaves an electrical device, gate is a terminal that controls the flow of
current between anode and cathode. The gate terminal is also sometimes referred to as control
terminal.

The anode terminal of SCR diode is connected to the first p-type material of a PNPN structure,
cathode terminal is connected to the last n-type material, and gate terminal is connected to the
second p-type material of a PNPN structure which is nearest to the cathode.
In silicon controlled rectifier, silicon is used as an intrinsic semiconductor. When pentavalent
impurities are added to this intrinsic semiconductor, an N-type semiconductor is formed. When
trivalent impurities are added to an intrinsic semiconductor, a p-type semiconductor is formed.
When 4 semiconductor layers of alternating P and N type materials are placed one over another,
three junctions are formed in PNPN structure. In a PNPN structure, the junction J1 is formed
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between the first P-N layer, the junction J2 is formed between the N-P layer and the junction J3 is
formed between the last P-N layer. The doping of PNPN structure is depends on the application
of SCR diode

Modes of Operation in SCR

There are three modes of operation for a Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR), depending upon the
biasing given to it.
1) Forward Blocking Mode (Off State)
2) Forward Conducting Mode (On State)
3) Reverse Blocking Mode (Off State)

1) Forward Blocking Mode (Off State)

In this mode of operation, the positive voltage (+) is given to anode A (+), negative voltage (-) is
given to cathode K (-), and gate G is open circuited as shown in the below figure. In this case,
the junction J1 and junction J3 are forward biased whereas the junction J2 becomes reverse
biased. Due to the reverse bias voltage, the width of depletion region increases at junction J 2.
This depletion region at junction J2 acts as a wall or obstacle between the junction J1 and junction
J3. It blocks the current flowing between junction J1 and junction J3. Therefore, the majority of
the current does not flow between junction J 1 and junction J3. However, a small amount of
leakage current flows between junction J1 and junction J3.

When the voltage applied to the SCR reaches a breakdown value, the high energy minority
carriers causes avalanche breakdown. At this breakdown voltage, current starts flowing through
the SCR. But below this breakdown voltage, the SCR offers very high resistance to the current
and so it will be in off state.
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In this mode of operation, SCR is forward biased but still current does flows through it. Hence, it
is named as Forward Blocking Mode.

2) Forward Conducting Mode (On State)

The Silicon Controlled Rectifier can be made to conduct in two ways:

i. By increasing the forward bias voltage applied between anode and cathode beyond the
breakdown voltage

ii. By applying positive voltage at gate terminal.

In the first case, the forward bias voltage applied between anode and cathode is increased beyond
the breakdown voltage, the minority carriers (free electrons in anode and holes in cathode) gains
large amount of energy and accelerated to greater velocities. This high speed minority carriers
collides with other atoms and generates more charge carriers. Likewise, many collisions happens
with other atoms. Due to this, millions of charge carriers are generated. As a result depletion
region breakdown occurs at junction J2 and current starts flowing through the SCR. So the SCR
will be in On state. The current flow in the SCR increases rapidly after junction breakdown
occurs.

In the second case, a small positive voltage V G is applied to the gate terminal. As we know that,
in forward blocking mode, current does not flows through the circuit because of the wide
depletion region present at the junction J 2. This depletion region was formed because of the
reverse biased gate terminal. So this problem can be easily solved by applying a small positive
voltage at the Gate terminal. When a small positive voltage is applied to the gate terminal, it will

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become forward biased. So the depletion region width at junction J2 becomes very narrow. Under
this condition, applying a small forward bias voltage between anode and cathode is enough for
electric current to penetrate through this narrow depletion region. Therefore, electric current
starts flowing through the SCR circuit.
In second case, we no need to apply large voltage between anode and cathode. A small voltage
between anode and cathode, and positive voltage to gate terminal is enough to brought SCR from
blocking mode to conducting mode.
In this mode of operation, SCR is forward biased and current flows through it. Hence, it is
named as Forward Conducting Mode.

3) Reverse Blocking Mode (On State)

In this mode of operation, the negative voltage (-) is given to anode (+), positive voltage (+) is
given to cathode (-), and gate is open circuited as shown in the below figure. In this case, the
junction J1 and junction J3 are reverse biased whereas the junction J2 becomes forward biased.

As the junctions J1 and junction J3 are reverse biased, no current flows through the SCR circuit.
But a small leakage current flows due to drift of charge carriers in the forward biased junction
J2. This small leakage current is not enough to turn on the SCR. So the SCR will be in Off state.

V-I Characteristics of SCR

The V-I characteristics of SCR is shown in the below figure. The horizontal line in the below
figure represents the amount of voltage applied across the SCR whereas the vertical line
represents the amount of current flows in the SCR.

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VA = Anode voltage, IA = Anode current, +VA = Forward anode voltage, +IA = Forward anode
current, -VA = Reverse anode voltage, +IA = Reverse anode current
The V-I characteristics of SCR is divided into three regions:
 Forward blocking region

 Forward conduction region

 Reverse blocking region

 Forward blocking region

In this region, the positive voltage (+) is given to anode (+), negative voltage (-) is given to
cathode (-), and gate is open circuited. Due to this the junction J 1 and J3 become forward biased
while J2 become reverse biased. Therefore, a small leakage current flows from anode to cathode
terminals of the SCR. This small leakage current is known as forward leakage current.

The region OA of V-I characteristics is known as forward blocking region in which the SCR
does not conduct electric current.
 Forward Conduction region

If the forward bias voltage applied between anode and cathode is increased beyond the
breakdown voltage, the minority carriers (free electrons in anode and holes in cathode) gains
large amount of energy and accelerated to greater velocities. This high speed minority carriers
collides with other atoms and generates more charge carriers. Likewise, many collisions happens

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with atoms. Due to this, millions of charge carriers are generated. As a result depletion region
breakdown occurs at junction J2 and current starts flowing through the SCR. So the SCR will be
in On state. The current flow in the SCR increases rapidly after junction breakdown occurs.
The voltage at which the junction J 2 gets broken when the gate is open is called forward
breakdown voltage (VBF).
The region BC of the V-I characteristics is called conduction region. In this region, the current
flowing from anode to cathode increases rapidly. The region AB indicates that as soon as the
device becomes on, the voltage across the SCR drops to some volts.
 Reverse Blocking Region

In this region, the negative voltage (-) is given to anode (+), positive voltage (+) is given to
cathode (-), and gate is open circuited. In this case, the junction J 1 and junction J3 are reverse
biased whereas the junction J2 becomes forward biased.
As the junctions J1 and junction J3 are reverse biased, no current flows through the SCR circuit.
But a small leakage current flows due to drift of charge carriers in the forward biased junction
J2. This small leakage current is called reverse leakage current. This small leakage current is not
sufficient to turn on the SCR.
If the reverse bias voltage applied between anode and cathode is increased beyond the reverse
breakdown voltage (VBR), an avalanche breakdown occurs. As a result, the current increases
rapidly. The region EF is called reverse avalanche region. This rapid increase in current may
damage the SCR device.

Applications of Silicon Controlled Rectifier

The silicon controlled rectifier is used in different applications some which are listed below.
 AC Power Control: The Silicon Controlled rectifier is unidirectional device when it is
connected to the ac supply then it would be turn on in positive half cycle of ac supply and
delivered the power to the load. In negative half cycle of ac supply it would be turn off
and do not provide any power to load therefore it can be used as ac power control in
power control switches such as fan dimmers, power regulators and motor control etc.

 Controlled Bridge Rectifiers: The silicon controlled rectifier is used in ac to dc

converters for the rectification of the ac power in dc power such as half wave and full
wave rectifiers. These rectifiers power can also be controlled by giving the trigging signal
at the gate of SCR

 DC Power Transmission: The silicon controlled rectifier is used dc power transmission

line for converting the high-power ac in to high power dc.

 Power Electronic Devices:The silicon controlled rectifier is used in power electronics

devices for controlling the power of switching load.

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 The silicon controlled rectifier is also used in different trigging timing and ICs circuits.

SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH R LOAD

Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier, as the name suggests, is a rectifier circuit which
converts AC input into DC output only for positive half cycle of the AC input supply. The word
“controlled” means that, we can change the starting point of load current by controlling the firing
angle of SCR. These words might seem a lot technical. But firing of SCR simply means, the
SCR turn ON at certain point of time when it is forward biased.

Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier Circuit:

A Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier circuit consists of SCR / thyristor, an AC voltage
source and load. The load may be purely resistive, Inductive or a combination of resistance and
inductance. For simplicity, we will consider a resistive load. A simple circuit diagram of Single
Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier is shown in figure below.

v0 = Load output voltage

i0 = Load current
VT = Voltage across the thyristor T
. Following points must be kept in mind while discussing controlled rectifier:
 The necessary condition for turn ON of SCR is that, it should be forward biased and gate
signal must be applied. In other words, an SCR will only get turned ON when it is
forward biased and fired or gated.

 SCR will only turn off when current through it reaches below holding current and reverse
voltage is applied for a time period more than the SCR turn off time.

Well, let us go ahead with the above points in mind. Let us assume that thyristor T is fired at a
firing angle of α. This means when wt = α, gate signal will be applied and SCR will start
conducting. Refer the figure below.
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Thyristor T is forward biased for the positive half cycle of supply voltage. The load output
voltage is zero till SCR is fired. Once SCR is fired at an angle of α, SCR starts conducting. But
as soon as the supply voltage becomes zero at ωt = π, the load current will become zero and after
ωt = π, SCR is reversed biased. Thus thyristor T will turn off at ωt = π and will remain in OFF
condition till it is fired again at ωt = (2π+α).
Therefore, the load output voltage and current for one complete cycle of input supply voltage
may be written as
v0 = VmSinωt for α≤ωt≤ π
i0 = VmSinωt / R for for α≤ωt≤ π

Calculation of Average Load Output Voltage:

As we know that, average value of any function f(x) cab be calculated using the formula

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Let us now calculate the average value of output voltage for Single Phase Half Wave Controlled
Rectifier.

From the expression of average output voltage, it can be seen that, by changing firing angle α,
we can change the average output voltage. The average output voltage is maximum when firing
angle is zero and it is minimum when firing angle α = π. This is the reason, it is called phase
controlled rectifier.
Average load current for Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier can easily be calculated
by dividing the average load output voltage by load resistance R.
Let us now calculate the root mean square (rms) value of load voltage.

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RMS value of load current can be calculated by dividing the rms load voltage by resistance R.
This means,
RMS Load Current I0rms= RMS Load Voltage / R
Input volt ampere can be calculated as
Input Volt Ampere
= RMS Supply Voltage x RMS Load Current
= VsxI0rms

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SINGLE PHASE FULLY CONTROLLED BRIDGE RECTIFIER WITH R LOAD

Single phase fully controlled bridge converter Fig 10.3 (a) shows the circuit diagram of a single
phase fully controlled bridge converter. It is one of the most popular converter circuits and is
widely used in the speed control of separately excited dc machines.
Indeed, the R–L–E load shown in this figure may represent the electrical equivalent circuit of a
separately excited dc motor. The single phase fully controlled bridge converter is obtained by
replacing all the diode of the corresponding uncontrolled converter by thyristors. Thyristors T1
and T2 are fired together while T3 and T4 are fired 180º after T1 and T2. From the circuit
diagram of Fig 10.3(a) it is clear that for any load current to flow at least one thyristor from the
top group (T1, T3) and one thyristor from the bottom group (T2, T4) must conduct. It can also be
argued that neither T1T3 nor T2T4 can conduct simultaneously. For example whenever T3 and
T4 are in the forward blocking state and a gate pulse is applied to them, they turn ON and at the
same time a negative voltage is applied across T1 and T2 commutating them immediately.
Similar argument holds for T1 and T2.
For the same reason T1T4 or T2T3 can not conduct simultaneously. Therefore, the only possible
conduction modes when the current i0 can flow are T1T2 and T3T4. Of coarse it is possible that
at a given moment none of the thyristors conduct. This situation will typically occur when the
load current becomes zero in between the firings of T1T2 and T3T4. Once the load current
becomes zero all thyristors remain off. In this mode the load current remains zero. Consequently
the converter is said to be operating in the discontinuous conduction mode.
Fig 10.3(b) shows the voltage across different devices and the dc output voltage during each of
these conduction modes. It is to be noted that whenever T1 and T2 conducts, the voltage across
T3 and T4 becomes –vi. Therefore T3 and T4 can be fired only when vi is negative i.e, over the
negative half cycle of the input supply voltage. Similarly T1 and T2 can be fired only over the
positive half cycle of the input supply. The voltage across the devices when none of the
thyristors conduct depends on the off state impedance of each device. The values listed in Fig
10.3 (b) assume identical devices.
Under normal operating condition of the converter the load current may or may not remain zero
over some interval of the input voltage cycle. If i0 is always greater than zero then the converter

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is said to be operating in the continuous conduction mode. In this mode of operation of the
converter T1T2 and T3T4 conducts for alternate half cycle of the input supply.
However, in the discontinuous conduction mode none of the thyristors conduct over some
portion of the input cycle. The load current remains zero during that period
Operation in the continuous conduction mode
As has been explained earlier in the continuous conduction mode of operation i0 never becomes
zero, therefore, either T1T2 or T3T4 conducts. Fig 10.4 shows the waveforms of different
variables in the steady state. The firing angle of the converter is α. The angle θ is given by

It is assumed that at t = 0- T3T4 was conducting. As T1T2 are fired at ωt = α they turn on
commutating T3T4 immediately. T3T4 are again fired at ωt = π + α. Till this point T1T2
conducts. The period of conduction of different thyristors are pictorially depicted in the second
waveform (also called the conduction diagram) of Fig

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The dc link voltage waveform shown next follows from this conduction diagram and the
conduction table shown in Fig 10.3(b). It is observed that the emf source E is greater than the dc
link voltage till ωt = α. Therefore, the load current i0 continues to fall till this point. However, as
T1T2 are fired at this point v0 becomes greater than E and i0 starts increasing through R-L and
E. At ωt = π – θ v0 again equals E. Depending upon the load circuit parameters io reaches its
maximum at around this point and starts falling afterwards. Continuous conduction mode will be
possible only if i0 remains greater than zero till T3T4 are fired at ωt = π + α where upon the
same process repeats. The resulting i0 waveform is shown below v0. The input ac current
waveform ii is obtained from i0 by noting that whenever T1T2 conducts ii = i0 and ii = - i0
whenever T3T4 conducts. The last waveform shows the typical voltage waveform across the
thyristor T1. It is to be noted that when the thyristor turns off at ωt = π + α a negative voltage is
applied across it for a duration of π – α. The thyristor must turn off during this interval for
successful operation of the converter
NOTE:
 The single phase fully controlled rectifier allows conversion of single phase AC into DC.
Normally this is used in various applications such as battery charging, speed control of
DC motors and front end of UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) and SMPS (Switched
Mode Power Supply)
 All four devices used are thyristors. The turn-on instants of these devices are dependent
on the firing signals that are given. Turn-off happens when the current through the device
reaches zero and it is reverse biased at least for duration equal to the turn-off time of the
device specified in the data sheet.
 In positive half cycle thyristors T1 & T2 are fired at an angle α .
 When T1 & T2 conducts
 Vo=Vs
IO=is=Vo/R=Vs/R
 In negative half cycle of input voltage, SCR's T3 &T4 are triggered at an angle of (π+α)

 ∴ is=-io
 Here output current & supply current are in opposite direction

 T3 & T4 becomes off at 2π.

Magnitude of Output Voltage and Current

Let the input voltage Vi1 be a sinusoidal voltage of amplitude Vm and frequency f Hz and let it
be given by,
V_{i1} = V_m sin\omega t = V_m sin\theta.............................(1)
Let, be the firing angle during the positive half cycle. Then SCR1 conducts during
angle to radians during the positive half cycle. Hence the average output voltage
Vav1 contributed by SCR1 is given by,

………(2)

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Similarly, the average voltage contributed by SCR2 due to input voltage Vi2 is equal to Vav1.
Hence, the total value of average output voltage Vav is given by,

……..(3)

…….(4)
Average output current is,

………(5)
We thus, find that fullwave SCR rectifier produces average output voltage and average output
current twice those in half wave SCR rectifier. Further, removal of ripple voltage by filter circuit
is more effective in full wave SCR rectifier.

INVERTERS

An inverter refers to a power electronic device that converts power in DC form to AC form at
the required frequency and voltage output.
Inverters are classified into two main categories −
 Voltage Source Inverter − The voltage source inverter has stiff DC source voltage that
is the DC voltage has limited or zero impedance at the inverter input terminals.

 Current Source Inverter − A current source inverter is supplied with a variable current
from a DC source that has high impedance. The resulting current waves are not
influenced by the load.

Single Phase Inverter

There are two types of single phase inverters − full bridge inverter and half bridge inverter.

Half Bridge Inverter

This type of inverter is the basic building block of a full bridge inverter. It contains two switches
and each of its capacitors has a voltage output equal to [Math Processing Error]Vdc2. In
addition, the switches complement each other, that is, if one is switched ON the other one goes
OFF.

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Full Bridge Inverter

This inverter circuit converts DC to AC. It achieves this by closing and opening the switches in
the right sequence. It has four different operating states which are based on which switches are
closed.

Three Phase Inverter

A three-phase inverter converts a DC input into a three-phase AC output. Its three arms are
normally delayed by an angle of 120° so as to generate a three-phase AC supply. The inverter
switches each has a ratio of 50% and switching occurs after every T/6 of the time T. The
switches S1 and S4, the switches S2 and S5 and switches S3 and S6 complement each other.
The figure below shows a circuit for a three phase inverter. It is nothing but three single phase
inverters put across the same DC source. The pole voltages in a three phase inverter are equal to
the pole voltages in single phase half bridge inverter.

The two types of inverters above have two modes of conduction − 180° mode of
conduction and 120° mode of conduction.

180° mode of conduction

In this mode of conduction, every device is in conduction state for 180° where they are switched
ON at 60° intervals. The terminals A, B and C are the output terminals of the bridge that are
connected to the three-phase delta or star connection of the load.
The operation of a balanced star connected load is explained in the diagram below. For the
period 0° − 60° the points S1, S5 and S6 are in conduction mode. The terminals A and C of the
load are connected to the source at its positive point. The terminal B is connected to the source at

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its negative point. In addition, resistances R/2 is between the neutral and the positive end while
resistance R is between the neutral and the negative terminal.

The load voltages are gives as follows; The line voltages are given as follows;
VAN = V/3, VAB = VAN − VBN = V,
VBN = −2V/3, VBC = VBN − VCN = −V,
VCN = V/3 VCA = VCN − VAN = 0
Waveforms for 180° mode of conduction

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120° mode of conduction

In this mode of conduction, each electronic device is in a conduction state for 120°. It is most
suitable for a delta connection in a load because it results in a six-step type of waveform across
any of its phases. Therefore, at any instant only two devices are conducting because each device
conducts at only 120°.
The terminal A on the load is connected to the positive end while the terminal B is connected to
the negative end of the source. The terminal C on the load is in a condition called floating state.
Furthermore, the phase voltages are equal to the load voltages as shown below.
Phase voltages = Line voltages
VAB = V
VBC = −V/2
VCA = −V/2

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Waveforms for 120° mode of conduction

Applications of Inverter

These are used in a variety of applications like tiny car adapters to the office, household
applications, as well as large-grid systems.
 Inverters can be used as an UPS-Uninterruptible power supplies

 These can be used as standalone inverters

 These can be used in solar power systems

 An inverter is the basic building block of an SMPS- switched mode power supply.

 These can be used in Centrifugal fans, pumps, mixers, extruders, test stands. conveyors,
metering pumps. and Web-handling equipment.

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MODULE 5
ELECTRIC DRIVES

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES

Drive:
A combination of prime mover, transmission equipment and mechanical Working load is called a
drive
Electric drive:

An Electric Drive can be defined as an electromechanical device for converting electrical energy
to mechanical energy to impart motion to different machines and mechanisms for various kinds
of process control.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AN ELECTRICAL DRIVES

The basic block diagram for electrical drives used for the motion control is shown in the
following figure

The aggregate of the electric motor, the energy transmitting shaft and the control equipment by
which the motor characteristics are adjusted and their operating conditions with respect to
mechanical load varied to suit practical requirements is called as electric drive.
Drive system=Drive + load

BASIC COMPONENT (or) ELEMENTS OF ELETCRIC DRIVES

Block diagram of electric drive:

Load:
usually a machinery to accomplish a given task. Eg-fans, pumps, washing machine etc.
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Power modulator:
modulators (adjust or converter) power flow from the source to the motion
Motor:
actual energy converting machine (electrical to mechanical)
Source:
energy requirement for the operation the system.
Control:
adjust motor and load characteristics for the optimal mode.
Power modulators:
Power modulators regulate the power flow from source to the motor to enable the motor to
develop the torque speed characteristics required by the load.
The common function of the power modulator is,
 They contain and control the source and motor currents with in permissible limits during
the transient operations such as starting, braking, speed reversal etc.
 They converts the input electrical energy into the form as required by the motors.
 Adjusts the mode of operation of the motor that is motoring, braking are regenerative.

Power modulators may be classified as,

1. Converters uses power devices to convert uncontrolled valued to controllable output.
2. Switching circuits switch mode of operation
3. Variable impedance

Converters
They provide adjustable voltage/current/frequency to control speed, torque output power of the
motor.
The various type of converters are,
 AC to DC rectifiers
 DC to DC choppers
 AC to AC choppers
 AC to AC –AC voltage controllers (voltage level is controlled)
 Cyclo converter (Frequency is controlled)
 DC to AC inverters

Switching circuits
Switching circuits are needed to achieve any one of the following.
 Changing motor connection to change its quadrant of operation.
 Changing motor circuits parameters in discrete steps for automatic starting and braking
control.
 For operating motors and drives according to a predetermine sequence
 To provide inter locking their by preventing maloperation

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 Disconnect under up normal condition

Eg: electromagnetic contacters, PLC in sequencing and inter locking operation, solid
state relays etc.

Advantages of Electrical Drives

The advantages of electrical drives include the following.

 These dries are obtainable with an extensive range of speed, power & torque.

 Not like other main movers, the requirement of refuel otherwise heat up the motor is not
necessary.

 They do not contaminate the atmosphere.

 Previously, the motors like synchronous as well as induction were used within stable
speed drives. Changeable speed drives utilize a dc motor.

 They have flexible manage characteristics due to the utilization of electric braking.

 At present, the AC motor is used within variable speed drives because of semiconductor
converters development.

Disadvantages of Electrical Drive

The disadvantages of electrical drives include the following.

 This drive cannot be used where the power supply is not accessible.

 The power breakdown totally stops the entire system.

 The primary price of the system is expensive.

 The dynamic response of this drive is poor.

 The drive output power which is obtained is low.

 By using this drive noise pollution can occur.

Applications of Electrical Drives

The applications of electrical drives include the following.

 The main application of this drive is electric traction which means transportation of
materials from one location to another location. The different types of electric tractions

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mainly include electric trains, buses, trolleys, trams, and solar-powered vehicles inbuilt
with battery.

 Electrical drives are extensively used in the huge number of domestic as well as industrial
applications which includes motors, transportation systems, factories, textile mills,
pumps, fans, robots, etc.

 These are used as main movers for petrol or diesel engines, turbines like gas otherwise
steam, motors like hydraulic & electric.

CHOICE OF ELECTRIC DRIVES

 Nature of electric supply

Whether AC or DC supply is to be used for supply

 Nature of the drive

Whether the particular motor is going to drive individual machine or a group

of machines
 Capital and running cost

Maintenance requirement
Space ad weight restrictions
Environment and location
 Nature of load
1. Whether the load requires light or heavy starting torque
2. Whether load torque increases with speed remain constant
3. Whether the load has heavy inertia which may require longer straight time
 Electrical characteristics of motor
1. Starting characteristics,
2. running characteristics,
3. speed control and
4. Braking characteristics
 Size, rating and duty cycle of motors
1. Whether the motor is going to the operator for a short time or whether it has to
run continuously intermittently or on a variable load cycle
 Mechanical considerations
1. Type of enclosures, type of bearings, transmission of drive and Noise level.
2. Due to practical difficulties, it may not possible to satisfy all the above
considerations.

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In such circumstances, it is the experience and knowledge background which

plays a vital role in the selection of the suitable drive.
The following points must be given utmost important for the selection of motor.
The factors are:
 Nature of the mechanical load driven

 Matching of the speed torque characteristics of the motor with that of the load

 Starting conditions of the load.

DYNAMICS OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES

When the motor rotates, the load of the system may rotate or may go through a translational
motion. In the translational motion, the position of the body changes from point to point in space.
The speed of the load may be different from that of the motor.
If the load has different parts, their speed may be different. Some part of the rotor may rotate
while others may go through a translational motion. The equivalent load system of the motor is
shown in the figure below.

Here,
J = Polar moment of inertia of motor load
Wm = Instantaneous angular velocity
T = Instantaneous value of developed motor torque
T1 = Instantaneous value of load torque referred to motor shaft
The equation shown below described the motor load equation. This equation is applicable for
variable inertia drives such as mine, winders, reel, drives, industrial robots. In this equation, the
load torque includes friction and windage torque of the motor.

For constant inertia drive dj/dt = 0. Therefore the equation becomes

Fundamental Torque Equation

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The above equation shows that the load developed by the motor is counter-balanced by a load
torque T1 and a dynamic torque jdωmt/dt.The torque component j(dωmt/dt) is called dynamic
torque because it is present only during transient operations.
The acceleration or deacceleration of the drive mainly depends on whether the load torque is
greater or less than the motor torque. During acceleration, the motor supplies the load torque
along with an additional torque component jdωmt/dt to overcome the drive inertia.
The drives which have a large inertia must increase the load torque by a large amount for getting
sufficient acceleration. The drive which requires a fast transient response, their motor torque
should be maintained at the excessive value and motor load system should be designed with a
lower possible inertia.
The energy associated with dynamic torque is stored in the form of kinetic energy and given by
the equation jdω2m/dt. During the deacceleration, the dynamic torque has a negative sign. Thus it
assists the motor developed torque T and maintains the drive motion by extracting energy from
stored kinetic energy.

CLASSIFICATION OF LOAD TORQUE

1. Active Load torques

2. Passice Load torques

Active Load Torques:

Load torques which have the potential to drive the motor under equilibrium conditions are called
active load torques.
Load torques usually retain sign when the drive rotation is changed.

Passive Torque:

Load torques which always oppose the motion and change their sign on the reversal of motion
are called passive load torques.
Torque due to friction cutting – Passive torque.

Components of load torques:

1. Friction Torque (TF)

The friction torque (TF) is the equivalent value of various friction torques referred to the motor
shaft.
2. Windage Torque (Tw)
When a motor runs, the wind generates a torque opposing the motion . This is known as the
winding torque.

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3. Torque required to do useful mechanical work ( Tm)

Nature of this Components of Load Torques depends on particular application. It may be
constant and independent of speed; it may be some function of speed; it may depend on the
position or path followed by load; it may be time invariant or time-variant; it may vary cyclically
and its nature may also change with the load‟s mode of operation.

Nature of the torque depands of type of load.

It may be constant and indeoendent of speed, Some function of speed, may be time invariant or
time variant.
The nature of the torque may change with the change in the loads mode of operation.

Characteristics of different types of load:

In electric drives the driving equipment is an electric motor.

Selection of particular type of motor driving a m/c is the matching of speed-torque charal of the
driven unit and that of the motor.
Different types of loads exhibit different speed torque charal.
Most of the industrial loads can be classified into the following 4 general categories:
1. Constant torque type load.
2. Torque proportional to speed (generator type load)
3. Torque proportional to square of the speed (fan type load)
4. Torque inversely proportional to speed (const power type load)
1. Constant Torque Characteristic :

The speed – torque characteristic of this type of load is given by T=K.

Working motor have each mechanical nature of work like shaping , cutting, grinding or sharing,
require constant torque irrespective of speed. Similarly cranes during the hoisting.

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Similarly cranes during the hoisting and conveyors handling constant weight of material / unit,
time also exhibit this type of characteristics.

Torque proportional to speed:

Separately excuted dc generators connected to a constant resistance load, eddy current brakes
and calendaring m/cs have a speed torque characteristics m/cs have a speed – torque
characteristics given by T= Kw.
Torque propositional to square of the speed :

Load Torque Square of speed

Example : Fans , Rotary pumps , compressors , ship propellers. The speed – torque
characteristics of this type of load is given by

Torque inversely propositional to speed:

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· In such types of loads , torque is inversely proportional to speed or load power remains
constant.
· Eq: Lathes, boring m/cs, milling m/cs , steel mill colier and electric traction load.
· This type of characteristics is given by
· Most of the load require extra effort at the time of starting to overcome static friction. In power
application it is known as brake away torque and load control engineers call it “stiction” .
Because of slition , the speed torque characteristics of the load is modified near to zero speed.

MULTI QUADRANT OPERATION:

For consideration of multi quadrant operation of drives, it is useful to establish suitable

conventions about the signs of torque and speed.
A motor operates in two modes – Motoring and braking. In motoring, it converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy, which supports its motion .In braking it works as a generator
converting mechanical energy into electrical energy and thus opposes the motion.
Now consider equilibrium point B which is obtained when the same motor drives another load
as shown in the figure. A decrease in speed causes the load torque to become greater than the
motor torque, electric drive decelerates and operating point moves away from point B.
Similarly when working at point B and increase in speed will make motor torque greater than the
load torque, which will move the operating point away from point B
Similarly operation in quadrant III and IV can be identified as reverse motoring and reverse
braking since speed in these quadrants is negative.
For better understanding of the above notations, let us consider operation of hoist in four
quadrants as shown in the figure. Direction of motor and load torques and direction of speed are
marked by arrows
The figure at the right represents a DC motor attached to an inertial load. Motor can provide
motoring and braking operations for both forward and reverse directions.
Figure shows the torque and speed co-ordinates for both forward and reverse motions. Power
developed by a motor is given by the product of speed and torque. For motoring operations
Power developed is positive and for braking operations power developed is negative.

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For better understanding of the above notations, let us consider operation of hoist in four
quadrants as shown in the figure. Direction of motor and load torques and direction of speed are
marked by arrows.

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A hoist consists of a rope wound on a drum coupled to the motor shaft one end of the rope is tied
to a cage which is used to transport man or material from one level to another level . Other end
of the rope has a counter weight. Weight of the counter weight is chosen to be higher than the
weight of empty cage but lower than of a fully loaded cage.
Forward direction of motor speed will be one which gives upward motion of the cage. Load
torque line in quadrants I and IV represents speed-torque characteristics of the loaded hoist. This
torque is the difference of torques due to loaded hoist and counter weight. The load torque in
quadrants II and III is the speed torque characteristics for an empty hoist.
This torque is the difference of torques due to counter weight and the empty hoist. Its sigh is
negative because the counter weight is always higher than that of an empty cage. The quadrant I
operation of a hoist requires movement of cage upward, which corresponds to the positive motor
speed which is in counter clockwise direction here. This motion will be obtained if the motor
products positive torque in CCW direction equal to the magnitude of load torque TL1.
Since developed power is positive, this is forward motoring operation. Quadrant IV is obtained
when a loaded cage is lowered. Since the weight of the loaded cage is higher than that of the
counter weight
.It is able to overcome due to gravity itself.

In order to limit the cage within a safe value, motor must produce a positive torque T equal to
TL2 in anticlockwise direction. As both power and speed are negative, drive is operating in
reverse braking operation. Operation in quadrant II is obtained when an empty cage is moved up.
Since a counter weigh is heavier than an empty cage, its able to pull it up.
In order to limit the speed within a safe value, motor must produce a braking torque equal to
TL2 in clockwise direction. Since speed is positive and developed power is negative, it‟s forward
braking operation.
Operation in quadrant III is obtained when an empty cage is lowered. Since an empty cage has a
lesser weight than a counter weight, the motor should produce a torque in CW direction. Since
speed is negative and developed power is positive, this is reverse motoring operation. During
transient condition, electrical motor can be assumed to be in electrical equilibrium implying that
steady state speed torque curves are also applicable to the transient state operation.

STEADY STATE STABILITY:

Equilibrium speed of motor-load system can be obtained when motor torque equals the load
torque. Electric drive system will operate in steady state at this speed, provided it is the speed of
stable state equilibrium.
Concept of steady state stability has been developed to readily evaluate the stability of an
equilibrium point from the steady state speed torque curves of the motor and load system. In
most of the electrical drives, the electrical time constant of the motor is negligible compared with
the mechanical time constant. During transient condition, electrical motor can be assumed to be

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in electrical equilibrium implying that steady state speed torque curves are also applicable to the
transient state operation.
Now, consider the steady state equilibrium point A shown in figure below

Now consider equilibrium point B which is obtained when the same motor drives another load as
shown in the figure.
A decrease in speed causes the load torque to become greater than the motor torque, electric
drive decelerates and operating point moves away from point B.
Similarly when working at point B and increase in speed will make motor torque greater than the
load torque, which will move the operating point away from point B

Basics of Regenerative Braking

In the regenerative braking operation, the motor operates as generator, while it is still connected
to the supply. Here, the motor speed is greater than the synchronous speed.

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Mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy, part of which is returned to the supply
and rest of the energy is last as heat in the winding and bearings of electrical machines pass
smoothly from motoring region to generating region, when over driven by the load.
An example of regenerative braking is shown in the figure below. Here an electric motor is
driving a trolley bus in the uphill and downhill direction. The gravity force can be resolved into
two components in the uphill direction.
One is perpendicular to the load surface (F) and another one is parallel to the road surface Fl.
The parallel force pulls the motor towards bottom of the hill.

If we neglect the rotational losses, the motor must produce force Fm opposite to Fl to move the
bus in the uphill direction.
Here the motor is still in the same direction on both sides of the hill. This is known as
regenerative braking. The energy is exchange under regenerative braking operation is power
flows from mechanical load to source.

This operation is indicated as shown in the figure below in the first quadrant. Here the power
flow is from the motor to load.

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Now we consider that the same bus is traveling in down hill, the gravitational force doesn‟t
change its direction but the load torque pushes the motor towards the bottom of the hill. The
motor produces a torque in the reverse direction because the direction of the motor torque is
always opposite to the direction of the load torque.
Here the motor is still in the same direction on both sides of the hill. This is known as
regenerative braking. The energy is exchange under regenerative braking operation is power
flows from mechanical load to source. Hence, the load is driving the machine and the machine is
generating electric power that is returned to the supply.
Regenerative braking of Induction motor:
An induction motor is subjected to regenerative braking, if the motor rotates in the same
direction as that of the stator magnetic field, but with a speed greater than the synchronous speed.
Such a state occurs during any one of the following process.
 Downward motion of a loaded hoisting mechanism
 During flux weakening mode of operation of IM.

Under regenerative braking mode, the machine acts as an induction generator. The induction
generator generates electric power and this power is fed back to the supply. This machine takes
only the reactive power for excitation.
The speed torque characteristic of the motor for regenerative braking is shown in the figure.

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Regenerative Braking for DC motor:

In regenerative braking of dc motor, generated energy is supplied to the source. For this the
following condition is to be satisfied.
E > V and Ia should be negative

Modes of Operation:
An electrical drive operates in three modes
 Steady state
 Acceleration including Starting
 Deceleration including

Stopping We know that

T=T1 +J d/dt (ωm)

According to the above expression the steady state operation takes place when motor torque
equals the load torque. The steady state operation for a given speed is realized by adjustment of

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steady state motor speed torque curve such that the motor and load torques are equal at this
speed. Change in speed is achieved by varying the steady state motor speed torque curve so that
motor torque equals the load torque at the new desired speed. In the figure shown below when
the motor parameters are adjusted to provide speed torque curve 1, drive runs at the desired
speed ωm 1 .
Speed is changed to ωm 2 when the motor parameters are adjusted to provide speed torque curve
2. When load torque opposes motion, the motor works as a motor operating in quadrant I or III
depending on the direction of rotation. When the load is active it can reverse its sign and act to
assist the motion. Steady state operation for such a case can be obtained by adding a mechanical
brake which will produce a torque in a direction to oppose the motion. The steady state operation
is obtained at a speed for which braking torque equal the load torque. Drive operates in quadrant
II or IV depending upon the rotation.

Acceleration and Deceleration modes are transient modes. Drive operates in acceleration mode
whenever an increase in its speed is required. For this motor speed torque curve must be changed
so that motor torque exceeds the load torque. Time taken for a given change in speed depends on
inertia of motor load system and the amount by which motor torque exceeds the load torque.
Increase in motor torque is accompanied by an increase in motor current. Care must be taken to
restrict the motor current with in a value which is safe for both motor and power modulator. In
applications involving acceleration periods of long duration, current must not be allowed to
exceed the rated value. When acceleration periods are of short duration a current higher than the
rated value is allowed during acceleration.
In closed loop drives requiring fast response, motor current may be intentionally forced to the
maximum value in order to achieve high acceleration. Figure shown below shows the transition
from operating point A at speed.

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Point B at a higher speedωm 2, when the motor torque is held constant during acceleration. The
path consists of AD1E1B. In the figure below, 1 to 5 are motor speed torque curves. Starting is a
special case of acceleration where a speed change from 0 to a desired speed takes place. All
points mentioned in relation to acceleration are applicable to starting.
The maximum current allowed should not only be safe for motor and power modulator but drop
in source voltage caused due to it should also be in acceptable limits. In some applications the
motor should accelerate smoothly, without any jerk. This is achieved when the starting torque
can be increased step lessly from its zero value. Such a start is known as soft start.

LOAD EQUALISATION IN ELECTRICAL DRIVES

Definition: Load equalisation is the process of smoothing the fluctuating load. The fluctuate load
draws heavy current from the supply during the peak interval and also cause a large voltage drop
in the system due to which the equipment may get damage. In load equalisation, the energy is
stored at light load, and this energy is utilised when the peak load occurs. Thus, the electrical
power from the supply remains constant.
The load fluctuation mostly occurs in some of the drives. For example, in a pressing machine, a
large torque is required for a short duration. Otherwise, the torque is zero. Some of the other
examples are a rolling mill, reciprocating pump, planning machines, electrical hammer, etc.

In electrical drives, the load fluctuation occurs in the wide range. For supplying the peak torque
demand to electrical drives the motor should have high ratings, and also the motor will draw
pulse current from the supply. The amplitude of pulse current gives rise to a line voltage
fluctuation which affected the other load connected to the line.
Method of Load Equalisation
The problem of load fluctuation can be overcome by using the flywheel.The flying wheel is
mounted on a motor shaft in non-reversible drives. In variable speed and reversible drive, a
flywheel cannot be mounted on the motor shaft as it will increase the transient time of the drive.
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If the motor is fed from the motor generator set, then flywheel mounted on the motor generator
shaft and hence equalises the load on the source but not load on the motor.
When the load is light, the flywheel accelerated and stored the excess energy drawn from the
supply. During the peak load, the flying wheel decelerates and supply the stored energy to the
load along with the supply energy. Hence the power remains constant, and the load demand is
reduced.
Moment of inertia of the flying wheel required for load equalisation is calculated as follows.
Consider the linear motor speed torque curve as shown in the figure below.

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INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVES | STARTING BRAKING SPEED CONTROL OF

INDUCTION MOTOR

Before discussing, induction motor drives it‟s important to understand and know about
induction motors. In very simple words induction motors can be described as a three-phase, self-
starting constant speed AC motors. The reason for describing induction motors as constant speed
is because normally these motors have a constant speed depending on the frequency of the
supply and the number of windings.
In the past, it was not possible to control the speed of the induction motors according to one‟s
needs. That‟s why their use was limited and despite having many other advantages over DC
motors they could not be used because of this disadvantage. But at the field of drivers have
improved due to the availability of thyristors or SCRs, power transistors, IGBTs, and GTOs the
variable speed induction motor drives have been invented.
Though the cost of these drivers is more than DC driver, still the use of induction motors is
increasing and they are replacing DC motors because of their advantages. While discussing this
topic we will look through the starting, braking and speed control of induction motors.

STATOR VOLTAGE CONTROL OF AN INDUCTION MOTOR

Stator Voltage Control is a method used to control the speed of an Induction Motor. The
speed of a three phase induction motor can be varied by varying the supply voltage. As we
already know that the torque developed is proportional to the square of the supply voltage and

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the slip at the maximum torque is independent of the supply voltage. The variation in the supply
voltage does not alter the synchronous speed of the motor.
The Torque-Speed Characteristics of the three phase Induction motors for varying supply
voltage and also for the fan load are shown below.

By varying the supplying voltage, the speed can be controlled. The voltage is varied until the
torque required by the load is developed, at the desired speed. The torque developed is
proportional to the square of the supply voltage and the current is proportional to the voltage.
Hence, to reduce the speed for the same value of the same current, the value of the voltage is
reduced and as a result, the torque developed by the motor is reduced. This stator voltage control
method is suitable for the applications where the load torque decreases with the speed. For
example- In the fan load.
This method gives a speed control only below the normal rated speed as the operation of the
voltages if higher than the rated voltage is not admissible. This method is suitable where the
intermittent operation of the drive is required and also for the fan and pump drives. As in fan and
pump the load torque varies as the square of the speed. These types of drives required low torque
at lower speeds. This condition can be obtained by applying lower voltage without exceeding the
motor current.
The variable voltage for speed control of small size motors mainly for single phase can be
obtained by the following methods given below.
 By connecting an external resistance in the stator circuit of the motor.

 By using an Auto transformer.

 By using a Thyristor voltage controller

 By using a Triac Controller

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Nowadays the Thyristor voltage controller method is preferred for varying the voltage. For a
single phase supply, two Thyristors are connected back to back as shown in the figure below.

The domestic fan motors, which are single phase are controlled by a single phase Triac Voltage
Controller as shown in the figure below.

Speed control is obtained by varying the firing angle of the Triac. These controllers are known
as Solid State fan regulators. As the solid state regulators are more compact and efficient as
compared to the conventional variable regulator. Thus, they are preferred over the normal
regulator.
In case of a three phase induction, motor three pairs of Thyristor are required which are
connected back to back. Each pair consists of two Thyristor. The diagram below shows
the Stator Voltage Control of the three phase induction motors by Thyristor Voltage
Controller.

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Each pair of the Thyristor controls the voltage of the phase to which it is connected. Speed
control is obtained by varying the conduction period of the Thyristor. For lower power ratings,
the back to back Thyristor pairs connected in each phase is replaced by Traic.

VARIABLE FREQUENCY CONTROL METHOD

Variable Frequency drive or VFD is the most popular and has

found widespread use in industrial and domestic applications because of its ease of
implementation. They can be used in control of motors used in conveyors and other machinery.
In Industries Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is an integral part due to its versatility. Internal
architecture of any VFD consist of several power electronics circuits (component) and are
interfaced to each other which makes this architecture an interesting application of Power
Electronics Engineering.

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Block Diagram:

VFD Block Diagram

Variable Frequency Drive (VFD), also known as Variable Speed drive, Micro Drive, or AC
drive, is an electronic device that varies the frequency and the speed of AC motors as per the
requirements of the loads.
Theory
Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation(SPWM) is a scheme of modulation useful for
applying Sinusoidal 3 phase voltage to a 3 phase load like 3 phase Induction Motor.
We assume that the 3 phase Inverter circuit is powered by a constant DC voltage source provided
by the DC link Capacitor. The output voltage is varied by changing the switching sequence of
the IGBT switches as shown in the figure below.

Inverter circuit

There challenges that are faced are:

• DC link capacitor is the only source of DC voltage that is assumed to be constant
which is a challenge.
• The six pulses generated by the controller should be applied to the IGBT gates by
means of driver circuits and there should be no overlaps causing any sort of short
circuit.

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PWM and Sine Wave

Sinusoidal pulse width modulation is generation method useful in Inverters. The Inverter
produces AC Voltage that is only possible when the IGBT‟s are fired by means of some
modulation technique. The IGBT gate pulses are generated by means of a control algorithm from
a controller and are provided as an input to the gate driver circuit which supplies with the
enough current. The pulse width generated in produced using sine table and its
approximated view is a sine wave as shown in the figure. With sinusoidal or sine weighted pulse
width modulation, several pulses are produced per half cycle. The pulse at the center are wide
while at the ends of the half cycle are narrow. To change the output frequency of the sine wave,
the frequency of generated SPWM signal need to be changed.

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Detailed VFD
Level Shifter

level shifter
IGBT gate driver circuit is present inside the power module which drives the current capability
of the pulses. Pulses generated by DSP are of 3.3V (CMOS level signal), thus to convert them to
15V, external hex converter IC CD4504 is used.It is also called as level Shifter.

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3 phase induction motor

The three phase Induction motor has the following Specifications:
• Power Rating : 0.37 kW or 0.5 HP
• Voltage Rating : 220V
• Current Rating : 2A
• Maximum Speed(N) : 1400RPM
DSP to generate igbt gate pulses.

c2000 dsp
 The F2802x Piccolo family of micro-controllers provides the power of the C28x
core coupled with highly integrated control peripherals in low pin-count devices. This
family is code-compatible with previous C28x-based code, and also provides a high level
of analog integration.

 An internal voltage regulator allows for single-rail operation. Enhancements have been
made to the HRPWM to allow for dual-edge control (frequency modulation).

 Analog comparators with internal 10-bit references have been added and can be routed
directly to control the PWM outputs. The ADC converts from 0 to 3.3-V fixed full-scale
range and supports ratio-metric references.

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 The ADC interface has been optimized for low overhead and latency. The use of the DSP
is to provide SVM(Space Vector Modulation) equivalent pulses for the Inverter circuit
using SVM algorithm embed inside the processor using Code Composer Studio platform.

 Another uses is to adjust the SVM pulse frequency using analog potentiometer interfaced
to the ADC of the C2000 DSP processor

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 APPENDIX
QUESTION BANK

UNIT I
INTRODUCTION

1. Define Drive and Electric Drive. NOV/DEC 2013, NOV/DEC 2015, NOV/DEC 2016
Drive: A combination of prime mover, transmission equipment and mechanical working load is called
a drive.

Electric drive: An Electric Drive can be defined as an electromechanical device for converting electrical
energy to mechanical energy to impart motion to different machines and mechanisms for various kinds of
process control.

2. List out some advantages of electric drives.

i. Availability of electric drives over a wide range of power a few watts to mega watts.
ii. Ability to provide a wide range of torques over wide range of speeds.
iii Electric motors are available in a variety of design in order to make them compatible to any type
of load.

3. Give some examples of Electric Drives.

i. Driving fans, ventilators, compressors and pumps.

ii. Lifting goods by hoists and cranes.
iii. Imparting motion to conveyors in factories, mines and Warehouses
iv.Running excavators & escalators, electric locomotives trains, Cars trolley buses, lifts & drum
winders etc.

20. What are the various function performed by an electric drive?

1. Driving fans, ventilators, compressors & pumps etc.,
2. Lifting goods by hoists & cranes
3. Imparting motion to conveyors in factories, mines & warehouses and
4. Running excavators & escalators, electric locomotives, trains, cars, trolley buses and lifts
etc.

21. What is duty factor?

The ratio of ON time (Ton) of the drive to total time period(Ton +Toff) is called duty factor.

22. Mention the necessity of power rating? NOV/DEC 2009, NOV/DEC 2012

Power rating of electric drives for particular operation is important since, following reasons.
1. To get economy with reliability
2. To obtain the maximum efficiency on their full load without any damaging.

23. Define four – quadrant operation?

A motor operate in two modes and braking. In motoring, it converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy, which support its motion. In braking it works as a generator converting
mathematical energy into electrical energy and thus, opposes the motion. Motor can provide motoring
and braking operations for both forward and reverse directions.
 UNIT – II
DRIVE MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

1. Why a single phase induction motor does not self start?

When a single phase supply is fed to the single phase induction motor. Its stator winding produces a
flux which only alternates along one space axis. It is not a synchronously revolving field, as in the case of a 2
or 3phase stator winding, fed from 2 or 3 phase supply.

2. What is meant by plugging?

The plugging operation can be achieved by changing the polarity of the motor there by reversing the
direction of rotation of the motor. This can be achieved in ac motors by changing the phase sequence and in dc
motors by changing the polarity.

3. Give some applications of DC motor.

Shunt : driving constant speed, lathes, centrifugal pumps, machine tools, blowers and fans,
reciprocating pumps
Series : electric locomotives, rapid transit systems, trolley cars, cranes and hoists,
conveyors Compound : elevators, air compressors, rolling mills, heavy planners.

4. What are the different types of electric braking? APRIL/MAY 2010, NOV/DEC 2013, NOV/DEC
2014, NOV/DEC 2015
Dynamic or Rheostatic braking, Counter current or plugging and Regenerative braking

5. What is the effect of variation of armature voltage on N-T curve and how it can be achieved?
The N-T curve moves towards the right when the voltage is increased. This can be achieved by means
of additional resistance in the armature circuit or by using thyristor power converter.

6. Compare electrical and mechanical braking

Brakes require frequent maintenance very little maintenance not smooth can be applied to hold the
system at any position cannot produce holding torque.

7. When does an induction motor behave to run off as a generator?

When the rotor of an induction motor runs faster than the stator field, the slip becomes negative.
Regenerative braking occurs and the K.E. of the rotating parts is return back to the supply as electrical energy
and thus the machine generates power.

8. Define slip.
S = Ns – Nr
Where, Ns = synchronous speed in
rpm. Nr = rotor speed in rpm
S = Slip
9. Define synchronous speed.
It is given by Ns = 120f / p rpm. Where Ns = synchronous speed, p = no. of stator poles=supply
frequency in Hz

10. Why a single phase induction motor does not self start?
When a single phase supply is fed to the single phase induction motor. Its stator winding produces a
flux which only alternates along one space axis. It is not a synchronously revolving field, as in the case of a 2
or 3phase stator winding, fed from 2 or 3 phase supply.
11. What is meant by regenerative braking?
In the regenerative braking operation, the motor operates as a generator, while it is still connected to the
supply here,the motor speed is grater that the synchronous speed. Mechanical energy is converter into electrical
energy, part of which is returned to the supply and rest as heat in the winding and bearing.

12. Give some applications of DC motor.

Shunt: driving constant speed, lathes, centrifugal pumps, machine tools, blowers and fans, reciprocating
pumps
Series: electric locomotives, rapid transit systems, trolley cars, cranes and hoists, conveyors
Compound: elevators, air compressors, rolling mills, heavy planners.

13. Compare electrical and mechanical braking.

Brakes require frequent maintenance very little maintenance not smooth can be applied to hold the
system at any position cannot produce holding torque.

14. Differentiate cumulative and differential compound motors.

Cumulative
The orientation of the series flux aids the shunt flux
Differential
Series flux opposes shunt flux

15. What is meant by mechanical characteristics? NOV/DEC 2009, APRIL/MAY 2010, NOV/DEC 2013
A curve drawn between the parameters speed and torque.

16. What is meant by electrical characteristics?

A curve drawn between the armature current and armature torque.

17. What is meant by performance characteristics?

The graph drawn between the output power Vs speed, efficiency, current and torque.

18. What do you mean by Rheostatic braking? NOV/DEC 2016

In this braking armature is removed and connected across a variable rheostat.

19. Is Induction motor runs with synchronous speed or not.

Induction motor never runs with synchronous speed. It will stop if it tries to achieve synchronous
speed.

20. Why the armature core in d.c machines is constructed with laminated steel sheets instead of solid
steel sheets?
Lamination highly reduces the eddy current loss and steel sheets provide low reluctance path to
magnetic field.
21. Why commutator is employed in d.c.machines?
Conduct electricity between rotating armature and fixed brushes, convert alternating emf into
unidirectional emf (mechanical rectifier).
22. Distinguish between shunt and series field coil construction?
Shunt field coils are wound with wires of small section and have more no of turns. Series field coils are
wound with wires of larger cross section and have less no of turns.

23. How will you change the direction of rotation of d.c. Motor?
Either the field direction or direction of current through armature conductor is reversed.

24. What is back emf in d.c. motor? NOV/DEC 2012

As the motor armature rotates, the system of conductor come across alternate north and South pole
magnetic fields causing an emf induced in the conductors. The direction of the emf induced in the conductor is
in opposite to current. As this emf always opposes the flow of current in motor operation it is called as back
emf.

25. Compare Slip ring and squirrel cage motor

Slip Ring Rotor
Squirrel cage Rotor
26. Induction motor as a transformer?
Transformer is a device in which two windings are magnetically coupled and when one winding is
excited by a.c. supply of certain frequency, the e.m.f gets induced in the second winding having same frequency
as that of supply given given to the first winding. The winding of which supply is given is called primary
winding while winding in which e.m.f gets induced is called secondary winding.

27. What are the types of Single phase induction motors? NOV/DEC 2012
Split phase induction motor
Capacitor start induction motor
Capacitor start capacitors run induction motor
Shaded pole induction motor

28. List the advantage of squirrel cage I.M?

Cheaper
Light in weight
Rugged in construction
More efficient
Require less maintenance
Can be operated in dirty and explosive environments

29. What is back e.m.f in a D.C. Motor? State its expression.

Armature starts rotating, the main flux gets cut by the armature winding and an e.m.f gets induced in the
armature. This e.m.f opposes the applied d.c voltage and is called back e.m.f denoted as Eb.

30. Write the voltage equation of D.C. Motor.

V=Eb+IaRa. The back e.m.f is always less than supply voltage (Eb)
 PART – B
1. Explain the Speed-Torque characteristics of three phase induction motor with neat
diagrams. NOV/DEC 2012, NOV/DEC 2014, NOV/DEC 2016
2. Explain about the speed-torque characteristics of a DC Shunt Motor with Suitable graphs and diagrams.
APRIL/MAY 2010, NOV/DEC 2015
3. Explain the various methods of braking of induction motors. NOV/DEC 2009
4. Draw and explain various load characteristics of DC Shunt Motor. NOV/DEC 2013
5. Explain various methods of braking of DC Shunt Motors with neat diagrams. NOV/DEC 2012, NOV/DEC
2014, NOV/DEC 2015, NOV/DEC 2016
6. Explain various methods of braking of DC Series Motors with neat diagrams.
7. Explain the Speed-Torque characteristics of Single phase induction motor with neat
diagrams. NOV/DEC 2009
8. Single phase motor is not a self starting motor. Why? APRIL/MAY 2010

UNIT – III
STARTING METHODS

1. Mention the Starters used to start a DC motor.

Two point Starter
Three point Starter
Four point Starter

2. Mention the Starters used to start an Induction motor. NOV/DEC 2009

D.O.L Starter (Direct Online Starter)
Star-Delta Starter
Auto Transformer Starter
Reactance or Resistance starter
Stator Rotor Starter (Rotor Resistance Starter)

3. What are the protective devices in a DC/AC motor Starter? NOV/DEC 2016
Over load Release (O.L.R) or No volt coil
Hold on Coil
Thermal Relays
Fuses
(Starting /Running)
Over load relay

4. Is it possible to include/ Exclude external resistance in the rotor of a Squirrel cage induction motor?.
Justify
No it is not possible to include/ Exclude external resistance in the rotor of a Squirrel cage induction
motor because, the rotors bars are permanently short circuited by means of circuiting rings (end rings) at both
the ends. i.e. no slip rings to do so.

5. Give the prime purpose of a starter for motors. NOV/DEC 2012, NOV/DEC 2015, NOV/DEC 2016
when induction motor is switched on to the supply, it takes about 5 to 8 times full load current at
starting. This starting current may be of such a magnitude as to cause objectionable voltage drop in the lines. So
Starters are necessary

6. Why motor take heavy current at starting?

When 3 phase supply is given to the stator of an induction motor, magnetic field rotating in space at
synchronous speed is produced. This magnetic field is cut by the rotor conductors, which are short circuited.
This gives to induced current in them. Since rotor of an induction motor behaves as a short circuited secondary
of a transformer whose primary is stator winding, heavy rotor current will require corresponding heavy stator
balancing currents. Thus motor draws heavy current at starting

7. What are the methods to reduce the magnitude of rotor current (rotor induced current) at starting?
By increasing the resistance in the rotor circuit by reducing the magnitude of rotating magnetic field i.e.
by reducing the applied voltage to the stator windings

8. What is the objective of rotor resistance starter (stator rotor starter)?

To include resistance in the rotor circuit there by reducing the induced rotor current at starting. This can
be implemented only on a slip ring induction motor.

9. Why squirrel cage induction motors are not used for loads requiring high starting torque?
Squirrel cage motors are started only by reduced voltage starting methods which lead to the
development of low starting torque at starting. This is the reason why squirrel cage induction motors are not
used for loads requiring high starting torque.

10. How reduced voltage starting of Induction motor is achieved? APRIL/MAY 2010
D.O.L Starter (Direct Online Starter)
Star-Delta Starter
Auto Transformer Starter
Reactance or Resistance starter

11. Give the relation between line voltage and phase voltage in a
(i) Delta connected network (ii) Star connected network
Delta connected network:
Vphase = Vline
Star connected network:
Vphase = Vline / _3
12. Give some advantages and disadvantages of D.O.L starter.
Advantages:
Highest starting torque
Low cost
Greatest simplicity
Disadvantages:
The inrush current of large motors may cause excessive voltage drop in the weak power system The
torque may be limited to protect certain types of loads.

13. What is the function of no-voltage release coil in d.c. motor starter?
As long as the supply voltage is on healthy condition the current through the NVR coil produce enough
magnetic force of attraction and retain the starter handle in ON position against spring force. When the supply
voltage fails or becomes lower than a prescribed value then electromagnet may not have enough force to retain
so handle will come back to OFF position due to spring force automatically.

14. Enumerate the factors on which speed of a d.c.motor depends?

N= (V-IaRa)/Ф so speed depends on air gap flux, resistance of armature, voltage applied to armature.

16. Define critical field resistance of dc shunt generator?

Critical field resistance is defined as the resistance of the field circuit which will cause the shunt
generator just to build up its emf at a specified field.

17. Why is the emf not zero when the field current is reduced to zero in
dc generator?
Even after the field current is reduced to zero, the machine is left out with some flux as residue so emf is
available due to residual flux.

18. On what occasion dc generator may not have residual flux?

The generator may be put for its operation after its construction, in previous operation, the generator
would have been fully demagnetized.

19. What are the conditions to be fulfilled by for a dc shunt generator to build back emf?
The generator should have residual flux, the field winding should be connected in such a manner that the
flux setup by field in same direction as residual flux, the field resistance should be less than critical field
resistance, load circuit resistance should be above critical resistance.

20. Name any two starters which can be used with only slip-ring induction motor
Rotor resistance starter
Solid state rotor resistance starter
\
21. What is the Necessity of starter? NOV/DEC 2014
Both d.c motors as well as three phase induction motors are self starting but these motors show the
tendency to draw very high current at the time of starting. Such a current is very high and can cause demage to
the motor windings. Hence there is a need of a certain device which can limit such a high stating current. Such a
device which limits the high starting current is called a starter.

22. What is meant by starting resistance?

To restrict this high starting armature current, a variable resistance is connected in series with the
armature at start. This resistance is called starter or a starting resistance.

23. What are the main parts of three point starter?

L = line terminal to be connected to positive of supply
A = to be connected to the armature winding
F= to be connected to the field winding
24. What are the disadvantages of three point starter? NOV/DEC 2009, APRIL/MAY 2010, NOV/DEC
2015
Here NVC and the field winding are in series. so while controlling the speed of the motor above rated,
field current is reduced by adding an extra resistance in series with the field winding. To avoid the dependency
of NVC and the field winding, four point starter is used in which NVC and the field winding are connected in
parallel.

25. What is automatic starter? NOV/DEC 2013, NOV/DEC 2014

Upon pressing ON-push button (start button), current limiting stating resistors get connected in series
with armature circuit in DC motor. Then, some form of automatic control progressively disconnects these
resistors until full-line voltage is available to the armature circuit. On pressing an OFF push button the system
should get back to its original position.

26. Why starts are used for DC motors?

In DC motors starters are used to limit the starting current within about 2 to 3 times the rated current by
adding resistance in series with the armature circuit. Other than this starting resistances starters are variable
fitted with protective devices like no –voltage protection and over-load protection.

27. Why stator resistance rarely used?

Due to addition of resistance in the stator side cause the voltage available to the motor X times the
normal voltage i.e. The starting current drawn by the motor as well as the current drawn from the supply get
reduced by X times where as the starting torque developed gets reduced by X2 times.

28. What are the effects of increasing rotor resistance in the rotor circuit of a 3-phase induction motor as
starting?
Due to addition of resistance in rotor circuit by the stator not only reduces the staring current, in
addition to that the starting torque developed than those given by DOL starting.

29. What are the advantages of Electronic starter?

The moving parts and contacts get completely eliminated.
• The arcing problem gets eliminated.
• Minimum maintenance is required as there are no moving parts.
• The operation is reliable
• Starting time also gets reduced.

30. What is autotransformer starter?

A three phase star connected autotransformer can be used to reduce the voltage applied to the stator.
Such a starter is called as autotransformer starter.

PART – B
1. Draw a neat schematic diagram of a three point starter and explain its working. NOV/DEC 2012,
NOV/DEC 2015, NOV/DEC 2016

2. Draw a neat schematic diagram of a four point starter and explain its working. APRIL/MAY 2010
 3. Explain with neat circuit diagram, the star-delta starter method of starting squirrel cage induction motor.
NOV/DEC 2012, NOV/DEC 2014, NOV/DEC 2016
4. Explain the typical control circuits for DC Series and Shunt motors. NOV/DEC 2009
5. Explain with neat diagram the starting of three phase slip ring induction motor. NOV/DEC 2009,
NOV/DEC 2013, NOV/DEC 2014, NOV/DEC 2015
6. Draw and explain the push-button operated direct-on line starter for three
phase induction motor. APRIL/MAY 2010

7. Draw and explain the manual auto-transformer starter for three phase induction motor. NOV/DEC 2016

UNIT – IV
CONVENTIONAL AND SOLID STATE SPEED CONTROL OF D.C.DRIVES
1. Give the expression for speed for a DC motor.
Speed N = k (V-IaRa)j
Where V = Terminal Voltage in volts
Ia = Armature current in Amps
Ra = Armature resistance in ohms
j= flux per pole.

2. What are the ways of speed control in dc motors? NOV/DEC 2014, NOV/DEC 2016
Field control - by varying the flux per pole. -for above rated speed
Armature control- by varying the terminal voltage -for below rated speed

3. Give the Limitation of field control NOV/DEC 2012

a. Speed lower than the rated speed cannot be obtained.
b. It can cope with constant kW drives only.
c. This control is not suitable to application needing speed reversal.

4. What are the 3 ways of field control in DC series motor?

 Field diverter control
 Armature diverter control
 Motor diverter control
 Field coil taps control
 Series-parallel control

5. What are the main applications of Ward-Leonard system?

 It is used for colliery winders.
 Electric excavators
 In elevators
 Main drives in steel mills and blooming and paper mills.

6. What are the merits and demerits of Rheostatic control method?

  Impossible to keep the speed constant on rapidly changing loads.
 A large amount of power is wasted in the controller resistance.
 Loss of power is directly proportional to the reduction in speed. Hence efficiency is decreased.
 Maximum power developed is diminished in the same ratio as speed.
 It needs expensive arrangements for dissipation of heat produced in the controller resistance.
 It gives speed below normal, not above.

7. What are the advantages of field control method? NOV/DEC 2015

 More economical, more efficient and convenient.
 It can give speeds above normal speed.

8. Compare the values of speed and torque in case of motors when ii parallel and in series.
 The speed is one fourth the speed of the motor when in parallel.
 The torque is four times that produced by the motor when in parallel.

9. What is the effect of inserting resistance in the field circuit of a dc shunt motor on its speed and
torque?
For a constant supply voltage, flux will decrease, speed will increase and
torque will increase.

10. While controlling the speed of a dc shunt motor what should be done to achieve a constant torque
drive?
Applied voltage should be maintained constant so as to maintain field strength

11. State the advantages of dc chopper drive. APRIL/MAY 2010, NOV/DEC 2015
 Dc chopper drive s has the advantages of
 High efficiency
 Flexibility in control
 Light weight
 Small size
 Quick response

12. Why chopper based DC drives give better performance than rectifier controlled drives.
 Less harmonic
 Low ripple content
 High efficiency

14. Name the solid state controllers used for the speed control of DC shunt motor and series motor,
 Phase controlled rectifier fed DC drives
 Chopper fed DC drives

15. Give application of Ward-Leonard system of speed control

It is used for elevators, hoist control and for main drive in steel mills where motor of ratings 750KW to
3750KW are required.
16. What is the principle of the field control method of speed control of DC shunt motors?
 The speed of the DC motor can be controlled by varying the field flux. This method of speed control
can be used for increasing the speed of motor above its rated speed, because the speed of the motor is inversely
proportional to the field flux.

17. What is the effect of inserting resistance in the field circuit of of DC shunt motor on its speed and
torque?
 Speed increases above base speed.
 Torque decreases.

18. What are the two main methods adopted for speed control of DC motors?
Armature resistance control
Flux control

19. What are the electrical parameters affecting the speed of the DC motors?
Armature voltage
Field current

20. State the types of controlled rectifier Dc drives NOV/DEC 2016

1. Single phase controlled rectifier DC drives
(a) Half wave controlled rectifier Dc drives
(b) Half controlled rectifier DC drives
(c) Full controlled rectifier DC drives
2. Thee phase controlled rectifier fed DC drives

21. How can speed be controlled in a DC shunt motor? NOV/DEC 2013

 The DC shunt motor speed controlled by
(a) Armature voltage control (below rated speed)
(b)Flux control method (above rated speed)

22. List the advantages of DC six pulse converter compared with three pulse converter
 Current should be continuous 
Requires less filter circuits
 It gives two quadrant operation
23. What factors limit the maximum speed of field control Dc motor?
Field flux
Armature voltage
24. State control strategies of choppers NOV/DEC 2012
Time ratio control
Current limit control

25. What is meant by V/F control? NOV/DEC 2012, NOV/DEC 2013

When the frequency is reduced the input voltage must be reduced proportionally so as to maintain
constant flux. Otherwise the core will get saturated resulting in excessive iron loss and magnetizing current.
This type of induction motor behavior is similar to the working of dc series motors.

26. What is static Ward – Leonard drive? NOV/DEC 2009

 Controlled rectifiers are used to get variable dc voltage from an ac source of fixed voltage. Controlled
rectifiers fed dc drives are known as “static Ward – Leonard drive”.

27. What is meant by voltage control in induction motor? and where it is applicable?
In Induction motor speed can be controlled by varying the stator voltage. This can be done by
using transformer. This method is called voltage control. This is suitable only for controlling the speed
below rated value.

28. What is meant by armature control? NOV/DEC 2016

The armature having controller resistance in series during the speed control by varying the controller
resistance R, the potential drop across the armature is varied. Hence the speed of the motor also varied. This
method of speed control is applicable for speed less than no load speed.

29. What is meant by flux control (or) field control method?

By varying the field flux the speed can be controlled is called flux control. This method can be
used for increasing the speed of the motor is inversely proportional to the field flux

30. In which type of control the field current and armature current control?
i).For armature control method (or) voltage control method the field current is kept constant
ii).For field control (or) flux control the armature current kept constant

31. What is Slip-Power recovery system? NOV/DEC 2009, APRIL/MAY 2010

The slip power can be recovered to the supply source can be used to supply an additional motor which
is mechanically coupled to the main motor. This type of drive is known as slip-power recovery system

PART –B

1. Discuss the Ward-Leonard speed control system with a neat circuit diagram. Also mention its
advantages and disadvantages. NOV/DEC 2012, NOV/DEC 2014, NOV/DEC 2015, NOV/DEC
2016
2. Explain how the speed of a DC Shunt Motor can be varied both above and below the rated
speed at which it runs with full field current. APRIL/MAY 2010
3. Explain the speed control schemes of DC Series Motor. NOV/DEC 2009, APRIL/MAY 2010
4. Explain the single phase half wave converter drive speed control for DC drive with
waveforms.
5. Explain with neat sketch the chopper control method of speed control of DC motors. APRIL/MAY 2010,
NOV/DEC 2012, NOV/DEC 2013, NOV/DEC 2015, NOV/DEC 2016
6. Explain with neat sketches about the DC Shunt Motor speed control by using single phase fully
controlled bridge converter NOV/DEC 2009, NOV/DEC 2013, NOV/DEC 2014
 UNIT – V
CONVENTIONAL AND SOLID STATE SPEED CONTROL OF A.C. DRIVES
1. What is a controlled rectifier?
A controlled rectifier is a device which is used for converting controlled dc power from a control voltage
ac supply.

2. What is firing angle?

The control of dc voltage is achieved by firing the thyristor at an adjustable angle with respect to the
applied voltage. This angle is known as firing angle.

3. Give some applications of phase control converters.

Phase control converters are used in the speed control of fractional kW dc motors as well as in large
motors employed in variable speed reversing drives for rolling mills. With motors ratings as large as
several MW‟s.

4. What is the main purpose of free wheeling diode?

Free wheeling diode is connected across the motor terminal to allow for the dissipation of energy stored
in motor inductance and to provide for continuity of motor current when the thyristors are blocked.

5. What is a full converter?

A full converter is a tow quadrant converter in which the voltage polarity of the output can reverse, but
the current remains unidirectional because of unidirectional thyristors.

6. What is natural or line commutation?

The commutation which occurs without any action of external force is called natural or line
commutation.

7. What is forced commutation?

The commutation process which takes place by the action of an external force is called forced
commutation.

8. What is a chopper?
A chopper is essentially an electronic switch that turns on the fixed-voltage dc source for a short time
interval and applies the source potential to motor terminals in series of pulses.

9. What are the two main difficulties of variable frequency system?

Control of Va requires variation of chopper frequency over a wide range. Filter design for variable
frequency operation is difficult. At low voltage, a large value of toff makes the motor current discontinuous.

11. What is voltage commutation?

A charged capacitor momentarily reverse-bias the conducting thyristor to turn it off. This is known as
voltage commutation.

12. What is current commutation?

A current pulse is forced in the reverse direction through the conducting thyristor. As the net current
becomes zero, the thyristor is turned OFF. This is known as current commutation.

13. What is load commutation?

The load current flowing through the thyristor either becomes zero (as in natural or line commutation
employed in converters) or is transferred to another device from the conducting thyristor. This is known as load
commutation.

14. What are the different means of controlling induction motor? NOV/DEC 2009, NOV/DEC 2013,
NOV/DEC 2014, NOV/DEC 2015
 Stator voltage control.
 Frequency control
 Pole changing control.
 Slip power recovery control.

15. What are the two ways of controlling the RMS value of stator voltage?
 Phase control
 Integral cycle control

16. Mention the two slip-power recovery schemes. APRIL/MAY 2010, NOV/DEC 2012, NOV/DEC 2015
 Static Scherbius scheme
 Static Kramer drive scheme.

17. Give the basic difference between the two slip-power recovery schemes.
The slip is returned to the supply network in scherbius scheme and in Kramer scheme, it is used to
drive an auxiliary motor which is mechanically coupled to the induction motor shaft.

18. Write short notes on inverter rectifier.

The dc source could be converted to ac form by an inverter, transformed to a suitable voltage and then
rectified to dc form. Because of two stage of conversion, the setup is bulky, costly and less efficient.

19. Give the special features of static scherbius scheme.

 The scheme has applications in large power fan and pump drives which requires speed control in
narrow range only.
 If max. Slip is denoted by Smax, then power rating of diode, inverter and transformer can be just Smax
times motor power rating resulting in a low cost drive.
 This drive provides a constant torque control.

20. What are the advantages of static Kramer system,, over static scherbius system?
 Since a static Kramer system possesses no line commutated inverter, it causes bless reactive power
and smaller harmonic contents of current than a static scherbius.
 What is electrical power supply system?
 The generation, transmission and distribution system of electrical power is called electrical power
supply system.
21. What are the 4 main parts of distribution system?
 Feeders,
 Distributors and
 Service mains.

22. What are feeders?

Feeders are conductors which connect the stations (in some cases generating stations) to the areas to be
fed by those stations.

23. What are the advantages of high voltage dc system over high voltage ac system?
 It requires only tow conductors for transmission and it is also possible to transmit the power through
only one conductor by using earth as returning conductor, hence much copper is saved.
 No inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge problem.
 There is no skin effect in dc, cross section of line conductor is fully utilized.

24. What are the limitations of cyclo converter method of speed control?
1. It requires more semiconductor devices like thyristors, MOSFETs compared with inverters
2. Harmonic contents more with low power factor.

25. What are the classifications of PWM technique?

1. Single pulse width modulation
2. Multiple pulse PWM modulation
3. Sinusoidal Pulse PWM

26. Why do we go for PWM inverter control?

The output from inverter is square with some harmonic contents so we have to remove or reducing the
harmonic contents by using some voltage control technique called PWM

27. Compare static Kramer and scherbius system. NOV/DEC 2016

Kramer: The system consists or SRIM,diode bridge rectifier and line commutated inverter The slip
power can flow in one direction This is applicable for below synchronous speed operation
Scherbius: This system consists of SRIM,two SCR bridge (or) cyclo converter The slip power can flow in
both direction Applicable for both below and above synchronous speed operation

28. What are the possible methods of speed control available by using inverters? NOV/DEC 2014
. Current controlled inverter.
 Pulse width modulated (PWM) inverter control
 Variable voltage output(VVO) inverter control
Variable voltage input(VVI) inverter control

29. What is the function of freewheeling diode?

Free wheeling diodes are introduced to maintain the continuous current flow to the load when ever all
thyistors are turned off condition.

30. What is meant by stator frequency control? NOV/DEC 2016

The three phase induction motor speed can be controlled by varying the stator frequency. The variable
stator frequency can be obtained by inverters circuit.

31. What is meant by ac voltage controller?

AC voltage controller is nothing but, which is used to converters fixed ac voltage into variable ac
voltage without changing supply frequency.

PART – B
1. Explain the V/f control method of AC drive with neat sketches.
2. Explain the speed control schemes of phase wound induction motors. APRIL/MAY 2010, NOV/DEC
2012, NOV/DEC 2015
3. Explain in detail about Slip power recovery scheme. APRIL/MAY 2010, NOV/DEC 2015, NOV/DEC
2016
4. Explain with neat diagram the method of speed control of dc drives using rectifiers. NOV/DEC 2009
5. Explain the different methods of speed control used in three phase induction motors. NOV/DEC 2014
6. Explain the Kramer system and Scherbius system. NOV/DEC 2012
7. Draw the power circuit arrangement of three phase variable frequency inverter for the
speed control of three phase induction motor and explain its working. NOV/DEC 2016
8. Discuss the speed control of AC motors by using three phase AC Voltage regulators.
9. Explain the static Kramer method and static Scherbius method of speed control of three phase
induction motor. NOV/DEC 2013

Explain in detail about the various methods of solid state speed control techniques by using inverters.
NOV/DEC 2013
UNIT I
 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL DRIVES
Basic Elements:

A modern variable speed electrical drive system has the following components
• Electrical machines and loads
• Power Modulator
• Sources
• Control unit
• Sensing unit
Electrical Machines:
Most commonly used electrical machines for speed control applications are the following
DC Machines
• Shunt, series, compound, separately excited DC motors and switched reluctance
machines. AC Machines
• Induction, wound rotor, synchronous, PM synchronous and synchronous reluctance
machines. Special Machines
• Brush less DC motors, stepper motors, switched reluctance motors are used.

Power Modulators:
• Modulates flow of power from the source to the motor in such a manner that motor is imparted speed-
torque characteristics required by the load
• During transient operation, such as starting, braking and speed reversal, it restricts source and
motor currents with in permissible limits.
• It converts electrical energy of the source in the form of suitable to the motor
• Selects the mode of operation of the motor (i.e.) Motoring and Braking.
Types of Power Modulators
In the electric drive system, the power modulators can be any one of the following
• Controlled rectifiers (ac to dc converters)
• Inverters (dc to ac converters)
• AC voltage controllers (AC to AC converters)
• DC choppers (DC to DC converters)
• Cyclo converters (Frequency conversion)
Electrical Sources:
• Very low power drives are generally fed from single phase sources. Rest of the drives is powered from
a 3 phase source. Low and medium power motors are fed from a 400v supply. For higher ratings,
motors may be rated at 3.3KV, 6.6KV and 11 KV. Some drives are powered from battery.

Sensing Unit:
• Speed Sensing
• Torque Sensing
• Position Sensing
• Current sensing and Voltage Sensing from Lines or from motor terminals
• Torque sensing
• Temperature Sensing

Control Unit:
• Control unit for a power modulator are provided in the control unit. It matches the motor and
power converter to meet the load requirements

TYPES OF ELECTRIC DRIVES:

According to Mode of Operation

• Continuous duty drives
• Short time duty drives
• Intermittent duty drives
According to Means of Control
• Manual
• Semi automatic
• Automatic
According to Number of machines
• Individual drive
• Group drive
• Multi-motor drive
According to Dynamics and Transients
• Uncontrolled transient period
• Controlled transient period

Another main classification:

• DC drive
• AC drive
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES:

• The limits of Speed range: The range over which the speed control is necessary for the load.
• The efficiency: The motor efficiency varies as load varies so the efficiency consideration under
variable speed operation affects the choice of the motor.
• The braking: The braking requirements from the load point of view. Easy and effective braking are the
requirements of a good drive.
• Starting requirements: The starting torque necessary for the load, the corresponding starting
current drawn by the motor also affects the selection of drive.
• Power factor: The running motor with low power factor value is not economical. The power factor
of the motor affects the selection of drive.
• Load factors: There are varieties of types of load conditions possible like continuous, intermittent
and impact. Such load variation factor and duty cycle of the motor influences the selection of drive.
• Availability of supply: The motors available are AC or DC. But the availability of supply decides
the type of motor to be selected for the drive.
• Effects of supply variations: There is a possibility of frequent supply variations. The selected
motor should be able to withstand such supply variations.
• Economical aspects: The size and rating of the motor decides its initial cost while the various losses
and temperature rise decides its running cost. These economical aspects must be considered while
selecting a drive.
• Reliability of operation: It is important to study the conditions of stable operation of an electric
drive. This includes the investigation of reliability of operation of an electric drive.
• Environmental effects: Chemical gases, fumes, humidity etc. may affect the motor. It should
be considered when we select a drive.
LOADING CONDITIONS:

• Continuous or Constant loads: In this type load occurs for a long time under the same
conditions. Eg. Fan, Paper making machine
• Continuous variable loads: The load is variable over a period of time but occurs repetitively for a
long duration.
Eg. Metal cutting lathes, conveyors.
• Pulsating loads: The load is continuously variable.
Eg. Reciprocating pumps, compressors
• Impact loads: These are peak loads occur at regular intervals of
time. Eg. Rolling mils, Presses, Shearing machine, Forging hammers
• Short time intermittent loads: The load appears periodically identical duty cycles, each consisting of
a period of applications of load.
Eg. Cranes, Hoists, Elevators
• Short time loads: A constant load appears on the drive and the system rests for the remaining period of
cycle.
Eg. Motor – generator sets for charging batteries, house hold equipments.

CLASSES OF DUTY:
• Continuous duty
• Continuous duty, variable load
• Short time duty
• Intermittent periodic duty
• Intermittent periodic duty with starting
• Intermittent periodic duty with starting and braking

Continuous duty:

• Operation at constant load for a long duration of time

• „N‟ indicates duration of operation.

Continuous duty, variable load:

• It denotes a sequence of identical duty cycles each consisting of a period of operation at load and period
of no load.
Short time duty:
It denotes operation at constant load during a given time, then followed by rest of sufficient duration

Intermittent periodic duty:

• Sequence of identical duty cycles each consisting of a period of operation at a constant load and then a
period of rest.

Intermittent periodic duty with starting:

• This consists of a load at start, then constant load and then a period of rest.
Intermittent periodic duty with starting and braking:
• This indicates a load as „Intermittent periodic duty with starting‟ along with a period of braking and then
a rest period.

Heating and Cooling Curves:

Heating Curve:
W – Loss taking place in a machine in watts
G – Mass of the machine in kg
S – Specific heat in watt-sec/kg degree Celsius
θ – Rise in temperature
θF – Final temperature rise
A – Area of cooling surface
λ – Rate of heat dissipation
Heat developed = Heat obserbed + Heat dissipated
Heat developed = Wdt
Heat Obserbed = GSdθ
Heat dissipated = A λ θdt
Wdt = GSdθ + A λ θdt
Wdt - A λ θdt = GSdθ
(W - A λ θ)dt = GSdθ
dt  dθ
GS W  Aλλ
dt dθ
 GS   W
θ  
  
Aλ
   Aλ 
When final temperature is reached, no heat obserbed
Wdt = A λ θFdt
W = A λ θF
θF W
Aλ
dt  dθ
 GS


θ θ 
F

 Aλ
 
Integrating both sides of equation
dt
  dθ

 GS 
θ θ
F
 
Aλ
 
Aλ
 t  ln(θθ)  K
GS F
Where K is constant
To find out value of K, We can use initial condition
At t=0, θ = θ1
0  ln(θ θ ) 
F 1θ )
K K  ln(θ
F 1
Substitute K value
Aλ
 t  ln(θ θ)  ln(θ θ )
G F F 1
Aλ  θ θ 
S t  ln F 1
 
GS  θ θ 
 F 
 Aλ 
 θ θ

t 
GS
e  F 1
θ θ
F  Aλ 
    GS t 
θ θ  θ θ e 
F F
 1
GS
Aλ is called heating time constant τ
θ  θ  θ θ e 
   t 

F  F 1
If the machine is started from ambient temperature θ  00C

t  1
θ 
θ 
 )
F
  


(1 e
Let us consider the time period t = τ then
θ  θ (1 e1)
F
θ = 0.632θF
Similarly, at t = 2τ, θ = 0.865θF
t = 3τ, θ = 0.95θF
t = 4τ, θ = 0.982θF
t = 5τ, θ = 0.993θF

COOLING CURVE:
W – Loss taking place in a machine in watts
G – Mass of the machine in kg
S – Specific heat in watt-sec/kg degree Celsius
θ – Drop in temperature
θF‟ – Final temperature
drop A – Area of cooling
surface λ‟ – Rate of heat
dissipation
Heat developed + Heat emitted = Heat dissipated
Heat developed = Wdt
Heat emitted = -GSdθ
Heat dissipated = A λ‟
θdt
Wdt - GSdθ = A λ‟ θdt
-GSdθ = A λ‟ θdt - Wdt
 GSdθ  Aλ'θWdt
 
 
GS  W
 dθ  θ dt
'  ' 
Aλ  Aλ 
 dθW dt 
  GS
θ    
'
 Aλ   Aλ' 
'
If θ is final temperature drop, then heat generated is equal to heat dissipated
F
Wdt  Aλ'θ' dt
F
 ' W
θF  '
Aλ
 dθ dt
 W    GS 
θ    
' '
Aλ Aλ
   ' 
dθ  Aλ 
  '    dt
θ θ  GS 

 F  ' 
Aλ
 lnθ θ'  
 
t  K
  
F  GS
Aλ'
 
 '
ln θ θ   
t  K
 
 F G
Where K is constant S of integration which can be found by using initial conditions
At t = 0, θ' =θ0
ln θ θ  K
 0 
 F
'
lnθ θ'    Aλ t 
θ ' 
lnθ
   
F F
0

 G 
'
lnθ θ '   lnθS θ'    Aλ t
   0 
 F  F GS
 θθ' F  Aλ '
 
ln
θ θ ' GS t
 0 
 F  Aλ'
'  t
θθ
θ θF'  e GS
0
F '
Aλ
'   t
θ θ '  θ θ e GS

 
F 
0
F
'
Aλ
'  t
θ  θ'  θ θ e GS

 
F  0 F
GS

' Aλ'
τ -
'  ' t τ
 '
θ  θ   θ 0 θ e
F  F
The final temperature is ambient temperature ie, θ' = 0
F
'
At t = τ , θ = 0.367 θ0
At t =2 τ ,
' θ = 0.135 θ0
At t =3 τ ,
' θ = 0.05 θ0
At t =4 τ ,
' θ = 0.018 θ0
At t =5 τ ,
' θ = 0.007 θ0

UNIT II
DRIVE MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

Characteristics of DC motor

1. Torque Vs Armature Current Characteristics

2. Speed Vs Armature Current Characteristics
3. Speed Vs Torque Characteristics

DC Shunt Motor
1. Torque Vs Armature Current Characteristics
T a  I a
• For DC Shunt motor, φ is constant.
• Armature torque is directly proportional to Armature current.
• Torque increases linearly with armature current.
• Torque spent to rotate armature is loss.
• The torque used to operate the load is called Shaft torque.

2. Speed Vs Armature Current Characteristics

V  I aR a
N 
• When load increases, armature current increases.
• When armature current increases, drop increases.
• When drop increases, speed reduces.

3. Speed Vs Torque Characteristics

 This characteristic is similar to speed-armature current characteristics.
 When torque increases, speed reduces.
 The characteristic also varies with respect to armature current value, field resistance value
and supply voltage.
DC Series Motor

1. Torque Vs Armature Current Characteristics

T  Ia2
 Armature current and field current are same.
 At starting time, torque is proportional to square value of armature current and then torque
is proportional to armature current.
 It can be used for high torque applications.
 2. Speed Vs Armature Current Characteristics

V  IaRa
N 
 For series motor, speed is inversely proportional to flux.
 Flux is directly proportional to armature current.
 When armature current increases, speed reduces.

3. Speed Vs Torque Characteristics

• This characteristic is similar to speed-armature current characteristics.

• When torque increases, speed reduces.
• The characteristic also varies with respect to field current value and supply voltage.
DC Compound Motor

 The characteristic of this motor is depending on flux produced by shunt winding and series winding.
 For cumulative compound motor, the total flux is the sum of shunt field coil flux and series field flux.
 For differential compound motor, the total flux is the difference of shunt field coil flux and
series field flux.
 Cumulative compound motor has capability of developing large amount of torque compared
to differential compound motor.
BRAKING OF ELECTRICAL MOTORS:

 The term braking comes from the term brake

 The process of reducing speed of any rotating machine

Types of Braking

• Rheostatic or Dynamic Braking

• Plugging or Counter Current Braking
• Regenerative Braking

DC Shunt Motor:

Rheostatic or Dynamic Braking:

 The method of reversing the direction of torque and braking the motor is dynamic braking
 In this method of braking the motor which is at a running condition is disconnected from the source and
connected across a resistance
 When the motor is disconnected from the source, the rotor keeps rotating due to inertia and it works as a self
–excited generator
 When the motor works as a generator the flow of the electric current and torque reverses
 During braking to maintain the steady torque sectional resistances are cut out one by one.

Plugging or Counter Current Braking:

 In this method the terminals of supply are reversed, as a result the generator torque also reverses which
resists the normal rotation of the motor and as a result the speed decreases
 During plugging external resistance is also introduced into the circuit to limit the flowing current
 The main disadvantage of this method is that here power is wasted

Regenerative Braking:
 Regenerative braking takes place whenever the speed of the motor exceeds the synchronous speed
 This baking method is called regenerative braking because here the motor works as generator and supply the
voltage to main
 The main criteria for regenerative braking is that the rotor has to rotate at a speed higher than
synchronous speed
 The motor will act as a generator and the direction of electric current flow through the circuit and direction
of the torque reverses and braking takes place
 The only disadvantage of this type of braking is that the motor has to run at super synchronous speed which
may damage the motor mechanically and electrically

DC SERIES MOTOR:

Rheostatic or Dynamic Braking:

(Theory is same as DC shunt motor braking)

Plugging or Counter Current Braking:

(Theory is same as DC shunt motor braking)

Regenerative Braking:

(Theory is same as DC shunt motor braking)

BRAKING OF INDUCTION MOTOR

Dynamic or Rheostatic Braking:

 This type of induction motor braking is obtained when the motor is made to run on a single phase supply by
disconnecting any one of the three phase from the source
 The disconnected terminal is connected with another phase or the disconnected phase is left open
 When the disconnected phase is left open, it is called two lead connection
 When the disconnected phase is connected to another machine phase it is known as three lead connection
 The torque of three phase induction motor is reduced when motor runs with two phase supply
 Now the resistance value of rheostat can be adjusted to stop the motor

DC Dynamic Braking:

 To obtain this type of braking the stator of a running induction motor is connected to a dc supply
 The moment when AC supply is disconnected and DC supply is introduced across the terminals of
the induction motor
 The stationery magnetic field is generated due to the DC electric current flow
 The machine works as a generator and the generated energy dissipates in the rotor circuit resistance and
dynamic braking of induction motor occurs

Plugging or Counter Current Braking:

 Plugging induction motor braking is done by reversing the phase sequence of the motor
 The phase sequence of the motor can be changed by interchanging connections of any two phases of stator
with respect of supply terminals
 When the phase sequence is changed, the direction of current flow is changed
 The counter current produces the opposite torque and then motor is stopped

Regenerative Braking:

 The regenerative braking of induction motor can only take place if the speed of the motor is greater than
synchronous speed
 The above synchronous speed is obtained by using Petrol engine
 This baking method is called regenerative braking because here the motor works as generator and supply
the voltage to main
 The main criteria for regenerative braking is that the rotor has to rotate at a speed higher than
synchronous speed
 The motor will act as a generator and the direction of electric current flow through the circuit and direction
of the torque reverses and braking takes place

OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF DC MOTORS:

 This is a device that converts DC electrical energy to a mechanical energy
 Structurally and construction wise a direct electric current motor is exactly similar to a DC generator, but
electrically it is just the opposite
 This DC or direct electric current motor works on the principal, when a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a torque and has a tendency to move
 This is known as motoring action
 If the direction of electric current in the wire is reversed, the direction of rotation also reverses
 When magnetic field and electric field interact they produce a mechanical force, and based on that
the working principle of dc motor established
 The direction of rotation of a this motor is given by Fleming‟s left hand rule
 Fleming’s left hand rule: if the index finger, middle finger and thumb of your left hand are extended
mutually perpendicular to each other and if the index finger represents the direction of magnetic field, middle
finger indicates the direction of electric current, then the thumb represents the direction in which force is
experienced by the shaft of the dc motor
Fleming’s Right & Left Hand Rule

Equivalent Circuit
TYPES OF DC MOTORS
 Separately Excited DC motor.
 Self-excited DC motor.
1. Series motor.
2. Shunt motor.
3. Compound motor.
a. Cumulative compound b. Differential compound
i. Long Shunt compound motor.
ii. Short Shunt compound motor.

Separately Excited DC motor:

 The supply is given separately to the field and armature windings
 The main distinguishing fact in these types of dc motor is that, the armature electric current does not flow
through the field windings, as the field winding is energized from a separate external source of dc
electric current

Self-excited DC motor
Series motor:

 The armature winding and field winding are connected in series

 The entire armature electric current flows through the field winding as its connected in series to the
armature winding
 In a series wound dc motor, the speed varies with load

Shunt motor:
 The field winding is connected in parallel to the armature winding
 The voltage is same across field winding and armature winding
 The line current is the sum of armature current and field current
 The shunt wound dc motor is a constant speed motor, as the speed does not vary here with the variation of
mechanical load on the output.

Compound Motor:
 The compound excitation characteristic in a dc motor can be obtained by combining the
operational characteristic of both the shunt and series excited dc motor
 It contains the field winding connected both in series and in parallel to the armature winding
 If the shunt field winding is only parallel to the armature winding and not the series field winding then
its known as short shunt dc motor
 If the shunt field winding is parallel to both the armature winding and the series field winding then it‟s
known as long shunt type compounded wound dc motor
 When the shunt field flux assists the main field flux, produced by the main field connected in series to the
armature winding then it‟s called cumulative compound dc motor
 In case of a differentially compounded self excited dc, the arrangement of shunt and series winding is such
that the field flux produced by the shunt field winding diminishes the effect of flux by the main series
field winding
Long Shunt compound motor

Short Shunt compound motor

Cumulative & Differential compound

SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS:

 Single phase motors are small motors.
 They have a power rating in fractional HP range.
 These motors are used in homes, offices, shops and factories.
 Disadvantages:
1. Lack of starting torque.
2. Reduced power factor.
3. Low efficiency.
CONSTRUCTION:

 The construction of a single phase induction motor is similar to 3φ squirrel cage induction motor.
 Stator has a single phase distributed winding.
 Rotor  Squirrel cage rotor.

 It has no self starting torque.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
 The starting torque can be produced by using auxiliary winding.
 The angle between main winding and auxiliary winding should be 90 electrical degrees.
  The current passing through main winding and auxiliary winding should have some electrical angle
to produce a rotating magnetic field.
 Rotating magnetic field produces high starting torque.
 The single-phase induction motor operation can be described by two methods:
– Double revolving field theory; and
– Cross-field theory.

DOUBLE REVOLVING FIELD THEORY:

 A single-phase AC current supplies the main winding that produces a pulsating magnetic field.
 Mathematically, the pulsating field could be divided into two fields, which are rotating in
opposite directions.
 The pulsating filed is divided a forward and reverse rotating field.
 The components „a‟ and „b‟ are forward and reverse rotating field respectively

Rotation of vector by an angle +φ and –φ

The flux variation with respect to φ:

The forward slip of the rotor is given by

N 
sN f s
Ns
N
s f  1 N
s
N
Ns  1s f
The backward slip of the rotor is given by
N (N)
s b  s Ns
N 
sN b s Ns
N
s  1
b Ns
s  11s
b f
s  2 s
b f
Flux versus time:
 At starting, the slip value of 1φ induction motor is „1‟.
 When slip is 1, the components „a‟ and „b‟ are producing equal and opposite torque.
 The resulting torque is zero.
 This motor has no starting torque.

TYPES OF 1Φ IM (STARTING METHODS):

 Resistance – Start (Split phase) motor.

 Capacitor – Start induction motor.

 Capacitor – Run induction motor.
 Capacitor – Start and Capacitor – Run IM.
 Shaded – pole motor.
Resistance – Start (Split phase) motor:
 It has two windings:
1. Main winding or Running winding
2. Auxiliary winding.
 These two winding axes are displaced by 90 electrical degrees.
 The main winding has high X (reactance) value and low R (resistance) value.
 The auxiliary winding has Low X value and High R value.
 This variation in the reactance makes two different phases.
 Two phase supply constructs rotating magnetic field.
 The rotating magnetic field produces high torque at the starting time.
 The centrifugal switch disconnects the auxiliary winding from the circuit after the motor
reaches synchronous speed.
 Applications:
Fans, Blowers, Centrifugal pumps, washing machines
Torque Vs Speed:

Capacitor – Start induction motor:

  A capacitor is connected in series with auxiliary winding to produce leading current in auxiliary
winding.
 The high X value of main winding produces lagging current.
 Voltage across two windings produces two different phases.
 Two phase supply constructs rotating magnetic field.
 The rotating magnetic field produces high torque at the starting time.
 The centrifugal switch disconnects the auxiliary winding and capacitor from the circuit after the motor
reaches 75% of synchronous speed.
 Applications:
Compressors, Pumps, Conveyors, Refrigerators, Air conditioning
Equipments, Washing machines
Speed Vs Torque:
Capacitor – Run induction motor:

 A capacitor is connected in series with auxiliary winding to produce leading current in auxiliary
winding.
 The high X value of main winding produces lagging current.
 Voltage across two windings produces two different phases.
 Two phase supply constructs rotating magnetic field.
 The rotating magnetic field produces high torque at the starting time.
 It does not use centrifugal switch.
 The capacitor is always connected with auxiliary winding so that the starting and running torque is high.
  Applications:
Fans, Blowers, Centrifugal pumps
Speed Vs Torque:

Capacitor – Start and Capacitor – Run IM:

 It uses two capacitors, Running capacitor (Cr) and starting capacitor (Cs).
 Running capacitor always connected in series with auxiliary winding.
 Starting capacitor is disconnected from the circuit after the motor reaches 75% of synchronous speed by
the help of Centrifugal switch.
 Starting torque and efficiency can be improved.

 Applications:
Compressors, Pumps, Conveyors, Refrigerators
Speed Vs Torque:
Shaded – pole motor:
 During the portion OA of the alternating current cycle, the emf is induced in the shading coil. The
induced emf produces magnetic flux in the shaded portion. This flux opposes the main field flux, so that
the flux under shaded portion is weakened and flux under unshaded portion is strengthened .
 During the portion AB of the alternating current cycle, the flux under shaded portion and
unshaded portion is uniform.
 During the portion BC of the alternative current cycle , the emf is induced in the shading coil. The
induced emf produces magnetic flux in the shaded portion. This flux is added to the main field flux, so
that the flux under shaded portion is strengthened and flux under unshaded portion is weakened.
 Alternatively it is producing strengthened and weakened magnetic flux under pole faces, so that
it constructs rotating magnetic field.
 The rotating magnetic field produces high torque at the starting time.
 Low efficiency, Low power factor and Very low starting torque.

 Applications:
Fans, Blowers, Turn tables, Hair driers, Motion picture projectors
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS:

Squirrel cage rotor

Slip ring or Wound Rotor

Principle of operation:
 Rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor windings and produces an induced voltage in the rotor windings.
 Due to the fact that the rotor windings are short circuited, for both squirrel cage and wound-rotor, and
induced current flows in the rotor windings.
 The rotor current produces another magnetic field.
 A torque is produced as a result of the interaction of those two magnetic fields. This torque makes
the rotation of the rotor.
 The IM will always run at a speed lower than the synchronous speed.
 The difference between the motor speed and the synchronous speed is called the Slip speed.
 UNIT III
STARTING METHODS

STARTER:
• Starter is used to reduce starting current because armature consumes 15-20 times more than the full load
current at starting time.
• High current blows out the fuses.
• It affects insulation of the coil.
• It also creates very high torque and very high torque causes mechanical damage to the motor.

Basic Arrangement:

DC SHUNT MOTOR:
• Three Point Starter
• Four Point Starter

Three Point Starter:

 The electric current will be dangerously high at starting (as armature resistance Ra is small) and hence its
important that we make use of a device like the 3 point starter to limit the starting electric current to an
allowable lower value
 Construction wise a starter is a variable resistance, integrated into number of sections as shown in the figure
beside
 The contact points of these sections are called studs and are shown separately as OFF, 1, 2,3,4,5, RUN
 There are 3 main points
'L' Line terminal (Connected to positive of supply)
'A' Armature terminal (Connected to the armature winding)
'F' Field terminal (Connected to the field winding)
 The point 'L' is connected to an electromagnet called overload release (OLR)
 The other end of 'OLR' is connected to the lower end of conducting lever of starter handle where a spring
is also attached with it and the starter handle contains also a soft iron piece housed on it
 This handle is free to move to the other side RUN against the force of the spring
 This spring brings back the handle to its original OFF position under the influence of its own force
 Another parallel path is derived from the stud '1', given to the another electromagnet called No Volt
Coil (NVC)
 Which is further connected to terminal 'F'. The starting resistance at starting is entirely in series with
the armature
 The OLR and NVC acts as the two protecting devices of the starter

Working of the 3 point starter:

 The supply to the DC motor is switched ON
 Then handle is slowly moved against the spring force to make a contact with stud No. 1
 At this point, field winding of the shunt or the compound motor gets supply through the parallel
path provided to starting resistance, through No Voltage Coil
 While entire starting resistance comes in series with the armature, the high starting armature electric
current thus gets limited as the electric current equation at this stage becomes I a = E/(Ra+Rst)
 As the handle is moved further, it goes on making contact with studs 2, 3, 4 etc., thus gradually cutting off
the series resistance from the armature circuit as the motor gathers speed
 Finally when the starter handle is in 'RUN' position, the entire starting resistance is eliminated and the motor
runs with normal speed
 when field electric current flows, the NVC is magnetized
 Now when the handle is in the 'RUN' position, soft iron piece connected to the handle and gets attracted by
the magnetic force produced by NVC, because of flow of electric current through it
 The NVC is designed in such a way that it holds the handle in 'RUN' position against the force of the spring
as long as supply is given to the motor
 Thus NVC holds the handle in the 'RUN' position and hence also called hold on coil
 when there is any kind of supply failure, the electric current flow through NVC is affected and it immediately
loses its magnetic property and is unable to keep the soft iron piece on the handle, attracted
 At this point under the action of the spring force, the handle comes back to OFF position, opening the
circuit and thus switching off the motor
 Thus it also acts as a protective device safeguarding the motor from any kind of abnormality
3 Point Starter with brass Arc

FOUR POINT STARTER:

 The 4 point starter has a lot of constructional and functional similarity to a three point starter, but this
special device has an additional point
 A 4 point starter as the name suggests has 4 main operational points, namely

1. 'L' Line terminal. (Connected to positive of supply)

2. 'A' Armature terminal. (Connected to the armature winding)

3. 'F' Field terminal. (Connected to the field winding)

Like in the case of the 3 point starter, and in addition to it there is,

4. A 4th point N. (Connected to the No Voltage Coil)

 The remarkable difference in case of a 4 point starter is that the No Voltage Coil is connected independently
across the supply through the fourth terminal called 'N'
 The change in the field supply does affect the performance of the NVC
 Apart from this above mentioned fact, the 4 point and 3 point starters are similar in all other ways
 DC Series Motor

TWO POINT STARTER:

 This starter is only for D.C. series motor only. The basic construction of two point starter is similar to that of
three point starter except the fact that it has only two terminals namely line (L) and field (F)
 The F terminal is one end of the series combination of field and the armature winding. The action of
the starter is similar to that of three phase starter.
 The main problem in case of D.C. series motor is it‟s over speeding action when the load is less
 This can be prevented using two point starters. The no-volt coil is connecting in series with the motor so both
current are equal.
 At no load situation load current drawn by the motor decreases causes no-volt coil losses its required
magnetism and releases the handle to OFF position.
 INDUCTION MOTOR STARTERS

• Stator Resistance Starter

• Autotransformer Starter
• Star – Delta Starter
• Rotor Resistance Starter
• Direct On Line Starter

Stator Resistance Starter:

 The variable resistor connected in series with stator winding reduces the starting current
 The resistance value is varied from high to low by using sliding contacts of variable resistor
 Very simple speed control method
 Low maintenance
 Low cost

Autotransformer Starter:
 The operation principle of auto transformer method is similar to the star delta starter method
 The starting current is limited by (using a three phase auto transformer) reduce the initial stator
applied voltage
 The auto transformer starter is more expensive, more complicated in operation and bulkier in construction
when compared with the star – delta starter method
 The starting current and torque can be adjusted to a desired value by taking the correct tapping from the
auto transformer

Star – Delta Starter:

 The star delta starting is a very common type of starter and extensively used, compared to the other types
of the starters
 This method uses reduced supply voltage in starting
 Figure shows the connection of a 3phase induction motor with a star –delta starter
 The method achieved low starting current by first connecting the stator winding in star configuration
 After the motor reaches a certain speed, throw switch changes the winding arrangements from star to
delta configuration
V
 At the time of starting when the stator windings are start connected, each stator phase gets voltage L
3
where
V is the line voltage
L
 As the voltage is reduced, the starting current also reduced
 Since the torque developed by an induction motor is proportional to the square of the applied voltage, star-
delta starting reduced the starting torque to one – third that obtainable by direct delta starting
Rotor Resistance Starter:

 This method allows external resistance to be connected to the rotor through slip rings and brushes
 Initially, the rotor resistance is set to maximum and is then gradually decreased as the motor speed
increases, until it becomes zero
 The rotor resistance starting mechanism is usually very bulky and expensive when compared with
other methods
 It also has very high maintenance costs
 Also, a considerable amount of heat is generated through the resistors when current runs through them
 The starting frequency is also limited in this method
 However, the rotor resistance method allows the motor to be started while on load

Direct On Line Starter:

 The Direct On-Line (DOL) starter is the simplest and the most inexpensive of all starting methods and is
usually used for squirrel cage induction motors
 It directly connects the contacts of the motor to the full supply voltage
 The starting current is very large, normally 6 to 8 times the rated current
 The starting torque is likely to be 0.75 to 2 times the full load torque
 In order to avoid excessive voltage drops in the supply line due to high starting currents, the DOL starter
is used only for motors with a rating of less than 5KW
 There are safety mechanisms inside the DOL starter which provides protection to the motor as well as
the operator of the motor

Operation:
 The DOL starter consists of a coil operated contactors controlled by start and stop push buttons
 On pressing the start push button NO, the contactor coil is energized from line
 The three mains contacts and an auxiliary contact are closed
 The motor is thus connected to the supply
 When the stop push button NC is pressed, the supply through the contactor is Disconnected
 Since the coil is de-energized, the main contacts are opened. The supply to motor is disconnected and
the motor stops

AUTOMATIC STARTER
PARTS:
1. Magnetising coil O1, O2, O3
2. Contacts M1, C1, A1, A2
3. ON switch, OFF switch
4. Resistors
5. DPST switch

WORKING:
 DPST switch is ON
 Press ON switch
 As soon as ON switch is pressed, Coil O1 gets energised and Contacts M1, C1are closed
 When Contacts M1, C1are closed, the armature current flows through R1 and R2 and hence the starting current
is reduced
 When the motor reaches above 60% speed, the coil O2 gets energised and hence the contact A1 is closed
 When the contact A1 is closed, resistor R1 is disconnected from armature circuit
 When the motor reaches above 80% speed, the coil O2 and O3 gets energised and hence the contact A1 and
A2 are closed
 When the contacts A1 and A2 are closed, resistors R1 and R2 are disconnected from the armature circuit
 Finally, the motor rotates at normal speed
 To stop the motor, the OFF button should be pressed
 As soon as the OFF button is pressed, the coil gets reenergized and motor is stopped.

ELECTRONIC STARTER – SHUNT MOTOR

PARTS:
 Thyristor
 Freewheeling diodes
 Tachogenerator
 Zener diode
 Capacitor
 Resistors R1 and R2
 Switch S1 and S2

WORKING:
 The thyristor is an electronic switch
 It acts as a closed switch, when it conducts
 Resistors R1 and R2 are used to reduce starting current
 As soon as the ON button S1 is pressed, thyristor TL acts as closed switch, the supply is given to the armature
of the motor
 Motor starts to rotate with low starting current because resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series with
armature winding
 At the same time the capacitor C starts charging with the voltage polarities as shown in figure.
 To cut-off resistors R1 and R2, the tachogenerator is used
 When the motor reaches the speed above 60%, the zenerdiode Dz1 starts conduction and hence the thyristor
T1 acts as a closed switch
 Resistor R1 is disconnected from the armature circuit
 When the motor reaches the speed above 80%, the zenerdiode Dz2 starts conduction and hence the thyristor
T1andT2 act as a closed switch
 Resistors R1 and R2 are disconnected from the armature circuit and the motor runs with normal current
 To stop the motor, the OFF button S2 should be pressed
 As soon as the OFF button S2 is pressed, the thyristor TL stops conduction because the capacitor starts
discharging through the thyristor TL by the aid of thyristor T3

ELECTRONIC STARTER – IM (Soft Starter)

 The thyristor voltage control method is used in the soft starter

 Resistors are not used in soft starter to reduce the starting current
 The thyristors T1, T1‟, T2, T2‟ and T3, T3‟ are used in the soft starter
 Two thyristors are connected in antiparallel in each line
 Now the antiparallel connection acts as triac
 To control the voltage, the firing angle of triac is controlled
 The voltage and the current are directly proportional
 When the voltage reduces, the current reduces and vice versa
 The starting current is controlled by controlling the starting voltage
 UNIT IV
SPEED CONTROL OF DC DRIVES

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

• Speed Control of Shunt Motor
* Flux Control
* Armature Voltage Control (Rheostatic Control)
* Applied Voltage Control
• Speed Control of Series Motor
* Flux Control
* Rheostatic Control
* Applied Voltage Control
• Ward- Leonard System of Speed Control

1. Speed Control of Dc Shunt

Motor: Flux Control
E
N b
φ
V  IaR a
N φ
 speed of the motor is inversely proportional to flux
 The speed can be controlled by varying flux
 To vary the flux, a rheostat is added in series with the field winding
 Adding more resistance in series with field winding will increase the speed, as it will decrease the flux
 Field current is relatively small and hence I2R loss is small
 This method is quiet efficient
 The speed can be reduced by using this method.

Armature Voltage Control

 Speed of the motor is directly proportional to the armature voltage

 When armature voltage varies, the armature current varies
 Speed is directly proportional to armature current Ia
 If we add resistance in series with armature, Ia decreases and hence speed decreases.
 The speed can be reduced by using this method.

Applied Voltage Control:

 The speed is approximately proportional to the voltage across the armature.

 Voltage across armature is changed with the help of a suitable switchgear
 Armature is supplied with different voltages to get varies speed
 The shunt filed is connected to a fixed exciting voltage

2. Speed Control of Series

Motor: Field Diverter Method:
 A veritable resistance is connected parallel to the series field
 This variable resistor is called as diverter
 The desired amount of current can be diverted through this resistor and hence current through field coil
can be decreased
 The flux can be decreased to desired amount and speed can be increased

Armature Diverter Method:

 The diverter is connected across the armature

 The desired amount of armature current can be diverted through this resistor and hence current through
field coil and armature can be varied
 The flux is varied and speed can be increased

Tapped Field Method:

 The field coil is tapped
 The number of turns can be changed and hence the flux can be changed
 We can select different value of Ø by selecting different number of turns.
 The speed inversely proportional to flux Ø

Series – Parallel Connection of Field:

 This system is widely used in electric traction

 In this method, several speeds can be obtained by regrouping coils in parallel and series
 When the coils are in series, the same current passing through them and flux increases
 When the coils are in parallel, the current gets divided and flux reduces

3. Rheostatic Control
 By introducing resistance in series with armature, voltage across the armature can be reduced. And
hence, speed reduces in proportion with it.

4. Applied Voltage Control

 The speed is approximately proportional to the voltage across the armature and field winding
 Voltage across the armature and field is changed with the help of a Dc motor generator set
 Armature and field is supplied with different voltages to get varies speed
Ward-Leonard control system

 This system is used where very sensitive speed control of motor is required (e.g electric excavators,
elevators etc.)
 M2 is the motor whose speed control is required
 M1 may be any AC motor or DC motor with constant speed
 M1 acts as prime mover to DC generator
 G is the generator directly coupled to M1
 The output from the generator G is fed to the armature of the motor M2 whose speed is to be controlled
 The output voltage of the generator G can be varied from zero to its maximum value, and hence the
armature voltage of the motor M2 is varied very smoothly
 Very smooth speed control of motor can be obtained by this method.

SPEED CONTROL DC MOTOR – USING CONVERTERS

• Direct current (dc) motors have variable characteristics and are used extensively in variable-
speed drives.
• DC motors can provide a high starting torque and it is also possible to obtain speed control over a
wide range.
• The methods of speed control are normally simpler and less expensive than those of AC drives.
• DC motors play a significant role in modern industrial drives.
• Both series and separately excited DC motors are normally used in variable-speed drives, but
series motors are traditionally employed for traction applications.
• Due to commutator, DC motors are not suitable for very high speed applications and require
more maintenance than do AC motors.
• With the recent advancements in power conversions, control techniques, and microcomputers, the
ac motor drives are becoming increasingly competitive with DC motor drives.
• Although the future trend is toward AC drives, DC drives are currently used in many industries.
It might be a few decades before the DC drives are completely replaced by AC drives.
CLOSED LOOP CONTROL OF DC DRIVES:
• The speed of dc motors changes with the load torque.
• To maintain a constant speed, the armature (and or field) voltage should be varied continuously by
varying the delay angle of ac-dc converters or duty cycle of dc-dc converters.
• In practical drive systems it is required to operate the drive at a constant torque or constant power;
in addition, controlled acceleration and deceleration are required.
• Most industrial drives operate as closed-loop feedback systems.
• A closed-loop control system has the advantages of improved accuracy, fast dynamic response,
and reduced effects of load disturbances and system nonlinearities.
• The block diagram of a closed-loop converter-fed separately excited dc drive is shown in Figure
• If the speed of the motor decreases due to the application of additional load torque, the speed error Ve
increases.
• The speed controller responses with an increased control signal Vc, change the delay angle or duty cycle
of the converter, and increase the armature voltage of the motor.
• An increased armature voltage develops more torque to restore the motor speed to the original value.
• The drive normally passes through a transient period until the developed torque is equal to the
load torque.

FOUR QUADRANT OPERATIONS

DRIVES CLASSIFICATION:
• Single phase drives
• Three phase drives
• Chopper drives

Single phase drives:

• The motor speed can be varied by
– controlling the armature voltage Va, known as voltage control;
– controlling the field current If, known as field control; or
– torque demand, which corresponds to an armature current Ia, for a fixed field current If.
The speed, which corresponds to the rated armature voltage, rated field current and rated armature current, is
known as the rated (or base) speed
• In practice, for a speed less than the base speed, the armature current and field currents are
maintained constant to meet the torque demand, and the armature voltage Va is varied to control the
speed.
• For speed higher than the base speed, the armature voltage is maintained at the rated value and the
field current is varied to control the speed.
• However, the power developed by the motor (= torque X speed) remains constant.
• Figure below shows the characteristics of torque, power, armature current, and field current against
the speed.

Single phase drives with contactor:

TYPES of Single Phase Drives:

• Single phase half wave converter drive

• Single phase semi converter drive
• Single phase full converter drive
• Single phase dual converter drive

Single Phase Half Wave Converter Drive:

• A single-phase half-wave converter feeds a dc motor, as shown below.

• The armature current is normally discontinuous unless a very large inductor is connected in the
armature circuit.
• A freewheeling diode is always required for a dc motor load and it is a one-quadrant drive.
• The applications of this drive are limited to the 0.5 kW power level.
• Figure shows the waveforms for a highly inductive load.
• A half-wave converter in the field circuit would increase the magnetic losses of the motor due to
high ripple content on the field excitation current.
V
• The voltage across the armature V  m (1 cosα ) for 0  α  Π
a 2Π
Va – Armature voltage
Vm – Maximum voltage
α - Firing angle
Single Phase Semi Converter Drive:

 It is one quadrant converter which gives current and voltage of one polarity
 Regenerative braking is not possible
 When T1 and D1 conducts, the positive cycle of input is transferred to armature of the motor
 When T2 and D2 conducts, the negative cycle of input is transferred to armature of the motor but the
direction is the same
 Freewheeling diode is used to get continuous current flow through the armature winding.
 When thyristors off, the stored energy in the coil is discharging through diode.
V
 The voltage across the armature V  m (1 cosα ) for 0  α  Π
a Π
Va – Armature voltage
Vm – Maximum voltage
α - Firing angle
Single Phase Full Converter Drive:
• The armature voltage is varied by a single-phase full-wave converter, as shown in Figure
• It is a two-quadrant drive, as shown in Figure, and is limited to applications up to 15 kW.
• The armature converter gives + Va or - Va, and allows operation in the first and fourth quadrants.
• During regeneration for reversing the direction of power flow, the back emf of the motor can be
reversed by reversing the field excitation.
• The converter in the field circuit could be a full, or even a dual converter.
• The reversal of the armature or field allows operation in the second and third quadrants.
• The current waveforms for a highly inductive load are shown in Figure for powering action.
• Freewheeling diode is not necessary
2Vm
• The voltage across the armature V  for 0αΠ
a
cosα
Π
Va – Armature voltage
Vm – Maximum voltage
α - Firing angle
Single Phase Dual Converter Drive:
• Two single-phase full-wave converters are connected.
• Either converter 1 operates to supply a positive armature voltage, Va, or converter 2 operates to supply a
negative armature voltage, - Va.
• Converter 1 provides operation in the first and fourth quadrants, and converter 2, in the second and
third quadrants.
• It is a four-quadrant drive and permits four modes of operation: forward powering, forward
braking (regeneration), reverse powering, and reverse braking (regeneration).
• It is limited to applications up to 15 kW. The field converter could be a full-wave or a dual converter.
 THREE PHASE DRIVES

• The armature circuit is connected to the output of a three-phase controlled rectifier.

• Three-phase drives are used for high-power applications up to megawatt power levels.
• The ripple frequency of the armature voltage is higher than that of single-phase drives and it requires
less inductance in the armature circuit to reduce the armature ripple current.
• The armature current is mostly continuous, and therefore the motor performance is better compared
with that of single-phase drives.

TYPES:
• Three phase Half converter drive
• Three Phase semi converter drive
• Three Phase full converter drive
• Three phase dual converter drive

Three Phase Half Converter Drive:

 Three single phase half-wave converters are connected together to form a three phase half-wave
converter
 The thyristor T1 in series with one of the supply phase windings 'a-n' acts as one half wave controlled
rectifier
 The second thyristor T2 in series with the supply phase winding 'b-n' acts as the second half wave controlled
rectifier
 The third thyristor T3 in series with the supply phase winding acts as the third half wave controlled rectifier
 The 3-phase input supply is applied through the star connected supply transformer as shown in the figure
 The common neutral point of the supply is connected to one end of the load while the other end of the load
connected to the common cathode point.
 When the thyristor T1 is triggered, the phase voltage Van appears across the load when T1 conducts
 The load current flows through the supply phase winding 'a-n'and through thyristor T1 as long as
T1 conducts
 When thyristor T2 is triggered, T1 becomes reverse biased and turns-off. The load current flows through the
thyristor and through the supply phase winding 'b-n' . When T2conducts the phase voltage vbn appears across
the load until the thyristor T3 is triggered
 When the thyristor T3 is triggered, T2 is reversed biased and hence T2 turns-off. The phase
voltage Van appears across the load when T3 conducts
3 3V
 The voltage across the armature Va m
cosα 2Π for 0αΠ

Va – Armature voltage
Vm – Maximum voltage
α - Firing angle
Three Phase Semi Converter Drive:

 3-phase semi-converters are three phase half controlled bridge controlled rectifiers
 which employ three thyristors and three diodes connected in the form of a bridge configuration
 Three thyristors are controlled switches which are turned on at appropriate times by applying
appropriate gating signals
 The three diodes conduct when they are forward biased by the corresponding phase supply voltages
 3-phase semi-converters are used in industrial power applications up to about 120kW output power level
 The power factor of 3-phase semi-converter decreases as the trigger angle increases
 The power factor of a 3-phase semi-converter is better than three phase half wave converter
3 3V
 The voltage across the armature Va m (1 cosα
) 2Π for 0αΠ

Va – Armature voltage
Vm – Maximum voltage
α - Firing angle
Three Phase Full Converter Drive:

• A three-phase full-wave-converter drive is a two-quadrant drive without any field reversal, and
is limited to applications up to 1500 kW.
• During regeneration for reversing the direction of power
• However, the back emf of the motor is reversed by reversing the field excitation.
• The converter in the field circuit should be a single- or three-phase full converter.
• Two three-phase full-wave converters are connected in an arrangement similar to Figure
• Either converter 1 operates to supply a positive armature voltage, Va or converter 2 operates to supply a
negative armature voltage, -Va.
• It is a four-quadrant drive and is limited to applications up to 1500 kW.
• The field converter can be a full-wave converter.
3 3V
• The voltage across the armature Va m
cosα Π for 0αΠ

Va – Armature voltage
Vm – Maximum voltage
α - Firing angle
Three Phase Dual Converter Drive:

CHOPPER DC MOTOR CONTROL

 Chopper: DC ⇒ DC (different voltage)

 Chopper: The variable dc voltage is controlled by varying the on- and off-times of a converter
1 1 t
 Its frequency of operation is f 
c  and its duty cycle is defined as d  on
(ton  t ) T T
off t
 Assuming that the switch is ideal, the average output is on V  dV
V  T
 varying the duty cycle changes the output voltage dc s s
 The duty cycle d can be changed in two ways:
(i) Varying the on-time (constant switching frequency).
(ii) Varying the chopping frequency.
 Constant switching frequency has many advantages in practice

UNIT V
CONVENTIONAL AND SOLID STATE SPEED CONTROL OF A.C. DRIVES

Slip power recovery scheme:

• The slip power recovery (SPR) drive is an external system connected to the rotor circuit in place of
the external resistors.
• The SPR provides speed and torque control like the resistors but can also recover the power taken off the
rotor and feed it back into the power system to avoid energy waste.
• The speed control of slip ring induction motor is achieved by Injecting E.M.F in Rotor Circuit
• The e.m.f injected in the rotor circuit must have the same frequency as the slip frequency
• When the injected voltage is in phase opposition with the induced rotor e.m.f, then the rotor
resistance increases
• when the injected voltage is in phase with the induced rotor e.m.f, then the rotor resistance decreases
• By changing the direction of phase rotation, the resistance of the rotor circuit is varied and thus speed
of the slip ring motor is controlled.
Conventional Kramer System:

• This system is basically used for the speed control of large motors of rating more than 4000Kw or above
• The main motor M has slip rings mounted on its shaft
• The induced e.m.f is supplied to the slip rings of a rotary converter by slip rings of main motor.
• The rotary converter converts the low-slip frequency a.c. power into d.c. power
• Which is used to drive a d.c. shunt motor
• The main motor “M” is directly coupled with the d.c. shunt motor .
• The d.c. output of the rotary converter is used to drive the d.c. shunt motor
• Both the rotary converter and the d.c. shunt motor are excited from a separate d.c exciter or d.c bus bar.
• The field regulator governs the back e.m.f Eb of the d.c. shunt motor
• The d.c. potential at the commutator of the rotary converter which controls the slip ring voltage and
thus the speed of motor “M.”

Conventional Scherbius System:

• In this system, the slip energy is not converted into d.c and then fed to a d.c. motor
• It is fed directly to a three phase or six phase a.c. commutator motor called as Scherbius machine.
• The low frequency output of the machine M is fed to the poly phase winding of the machine C through
a regulating transformer RT.
• The commutator motor C is a variable speed machine and is controlled by the tapping on RT.
 Advantages:
• Better efficiency than earlier methods
• Speed regulation is independent of load conditions
• It can be controlled manually by operator
• Disadvantages:
• Complex, Extra induction motor is needed
• Huge size, costly
• Require well-trained staff
• Can‟t adjust speed at no-load condition.

Static Kramer System:

• The resistors are replaced by a rectifier-inverter system

• It takes the energy that previously was dissipated in the resistors and feeds it back into the mains supply
• It uses a step-up transformer to increase the voltage level.
• The frequency of the rotor current fr = sfs
• Rotor frequency set by speed of rotation
• Diode rectifier accepts any frequency
• The rotor current is rectified in a diode bridge, and then converted to 3-phase, 50 Hz by a
line commutated inverter
• The magnitude of the voltage at the slip-rings is set by the rectifier-inverter link, and controlled by the
delay angle α of the line-commutated inverter.
 Instead of wasting the slip power in the rotor circuit resistance, a better approach is to convert it to ac
line power and return it back to the line. Two types of converter provide this approach:
1) Static Kramer Drive - only allows operation at sub-synchronous speed.
2) Static Scherbius Drive – allows operation above and below synchronous
speed.

Static Scherbius System:

• The static Scherbius drive overcomes the forward motoring only limitation of the static Kramer drive.
• Regenerative mode operation requires the slip power in the rotor to flow in the reverse direction.
• This can be achieved by replacing the diode bridge rectifier with a thyristor bridge.
• This is the basic topology change for the static Scherbius drive from the static Kramer drive.
• One of the limitations of the previous topology is that line commutation of the machine-side converter
becomes difficult near synchronous speed because of excessive commutation angle overlap.
• A line commutated cycloconverter can overcome this limitation but adds substantial cost and complexity
to the drive.
• At sub synchronous speeds, the slip power sPm is supplied to the rotor by the exciter.
• At super synchronous speeds, the rotor output power flows in the opposite direction so that the
total shaft power increases to (1+s)Pm.

Cycloconverter Scherbius System:

 Cycloconverters: Converts single-phase or three-phase ac to variable magnitude and variable
frequency, single-phase or three-phase ac

SPEED CONTROL OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Speed Control from Stator Side:

1. By changing the applied voltage
2. By changing the applied frequency (or) V/f Control
3. Changing the number of stator poles
Speed Control from Rotor Side:
1. Rotor rheostat control
2. Cascade operation
3. By injecting EMF in rotor circuit

By Changing the Applied Voltage:

V/f Control:

Cascade operation:

SPEED CONTROL – CURRENT SOURCE INVERTER

SPEED CONTROL – VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER
 L

Squaæ wava output

 JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
UNIT TEST I
YEAR / SEM: II /III TIME: 2.00 hrs SUB:
EE6351 ELECTRIC DRIVES AND CONTROL TOTAL MARKS: 100

PART A (10*2=20)

1. What is dynamic braking?

2. Draw the slip – torque characteristics of a single phase induction motor.
3. Define plugging of 3 phase induction motor
4. Why DC series motors should never be started on no-load
5. Define torque.
6. List the types of rotors in induction motor.
7. Give the types of braking used for dc motor.
8. Draw the mechanical characteristics of DC series motor with different input voltage values.
9. How the starting torque of capacitor-start induction motor can be varied?
10. Single phase motor is not a self starting motor. Why?

PART B (4*20=80)

1. Draw and explain the characteristics of a DC shunt Motor with Suitable graphs and diagrams.
2. Explain the various methods of braking of induction motors.
3. Explain the construction and working principle of 3-phase induction motor with neat diagrams.
4. Explain the starting methods of single induction motors with neat diagrams.
 JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ASSESSMENT TEST II
YEAR / SEM: II /III TIME: 2.15 hrs
SUB: EE6351 ELECTRIC DRIVES AND CONTROL TOTAL
MARKS: 60

PART A (3*2=6)

1. What are the protective devices in a DC/AC motor Starter?

2. Give some advantages and disadvantages of D.O.L
3. What is the Necessity of starter?

PART B (3*13=39)

5. Draw a neat schematic diagram of a three point starter and explain its working.
6. Explain with neat diagram the starting of three phase slip ring induction motor.
7. Draw and explain the push-button operated direct-on line starter for three phase induction motor.
PART C (1*15=15)
1 .Draw and explain the manual auto-transformer starter for three phase induction motor.
 JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
ASSESSMENT TEST III
EE6351 ELECTRICAL DRIVES AND CONTROL
YEAR / SEM: II /III TIME: 3.00 hrs

PART A (10*2=20)

1. Draw the block diagram of an electrical drive.

2. Give the examples where continuous duty at constant load is occurred.
3. Name the power modulators used for V/f control of 3 phase induction motor.
4. State the applications where stator voltage control is employed for three phase induction motors.
5. What are the factors to be considered for the selection of electrical drives?
6. What are the conventional methods of speed control of three phase induction motor from stator side?
7. What are the types of electrical drive?
8. Define cooling time constant of an electrical machine.
9. Define voltage source inverter and current source inverter.
10. Mention the advantages of slip power recovery system.

PART B (5*13=65)

11. (a) Explain the various factors that influence the choice of electric drives.
(13)

(OR)

(b) List and explain various classes of motor duty. (13)

12. (a) Draw and explain the mechanical characteristic of DC

drive. (13)
(OR)
(b) With neat diagram, explain braking methods of a DC
Drive. (13)

13. (a) Explain the construction and operation of 3 point starter.

(13)

(OR)

(b) With neat diagram, explain the construction and operation of an automatic
starter. (13)

14. (a) Explain various methods of conventional speed control of a DC

drive. (13)
 (OR)
(b) Explain the working of ward-Leonard method of speed control.
(13)

15. (a) Explain working of conventional Kramer slip power recovery system. (13)

(OR)

(b) Explain with neat diagram the method of speed control of AC drives using current source inverter.
(13)

PART C (1*15=15)

16. Explain the static Scherbius drive which provides speed below and above synchronous speed.
 JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
MODEL EXAM
EE6351 ELECTRICAL DRIVES AND CONTROL
YEAR / SEM: II /III TIME: 3.00 hrs

PART A (10*2=20)

1. Draw the block diagram of an electrical drive.

2. Give the examples where continuous duty at constant load is occurred.
3. Define mechanical characteristics.
4. Write any five applications of single phase induction motor.
5. How the starting current of three phase IM can be reduced?
6. Differentiate three point starter and four point starter.
7. Differentiate uncontrolled and controlled rectifiers?
8. What is tapped control method?
9. Define voltage source inverter and current source inverter.
10. Mention the advantages of slip power recovery system.

PART B (5*13=65)

11. (a) Explain the different factors influencing the choice of electrical drives?
(13)

(OR)

(b) Draw the typical temperature rise-time curve and

derive the equation for temperature rise in an
electric drive. (13)

12. (a) Draw and explain the characteristics of DC motor.

(13)
(OR)

(b) Explain the various methods of braking of induction

motors. (13)

13. (a) Draw a neat schematic diagram of a three point starter and explain its
working. (13)

(OR)

(b) Draw the neat schematic diagram of Induction

motor and explain its working. (13)
14. (a) Discuss the Ward-Leonard speed control system with a neat circuit diagram. Also mention
its advantages and disadvantages. (13)
(OR)
(b) Explain with neat sketches about the DC Shunt Motor speed control by using single phase fully
controlled bridge converter (13)

15. (a) Explain in detail about Slip power recovery scheme. (13)

(OR)

(b) Discuss the speed control of AC motors by using

three phase AC Voltage regulators. (13)

PART C (1*15=15)

16. (a) List and explain various classes of motor duty.

(OR)
(b) Explain in detail the construction and operating principle of an automatic starter.
Solved Problems

ASSIGNMENT TOPICS:

1. Draw the typical temperature rise-time curve and derive the equation for temperature rise in an electric
drive.
2. Explain various methods of braking of DC Shunt Motors with neat diagrams.
3. Explain with neat circuit diagram, the star-delta starter method of starting squirrel cage induction motor.
4. Explain with neat sketches about the DC Shunt Motor speed control by using single phase fully
controlled bridge converter.
 QUIZ QUESTIONS

1. The consideration involved in the selection of the type of electric drive for a particular application
depends on
(A) Speed control range and its nature
(B) Starting torque
(C) Environmental conditions
(D) All of the above.
Answer: D

2. Which of the following is preferred for automatic drives ?

(A) Synchronous motors
(B) Squirrel cage induction motor
(C) Ward Leonard controlled dc motors
(D) Any of the above.
Answer: C

3. Which type of drive can be used for hoisting machinery

(A) AC slip ring motor
(B) Ward Leonard controlled DC shunt motor
(C) DC compound motor
(D) Any of the above.
Answer: D

4. The motor normally used for crane travel is

(A) AC slip ring motor
(B) Ward Leonard controlled DC shunt motor
(C) Synchronous motor
(D) DC differentially compound motor.
Answer: A

5. A wound rotor induction motor is preferred over squirrel cage induction motor when the major
consideration involved is
(A) high starting torque
(B) low starting current
(C) speed control over limited range
(D) all of the above.
Answer:D

6. When smooth and precise speed control over a wide range is desired, the motor preferred is
(A) synchronous motor
(B) squirrel cage induction motor
(C) wound rotor induction motor
(D) dc motor.
Answer:D

7. When quick speed reversal is a consideration, the motor preferred is

(A) synchronous motor
(B) squirrel cage induction motor
(C) wound rotor induction motor
(D) dc motor.
Answer:D

8. Stator voltage control for speed control of induction motors is suitable for
(A) fan and pump drives
(B) drive of a crane
(C) running it as generator
(D) constant load drive.
Answer:A

9. The selection of control gear for a particular application is based on the consideration of
(A) duty
(B) starting torque
(C) limitations on starting current
(D) all of the above.
Answer:D
10. As compared to squirrel cage induction motor, a wound rotor induction motor is preferred when the
major consideration is
(A) high starting torque
(B) low windage losses
(C) slow speed operation
(D) all of the above.
Answer:A

11. A synchronous motor is found to be more economical when the load is above
(A) 1 kW
(B) 10 kW
(C) 20 kW
(D)100kW.
Answer:D

12. The advantage of a synchronous motor in addition to its constant speed is

(A) high power factor
(B) better efficiency
(C) lower cost
(D) all of the above.
Answer:A

13. In motor circuit static frequency changers are used for

(A) power factor improvement
(B) improved cooling
(C) reversal of direction
(D) speed regulation.
Answer:D

14. In case of traveling cranes, the motor preferred for boom hoist is
(A) AC slip ring motor
(B) Ward Leonard controlled DC shunt motor
(C) Synchronous motor
(D) Single phase motor.
Answer:A

15. The characteristics of drive for. crane hoisting and lowering is

(A) smooth movement
(B) precise control
(C) fast speed control
(D) all of the above.
Answer:D
16. Belt conveyors offer
(A) zero starting torque
(B) low starting torque
(C) medium starting torque
(D) high starting torque.
Answer:D

17. In case belt conveyors

(A) squirrel cage motors with direct-on-line starters are used
(B) single phase induction motors are used
(C) dc shunt motors are used
(D) induction motors with star-delta starters are used.
Answer:A

18. Which of the following motor is preferred for blowers ?

(A) wound rotor induction motor
(B) squirrel cage induction motor
(C) dc shunt motor
(D) dc series motor.
Answer:B

19. Centrifugal pumps are usually driven by

(A) dc shunt motors
(B) dc series motors
(C) squirrel cage induction motors
(D) any of the above.
Answer:C

20. In a centrifugal pump if the liquid to be pumped has density twice that of water, then the horse
power required (as compared to that while pumping water) will be
(A) half
(B) same
(C) double
(D) four times.
Answer:C

21. Wound rotor and squirrel-cage motors with high slip which develop maximum torque at stand still are
used for
(A) machine tools
(B) presses and punches
(C) elevators
(D) all of the above.
Answer:B

22. Belted slip ring induction motor is almost invariably used for
(A) centrifugal blowers
(B) jaw crushers
(C) water pumps
(D) screw pumps.
Answer:B

23. In jaw crushers, a motor has to often start against

(A) low load
(B) medium load
(C) normal load
(D) heavy load.
Answer:D
24. Motor used for elevators is generally
(A) synchronous motor
(B) induction motor
(C) capacitor start single phase motor
(D) any of the above.
Answer:B

25. In synthetic fibre mills motor with

(A) constant speeds are preferred
(B) high starting torque are preferred
(C) variable speed are preferred
(D) low starting torque are preferred.
Answer:A

26. Which of the following motor is preferred for synthetic fibre mills ?
(A) series motor
(B) reluctance motor
(C) shunt motor
(D) synchronous motor.
Answer:B

27. Reluctance motor is a

(A) self-starting type synchronous motors
(B) low torque variable speed motor
(C) variable torque motor
(D) low noise, slow speed motor.
Answer:A

28. Power factor in case of reluctance motor is

(A) nearly unity
(B) always leading
(C) 0.8
(D) 0.3 to 0.4.
Answer:D

29. The efficiency of reluctance motor is around

(A) 95%
(B) 90%
(C) 75 to 85%
(D) 60 to 75%.
Answer:D

30. The size of a excavator is usually expressed in terms of

(A) cubic meters
(B) travel in meters
(C) angle of swing
(D) 'crowd' motion
Answer:A

31. Ward-Leonard controlled dc drives are generally used for

(A) light duty excavators
(B) medium duty excavators
(C) heavy duty excavators
(D) all of the above.
Answer:C

32. In case of contactors, the contacts are generally made of

(A) copper
(B) silver
(C) cadmium copper
(D) any of the above.
Answer:D

33. Which electromagnet is preferred for noiseless operation ?

(A) DC operated
(B) AC operated
(C) Any of the above.
Answer:A

34. For high frequency choppers the device that is preferred is

(A) Thyristor
(B) TRIAC
(C) Transistor
(D) GTO.
Answer:C

35. The number of operations per hour in case of class IV contactor will be around
(A) 100
(B) 600
(C) 900
(D) 1200.
Answer:D

36. In case of contactors, the duty in which the main contacts remain closed for a period bearing a
definition relation to the no-load periods, is known as
(A) Standard duty
(B) Intermittent duty
(C) Temporary duty
(D) Un-interrupted duty.
Answer:B

37. n case of contactors the ratio of the in service period to the entire period, expressed as a percentage is
known as
(A) duty
(B) load factor
(C) class of contact
(D) none of the above.
Answer:B
38. Heat control switches find applications on
(A) three phase induction motors
(B) single phase motors
(C) transformers
(D) cooling ranges.
Answer:D

39. A saturable core reactor is basically a

(A) variable resistor
(B) step down transformer
(C) thermal relay
(D) variable impedance.
Answer:D

40. The earth wire should not be thinner than a

(A) 20 SWG wire
(B) 16 SWG wire
(C) 10 SWG wire
(D) 8 SWG wire.
Answer:D
41. In automobiles the sound is produced by horn due to
(A) magnetostriction
(B) vibrating diaphragm
(C) moving coil
(D) oscillating coil.
Answer:B

42. The current drawn by a 6 V horn is roughly

(A) 0.1 A
(B)1A
(C) 2 A
(D) 20 A.
Answer:D

43. The hours are rated for

(A) continuous operation
(B) intermittent operation
(C) both (A) and (B) above
(D) none of the above.
Answer:B

44. Continuous operation of automobile horn will

(A) help in charging the battery
(B) improve mileage
(C) damage the operating coil
(D) change the tone.
Answer:C

45. In a constant power type load

(A) torque is proportional to speed
(B) torque is proportional to square of speed
(C) torque is inversely proportional to speed
(D) torque is independent of speed.
Answer:C

46. Which of the following pair is used for frequency converters ?

(A) Squirrel cage induction motor and synchronous motor
(B) Wound rotor induction motor and synchronous motor
(C) Wound rotor induction motor and squirrel cage induction motor
(D) Any of the above.
Answer:A

47. Belted wound rotor induction motors are preferred for

(A) machine tools
(B) gyratory crushers
(C) belt conveyor
(D) water pumps.
Answer:B

48. The cooling time constant is usually

(A) equal to the heating time constant
(B) more than heating time constant
(C) none of these.
Answer:B

49. A motor of less than full load power rating can be used if the load is
(A) continuous duty
(B) short time duty
(C) intermittent periodic duty
(D) none of these.
Answer:B

50. Pole changing method of speed control is used in

(A) slip ring induction motor
(B) dc shunt motor
(C) dc series motor
(D) squirrel cage induction motor.
Answer:D

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Real world Examples

S.No Applications Significance of the application Example

1 Linear Time invariant systems These are special case of proposed general
design principle
2 Control of Robot Manipulators Robust control of rigid-body robots under
parameter uncertainties
3 Pulse width modulation for Design philosophy of integral slidding mode
electric drives can be directly applied to practical systems
4 Robust current control for Utilisation of proposed perturbations
permanent magnet synchronous estimator to achieve advanced performance.
motor