Ankur Samanta Jit Mukherjee

Ankan Shyam Kopil Dolai

Gouranga Gosh Priyodip Day

Tirtha Karmakar Dip Kumar Das

Debkanta Shit Ayan Shit

SK Moniru Haque Subhadip Halder

Somnath Ghosh Rohit Ghosh

Vernier calliper-
Introduction:
The main use of the vernier calliper is to measure the internal and external diameters of an object. The word calliper means
any instrument with two jaws which is used to determine the diameters of objects.
The principle of the vernier calliper is that when two scales or divisions slightly different in size are used, then the difference
between them is used to increase the accuracy measurement.
Vernier calliper Part Description:
The main elements of the vernier calliper are the:
 Main Scale marked in inches and fractions
 Vernier scale gives interpolated measurements to 0.1 mm or better -Vernier scale gives interpolated measurements in
fraction of an inch - Thumbscrew is located at the bottom of the vernier scale.
 Lock screw is used to fix the position of the jaws once the object is positioned.
 Depth Bar can be used to measure the depths of holes or steps.
 Outside jaws used to measure external diameter or width of an object.
 Inside jaws used to measure internal diameter of an object.
 Thumb grip used to block movable part to allow the easy transferring of a measurement.
The Principle of Vernier calliper:
A scale cannot measure objects which are smaller than 1mm but a vernier calliper can measure objects up to 1mm. As
already know that vernier calliper has two scales the main scale and the vernier scale together this arrangement is used to
measure very small lengths like 0.1mm.
Here the main scale has the least count of 1mm and vernier scale has the least count of 0.9mm. So therefore 10 unit of the
main scale is 1cm whereas 10 unit of vernier scale is 0.9mm. The unit of the vernier scale is 9mm. So this difference between
the main scale and vernier scale which is 0.1mm is the working principle of vernier calliper.
Vernier calliper Least Count :
The difference between the value of one main scale division and the value of one Vernier scale division is known as the least
count of the Vernier.
Let’s assume if the value of one main scale division is 1mm and the total number of division on vernier scale 10mm then the
least count will be 0.1mm. Thus least count is defined as the smallest distance that can be measured from an instrument.

Vernier calliper Zero Error :

Zero error in the vernier calliper is a mathematical error due to which, the zero of the vernier scale does not coincide with
the zero of the main scale.
In other words, if the zero mark on the vernier scale doesn’t coincide with the zero mark on the main scale, then the error
that occurs is called zero error. They are of 2 types.
1.No zero error
2.Positive zero error
3.Negative zero error
1) No Zero Error
In no zero error, when we bring two jaws together. You will see zero of the Main scale is coinciding with the zero of the
vernier scale.
2 Positive Zero Error
In positive zero error, let’s bring these jaws together. You see, the zero of vernier scale is ahead of main scale zero. Or you can
say zero of vernier scale is at the right side of main scale zero.
3 Negative Zero Error
In negative zero error, we will bring the two jaws together. Here you can see zero of vernier scale is the back side of main
scale zero. Or to the left of main scale zero
EXAMPLE 1:
The external measurement (diameter) of a round section piece of steel is measured using a vernier calliper, metric scale.
Mathematical Method
(A)The main metric scale is read first and this shows that there are 13 whole divisions before the 0 on the hundredths
scale. Therefore, the first number is 13.
(B)The’ hundredths of mm’ scale is then read. The best way to do this is to count the number of divisions until you get to
the division that lines up with the main metric scale. This is 21 divisions on the hundredths scale.
(C)This 21 is multiplied by 0.02 giving 0.42 as the answer (each division on the hundredths scale is equivalent to 0.02mm).
(D)The 13 and the 0.42 are added together to give the final measurement of
13.42mm (the diameter of the piece of round section steel).
COMMONSENSE METHOD
Alternatively, it is just as easy to read the 13 on the main scale and 42 on the hundredths scale. The correct measurement
being 13.42mm.
EXAMPLE 2:
(To zoom in to see the scale - right click mouse and select zoo.
Types of Vernier Caliper :
Following are the different types of Vernier Caliper:
1) Flat edge vernier caliper
2) Knife edge vernier caliper
3) Vernier gear tooth caliper
4) Vernier depth gauge
5) Flat and knife edge vernier caliper
6) Vernier height gauge
7) Vernier dail caliper
Flat Edge Vernier Caliper
This type of vernier is used for normal functions. We can take outer
measurement of a job’s length, breadth, thickness, and diameter, etc.
2) Knife Edge Vernier Caliper
The edge of this vernier caliper is like a knife. Other parts of this vernier caliper are like other vernier calipers as shown in
the figure. This vernier caliper is used for measuring narrow space, a distance of holes of I bolt, etc.
3) Flat And Knife Edge Vernier Caliper
Some companies also make vernier calipers which have their jaw like an ordinary vernier caliper from one side but have
knife-edge jaw at the other side, as shown in the figure.
4) Vernier Gear Tooth Caliper
With the vernier caliper, the thickness of a tooth of gear can be taken form its pitch circle. In other words, the vernier
caliper is used to measure different parts of gear.
5) Vernier Depth Gauge
As is evident from its name, this instrument is used for measuring the depth of the slot of a job, its hole or groove.
6) Vernier Height Gauge
It is used for taking accurate measurement of height of a job or for marking.
7) Vernier Dial Caliper
For this purpose, nowadays Vernier Dial calipers are being used. In place of the vernier scale, it contains a graduation dial as
shown in the figure.
8. Digital or Electronic Calipers
Digital or electronic calipers are enormously inexpensive and precise measuring tools. Taking reading of objects in these
types of calipers are easy as compare to manual vernier caliper. Digital calipers normally contain a resolution of 10 µm with a
precision of 30 to 40 µm.
Micrometer Screw Gauge-
scale discussed in the past article. The micrometer is an improvement over the measurement of the vernier calliper
The accuracy of vernier calliper remains to be 0.02 mm, but most of the engineering precision work demands greater
accuracy with sensitivity for which an instrument having both these should be used.

Types of Micrometer Screw Gauge:

The following are the four common types of micrometer screw gauge and 3 special purpose types of micrometers.
1.Outside Micrometer
2.Inside Micrometer
3.Micrometer Depth Gauge
4.Bench Micrometer
5.Special Purpose Micrometer
a) Screw Thread Micrometer
b) Vee-Anvil Micrometer
c) Thickness Micrometer
Outside Micrometer
Below shown the general arrangement of outside micrometer and its various parts. Regardless of the type or size of an
outside micrometer, they contain the basic parts like:
1.Frame
2.Anvil and spindle
3.Ratchet driver
4.Thimble and barrel
5.Adjusting Nut.
Micrometer Reading
As we know that the screw thread is rotated by the thimble which indicates the one-sided revolution and the whole
revolutions being counted on the barrel of the instrument.

3 EXAMPLE MEASURE READINGS

Using the first example seen below:
1. Read the scale on the sleeve. The example clearly shows12 mm divisions.
2. Still reading the scale on the sleeve, a further ½ mm (0.5) measurement can be seen on the bottom half of the scale.
The measurement now reads 12.5mm.
3. Finally, the thimble scale shows 16 full divisions (these are hundredths of a mm).
The final measurement is 12.5mm + 0.16mm = 12.66
ANSWER:

ANSWER:

ANSWER:

ANSWER:
Inside Micrometer Calipers
The figure below shown an inside micrometer. This types of micrometers, they do not have U-shape frame and spindle. The
measuring tips are constituted by the jaws with contact surfaces which are hardened and ground to a radius.

One jaw is held stationary at the end the second one moves by the movement of the thimble. A locknut is provided to check
the movement of the movable jaw. These are used for inspecting of small internal dimensions. Its range is from 5 to 50 mm.
It is not so widely used.
Parts of Inside Micrometer
Inside micrometer are used for the measurement of larger internal dimensions. It consists of four parts:
1.measuring head or micrometer unit
2.Extension Rods.
3.Spacing collars.
4.Handle
Micrometer Depth Gauge
This types of micrometers are used for measuring the depth of holes. Micrometer depth gauge is used for measuring the
depth of holes, slots and recessed areas.
For the large range of measurements, extension rods can be used. The screw of the micrometer depth gauge has a range of
20mm or 25mm.
The length of the micrometer depth gauge caries from 0 to 225mm. The rod is inserted through the top of the micrometer.
The rod is marked after every 10mm so that it could be clamped at any position.
Bench Micrometer
The bench micrometer principle makes use of a magnifying technique i.e., a gap of 0.01mm between the anvils is equivalent
to a division width of the thimble of about 1mm.
Advantages Bench Micrometer
1.Large diameter thimble permits the greater number of divisions around the large circumference, thus promoting better
accuracy.
2.The fixed anvil is replaced by a fiducial indicator to ensure constant measuring pressure. This divide is more reliable than
the rachet.
3.Micrometer screw errors will have a minimal effect since the screw is used over a very small large during measurement
Disadvantages Bench Micrometer
1. Only one disadvantage is that it can only be used as a compare to and is extremely sensitive and embodies scientific
principles to enable measured errors to be greatly magnified.
Special Purpose Micrometers
The basic principle of micrometer remains the same even for special purpose micrometers, but based on the application they
are classified into,

1Screw Thread Micrometer

This types of micrometers are similar to the ordinary micrometer with the difference that it is equipped with a special
anvil and spindle.
2 Vee – Anvil Micrometer
They are designed for measuring odd-fluted taps, milling cutters, and reamers, as well as checking out of roundness to
tenths of thousands accuracy. In these types of micrometers, the angle of Vee equals 60 degrees and the apex of the Vee
coincides with an axis of the spindle.
3 Thickness Micrometer
It is not convenient to use the ordinary micrometer for measuring the thickness of the tube (cylinder) or sleeve because
of the concavity of the internal surface.
 In this types of micrometers are used for measuring the thickness of cylinder walls meant for this purpose the anvil is
provided with a spherical measuring surface of the frame is cut away on the outside to permit the anvil being introduced
into tubes of diameter as small as 5.00mm in an alternative design shown in the figure.
Advantages of Micrometer Screw Gauge
1.More accurate than rules.
2.Greater readability than rules or vernier.
3.No parallax error.
4.Small, portable and easy to handle.
5.Relatively inexpensive.
6.Retains accurately better than verniers.
7.Has to wear adjusting facility.
8.End measurement.
Disadvantages Micrometer Screw Gauge
1.Short measuring range
2.Single-purpose instrument
3.Limited wear area of the anvil and spindle tip.
4.End measurements only.
Dial Indicator
Dial Indicator is the most commonly used mechanical comparator. It works on the principle of Rack and pinion system i.e.,
the linear movement of the spindle is magnified by rack and pinion arrangement. It consists of a robust base whose surface is
flat and a pillar supporting a bracket in which a spindle fitted with a pinion and a dial scale.
By the use of slip gauges, the dial scale is set to zero representing the basic size of the part. This is used for inspection of
small machined parts. This type of comparator used with different attachments.
So that it may be used for a large number of works. For example, with a V-block attachment, it can be used for checking out
of roundness of a cylindrical component as shown in the figure.
Bevel Protractor
•In geometry, a protractor is a circular or semicircular instrument used for measuring an angle or a circle.
•The units of measurement used are normally degrees.
•Some protractors are half-discs that have existed since ancient times.
•More advanced protractors, like Bevel Protractor, have one or two swinging arms, which help in measuring the angle.
•A bevel protractor is a graduated circular protractor it has a pivoted arm used for measuring or marking off angles.
•Sometimes vernier scales are attached to give more accurate readings.
•It has broad application in mechanical and architectural however with the availability of modern drawing software like
CAD the tool is less likely used in that sphere.
•Universal bevel protractors are also utilised by toolmakers, as they measure angles by mechanical contact they are
classified as mechanical protractors.
Types of Bevel Protractor
The following figure shows the nomenclature of both types of bevel protractors.

1. Mechanical Bevel Protractor

2. Optical Bevel Protractor
Main Scale & Vernier Scale Reading
The figure shows on the main scale are graduated in degrees of arc. It has 12 divisions on each side of the centre zero.
These are marked 0-60 mins of the arc so that each division equals 1/12 of 60 that is 5 min of arc.
These 12 divisions occupy equal space as 23° on the main scale. Therefore each division of the vernier scale is equal to 1/12
of 23° or 1(11/12) °.
Thus the reading of the vernier protractor is equal to the largest “whole” degree of the main scale + the reading on the
vernier scale in line with the main scale division.
= Main scale reading, 51° + Vernier 45 mark in line with the main scale
= 51°+ 45′
Advantages
Following are the advantages of bevel protractor:
1.Bevel protractors are used to establish and test to bear angles in very close tolerance.
2.It can read 5 arc minutes (5′ or 112°) and can measure angles from 0 ° to 360 °.
3.By using bevel protractor you can get accurate measurements.
Applications
Following are the application of bevel protractor:
1.It is used for checking the inside bevelled face of a ground surface.
2.Used for checking ‘V’ blocks.
3.It is used to measure acute angles.
Main Types of Limit Gauges
Plain Plug Gauges
Plain plug gauges are used for checking plain or unthreaded holes and shafts. The plain plug gauges are the double-ended
type for sizes up to 63 mm and of single ended types of sizes above 63 mm. The plain plug gauges are designated by ‘GO’ and
‘NOGO’ as applicable.
Types of Plain Plug Gauges in Normal Practice are
• GO and NOGO plain plug gauges for sizes up to 10 mm.
•GO and NOGO plain plug gauges for size over 10 mm and up to 30 mm (Taper Inserted Type)

•GO and NOGO plain plug gauges for sizes over 30 mm and up to 63 mm of fastened type.

•Go and NOGO plain plug gauges for sizes over 63 mm and up to 100 mm of fastened type.
•GO and NOGO plain plug gauges for sizes over 100 mm and up to 250 mm of flat type. This is a shell form plug
gauge. Each plug is relieved to reduced weight.
Snap Gauges or Gap Gauges
A snap gauge consists of a plate or frame with a parallel faced gap of the required dimension. The snap gauges are used for
both cylindrical and non-cylindrical work as compared to ring gauges which are used only for cylindrical work. There are
basically classified into two types,
Snap Gauges or Gap Gauges
A snap gauge consists of a plate or frame with a parallel faced gap of the required dimension. The snap gauges are used
for both cylindrical and non-cylindrical work as compared to ring gauges which are used only for cylindrical work. There
are basically classified into two types,
1. Rib Type Snap Gauges
It is a double-ended type snap gauges which are used or checking sizes in the range of 3 mm to 100 mm and single-
ended progressive type snap gauges are suitable for the size to range of 100 to 250 mm.
The gauging surface is hardened up to 720 H.V and suitably stabilised, ground and lapped. The other surfaces are
finished smooth.
2. Plate Snap Gauges
It is a double-ended type snap gauges are used for sizes in the range of 2 to 100 mm and single-ended progressive
type in the size range of 100 to 250 mm. These plate snap gauges are usually made of wear-resistant steel of
suitable quality. The gauging surfaces are suitably hardened, stabilized, ground and lapped. Other surfaces are
smooth finished. The gauges are plainly flat and all sharp corners and edges are removed.
3. Ring Gauges
Ring gauges are limit gauges for gauging the shafts and are used in a similar manner to that of GO and NOGO plug
gages. A ring gauge consists of a piece of metal in which a hole of the required size is based as shown in the figure.

4. Pin Gauges
When the holes to be checked are larger than 75 mm, such as an automobile cylinder, it is available to use a pin
gauge as shown in fig.
During the measurement, the gauge is located lengthwise in the cylinder bore and measurement is done. These
types of gauges are particularly useful in the measurement of grooves or slot widths.
5. Calliper Gauges
A calliper gauge is similar to a snap gauge but it is used to check both the inside and outside dimensions of the
product. One end of calliper gauge checks the inside dimensions (hole diameter), while the other end measures the
outside dimensions (shaft diameter).

6. Feeler Gauge
It is also known as a thickness gauge. Feeler gauges are often used to measure the clearance between the
components. These gauges are excellent for the measurement of narrow slots, measuring clearance, determining
small spacing, and determining the fit between mating parts.
7. Screw Pitch Gauges
The screw pitch gauge is also called a thread gauge which looks related to a filler gauge. Each strip or blade has
several teeth, precisely shaped in standard thread form. They are used to check the pitch of screw threads.
8. Radius or Fillet Gauge
These gauge types are used to check the concave and convex radii on corners or shoulders. It is also useful for layout
work and inspection of components in various industries. It is used as a template when grinding of cutting tools.
Block Gauge
A gauge block is a block of metal or ceramic with two opposing faces ground precisely flat and parallel, a precise distance
apart. Standard grade blocks are made of a hardened steel alloy, while calibration grade blocks are often made of tungsten
carbide, chromium carbide or ceramic because they are harder and wear less.
Grades
Tolerances will vary within the same grade as the thickness of the material increases.
•Reference (AAA): small tolerance (±0.05 μm) used to establish standards
•Calibration (AA): (tolerance +0.10 μm to −0.05 μm) used to calibrate inspection blocks and very high precision gauging
•Inspection (A): (tolerance +0.15 μm to −0.05 μm) used as toolroom standards for setting other gauging tools
•Workshop (B): large tolerance (tolerance +0.25 μm to −0.15 μm) used as shop standards for precision measurement.

How to wring gauge blocks

Once you’ve selected the gauge blocks you need, you need to combine them to achieve your desired width. You can stick
gauge blocks stick to each other through a process called wringing, which is possible because of the phenomenon of
molecular attraction between the two lapped surfaces and a thin film of molecules trapped between the surfaces (which
is known as the wringing film).
Wringing:
Method one Hold the faces of two gauge blocks firmly together in a cross shape. Slide the top gauge block up and down
along the surface of the bottom gauge block until it no longer moves easily (step 1 in Figure 6). Then, rotate the top gauge
block until it is in line with the bottom gauge block (step 2 in Figure 6). This method works well for larger gauge blocks.
Wringing: Method two
Hold the faces of two gauge blocks firmly together in a cross shape. Rotate the top gauge block from side to side (Figure 7)
as if you are turning a dial back and forth. When the gauge block no longer rotates easily, rotate the gauge blocks until they
line up.
Wringing: Method three
Slide the top gauge block straight onto the second gauge block lengthwise onto the bottom gauge block (Figure 8). Slide
together firmly, then line up all edges. This method works best with thinner gauge blocks.
Advantages of Limit Gauges:
1.Quicker Inspection Method:
It is quicker than direct measurement. The time to inspect on shop-floor is minimized.
2.Used In-Mass Production:
Limit gauges are conveniently used in mass production for checking and controlling various dimensions.
3.Ensure Interchangeability:
A Limit gauge ensures interchangeability and hence components can be assembled without difficulty.
4.Need Semiskilled Operator:
Limit gauges can easily be used by semi-skilled operators.
5.Check both Linear and Geometric Features:
6.A proper designed limits gauge can check both linear and geometric features simultaneously.
7.Economical:
Limit gauges are economical in their own cost as well as in inspection cost.
 VALVE FUNCTIONS AND BASIC PARTS
Introduction-
A valve is a mechanical device that controls the flow of fluid and pressure within a system or process. A valve
controls system or process fluid flow and pressure by performing any of the following functions:
 Stopping and starting fluid flow
 Varying (throttling) the amount of fluid flow
 Controlling the direction of fluid flow
 Regulating downstream system or process
 Relieving component or piping over pressure
There are many valve designs and types that satisfy one or more of the functions identified above. A multitude
of valve types and designs safely accommodate a wide variety of industrial applications.
Regardless of type, all valves have the following basic parts: the body, bonnet, trim (internal elements),
actuator, and packing. The basic parts of a valve are illustrated in Figure 1.
Valve Body
The body, sometimes called the shell, is the primary pressure boundary of a valve. It serves as the principal
element of a valve assembly because it is the framework that holds everything together.
The body, the first pressure boundary of a valve, resists fluid pressure loads from connecting piping. It
receives inlet and outlet piping through threaded, bolted, or welded joints.
Valve bodies are cast or forged into a variety of shapes. Although a sphere or a cylinder would theoretically
be the most economical shape to resist fluid pressure when a valve is open, there are many other
considerations. For example, many valves require a partition across the valve body to support the seat
opening, which is the throttling orifice. With the valve closed, loading on the body is difficult to determine.
The valve end connections also distort loads on a simple sphere and more complicated shapes. Ease of
manufacture, assembly, and costs are additional important considerations. Hence, the basic form of a valve
body typically is not spherical, but ranges from simple block shapes to highly complex shapes in which the
bonnet, a removable piece to make assembly possible, forms part of the pressure resisting body
Narrowing of the fluid passage (venturi effect) is also a common method for reducing the overall size and
cost of a valve. In other instances, large ends are added to the valve for connection into a larger
Basic Parts of a Valve line
Valve Bonnet-
The cover for the opening in the valve body is the bonnet. In some designs, the body itself is split into two
sections that bolt together. Like valve bodies, bonnets vary in design. Some bonnets function simply as valve
covers, while others support valve internals and accessories such as the stem, disk, and actuator.
The bonnet is the second principal pressure boundary of a valve. It is cast or forged of the same material as
the body and is connected to the body by a threaded, bolted, or welded joint. In all cases, the attachment of
the bonnet to the body is considered a pressure boundary. This means that the weld joint or bolts that
connect the bonnet to the body are pressure-retaining parts.
Valve bonnets, although a necessity for most valves, represent a cause for concern. Bonnets can complicate
the manufacture of valves, increase valve size, represent a significant cost portion of valve cost, and are a
source for potential leakage.
Valve Trim-
The internal elements of a valve are collectively referred to as a valve's trim. The trim typically includes a disk,
seat, stem, and sleeves needed to guide the stem. A valve's performance is determined by the disk and seat
interface and the relation of the disk position to the seat.
Because of the trim, basic motions and flow control are possible. In rotational motion trim designs, the disk
slides closely past the seat to produce a change in flow opening. In linear motion trim designs, the disk lifts
perpendicularly away from the seat so that an annular orifice appears.
Disk and Seat
For a valve having a bonnet, the disk is the third primary principal pressure boundary. The disk
provides the capability for permitting and prohibiting fluid flow. With the disk closed, full system
pressure is applied
across the disk if the outlet side is depressurized. For this reasona, the disk is pressure-retaining
part. Disks are typically forged and, in some designs, hard-surfaced to provide good wear
characteristics. A fine surface finish of the seating area of a disk is necessary for good sealing when
the valve is closed. Most valves are named, in part, according to the design of their disks.
The seat or seal rings provide the seating surface for the disk. In some designs, the body is
machined to serve as the seating surface and seal rings are not used. In other designs, forged seal
rings are threaded or welded to the body to provide the seating surface. To improve the wear-
resistance of the seal rings, the surface is often hard-faced by welding and then machining the
contact surface of the seal ring. A fine surface finish of the seating area is necessary for good sealing
when the valve is closed. Seal rings are not usually considered pressure boundary parts because the
body has sufficient wall thickness to withstand design pressure without relying upon the thickness
of the seal rings.
Stem
The stem, which connects the actuator and disk, is responsible for positioning the disk. Stems are typically forged and
connected to the disk by threaded or welded joints. For valve designs requiring stem packing or sealing to prevent leakage, a
fine surface finish of the stem in the area of the seal is necessary. Typically, a stem is not considered a pressure boundary
part.
Connection of the disk to the stem can allow some rocking or rotation to ease the positioning of the disk on the seat.
Alternately, the stem may be flexible enough to let the disk position itself against the seat. However, constant fluttering or
rotation of a flexible or loosely connected disk can destroy the disk or its connection to the stem.
Two types of valve stems are rising stems and nonrising stems. Illustrated in Figures 2 and 3, these two types of stems are
easily distinguished by observation. For a rising stem valve, the stem will rise above the actuator as the valve is opened. This
occurs because the stem is threaded and mated with the bushing threads of a yoke that is an integral part of, or is mounted
to, the bonnet.
There is no upward stem movement from outside the valve for a nonriding stem design. For the nonriding stem
design, the valve disk is threaded internally and mates with the stem threads.
Valve Actuator
The actuator operates the stem and disk assembly. An actuator may be a manually operated handwheel,
manual lever, motor operator, solenoid operator, pneumatic operator, or hydraulic ram. In some designs, the
actuator is supported by the bonnet. In other designs, a yoke mounted to the bonnet supports the actuator.
Except for certain hydraulically controlled valves, actuators are outside of the pressure boundary. Yokes, when
used, are always outside of the pressure boundary.

Valve Packing
Most valves use some form of packing to prevent leakage from the space between the stem and the bonnet.
Packing is commonly a fibrous material (such as flax) or another compound (such as teflon) that forms a seal
between the internal parts of a valve and the outside where the stem extends through the body.
Valve packing must be properly compressed to prevent fluid loss and damage to the valve's stem. If a valve's
packing is too loose, the valve will leak, which is a safety hazard. If the packing is too tight, it will impair the
movement and possibly damage the stem.

Introduction to the Types of Valves

Because of the diversity of the types of systems, fluids, and environments in which valves must operate, a vast
array of valve types have been developed. Examples of the common types are the globe valve, gate valve, ball
valve, plug valve, butterfly valve, diaphragm valve, check valve, pinch valve, and safety valve. Each type of valve
has been designed to meet specific needs. Some valves are capable of throttling flow, other valve types can
only stop flow, others work well in corrosive systems, and others handle high pressure fluids. Each valve type
has certain inherent advantages and disadvantages. Understanding
these differences and how they effect the valve's application or operation is necessary for the successful
operation of a facility.
Although all valves have the same basic components and function to control flow in some fashion, the method
of controlling the flow can vary dramatically. In general, there are four methods of controlling flow through a
valve.
1.Move a disc, or plug into or against an orifice (for example, globe or needle type valve).
2.Slide a flat, cylindrical, or spherical surface across an orifice (for example, gate and plug valves).
3.Rotate a disc or ellipse about a shaft extending across the diameter of an orifice (for example, a butterfly or
ball valve).
4.Move a flexible material into the flow passage (for example, diaphragm and pinch valves).
Each method of controlling flow has characteristics that makes it the best choice for a given application of
function.
 TYPES OF VALVES
Gate Valves
A gate valve is a linear motion valve used to start or stop fluid flow; however, it does not regulate or throttle
flow. The name gate is derived from the appearance of the disk in the flow stream. Figure 4 illustrates a gate
valve.
The disk of a gate valve is completely removed from the flow stream when the valve is fully open. This
characteristic offers virtually no resistance to flow when the valve is open. Hence, there is little pressure drop
across an open gate valve.
When the valve is fully closed, a disk-to-seal ring contact surface exists for 360°, and good sealing is provided.
With the proper mating of a disk to the seal ring, very little or no leakage occurs across the disk when the
gate valve is closed.
On opening the gate valve, the flow path is enlarged in a highly nonlinear manner with respect to percent of
opening. This means that flow rate does not change evenly with stem travel. Also, a partially open gate
disk tends to vibrate from the fluid flow. Most of the flow change occurs near shutoff with a relatively high
fluid velocity causing disk and seat wear and eventual leakage if used to regulate flow. For these reasons, gate
valves are not used to regulate or throttle flow.
Gate Valve
A gate valve can be used for a wide variety of fluids and provides a tight seal when closed. The major
disadvantages to the use of a gate valve are:
It is not suitable for throttling applications.
It is prone to vibration in the partially open state.
It is more subject to seat and disk wear than a globe valve.
Repairs, such as lapping and grinding, are generally more difficult to accomplish.
Solid Wedge
The solid wedge gate valve shown in Figure 5 is the most commonly used disk because of its simplicity and
strength. A valve with this type of wedge may be installed in any position and it is suitable for almost all
fluids. It is practical for turbulent flow.
Flexible Wedge
The flexible wedge gate valve illustrated in Figure 6 is a one-piece disk with a cut around the perimeter to
improve the ability to match error or change in the angle between the seats. The cut varies in size, shape,
and depth. A shallow, narrow cut gives little flexibility but retains strength. A deeper and wider cut, or cast-
in recess, leaves little material at the center, which allows more flexibility but compromises strength. A
correct profile of the disk half in the flexible wedge design can give uniform deflection properties at the
disk edge, so that the wedging force applied in seating will force the disk seating Gate valves used in steam
systems have flexible wedges. The reason for using a flexible gate is to prevent binding of the gate within
the valve when the valve is in the closed position. When steam lines are heated, they expand and cause
some distortion of valve bodies. If a solid gate fits snugly between the seat of a valve in a cold steam
system, when the system is heated and pipes elongate,
Solid Wedge Gate Valve
the seats will compress against the gate and clamp the valve shut. This problem is overcome by using a
flexible gate, whose design allows the gate to flex as the valve seat compresses it.
The major problem associated with flexible gates is that water tends to collect in the body neck. Under
certain conditions, the admission of steam may cause the valve body neck to rupture, the bonnet to lift off,
or the seat ring to collapse. Following correct warming procedures prevent these problems. Figure 6

Split Wedge
Split wedge gate valves, as shown in Figure 7, are of the ball and socket design. These are self-adjusting and
selfaligning to both seating surfaces. The disk is free to adjust itself to the seating surface if one-half of the
disk is slightly out of alignment because of foreign matter lodged between the disk half and the seat ring.
This type of wedge is suitable for handling noncondensing gases and liquids at normal temperatures,
particularly corrosive liquids. Freedom of movement of the disk in the carrier prevents binding even though
the valve may have been closed when hot and later contracted due to cooling. This type of valve should be
installed with the stem in the vertical position.
Parallel Disk
The parallel disk gate valve illustrated in Figure 8 is designed to prevent valve binding due to thermal
transients. This design is used in both low and high pressure applications. The wedge surfaces between the
parallel face disk halves are caused to press together under stem thrust and spread apart the disks to seal
against the seats. The tapered wedges may be part of the disk halves or they may be separate elements. The
lower wedge may bottom out on a rib at the valve bottom so that the stem can develop seating force. In one
version, the wedge contact surfaces are curved to keep the point of contact close to the optimum.
In other parallel disk gates, the two halves do not move apart under wedge action. Instead, the upstream
pressure holds the downstream disk against the seat. A carrier ring lifts the disks, and a spring or springs
hold the disks apart and seated when there is no upstream pressure.
Another parallel gate disk design provides for sealing only one port. In these designs, the high pressure side
pushes the disk open (relieving the disk) on the high pressure side, but forces the disk closed on the low
pressure side. With such designs, the amount of seat leakage tends to decrease as differential pressure
across the seat increases. These valves will usually have a flow direction marking which will show which
side is the high pressure (relieving) side. Care should be taken to ensure that these valves are not installed
backwards in the system.
Some parallel disk gate valves used in high pressure systems are made with an integral bonnet vent and
bypass line. A three-way valve is used to position the line to bypass in order to equalize pressure across the
disks prior to opening. When the gate valve is closed, the three-way valve is positioned to vent the bonnet
to one side or the other. This prevents moisture from accumulating in the bonnet. The three-way valve is
positioned to the high pressure side of the gate valve when closed to ensure that flow does not bypass the
isolation valve. The high pressure acts against spring compression and forces one gate off of its seat. The
three-way valve vents this flow back to the pressure source.
Gate Valve Stem Design
Gate valves are classified as either rising stem or nonrising stem valves. For the nonrising stem gate valve, the stem
is threaded on the lower end into the gate. As the hand wheel on the stem is rotated, the gate travels up or down
the stem on the threads while the stem remains vertically stationary. This type valve will almost always have a
pointer-type indicator threaded onto the upper end of the stem to indicate valve position. Figures 2 and 3
illustrate rising-stem gate valves and nonrising stem gate valves.
The nonrising stem configuration places the stem threads within the boundary established by the valve packing
out of contact with the environment. This configuration assures that the stem merely rotates in the packing
without much danger of carrying dirt into the packing from outside to inside.
Rising stem gate valves are designed so that the stem is raised out of the flowpath when the valve is open. Rising
stem gate valves come in two basic designs. Some have a stem that rises through the handwheel while others have
a stem that is threaded to the bonnet.
Gate Valve Seat Design
Seats for gate valves are either provided integral with the valve body or in a seat ring type of construction. Seat
ring construction provides seats which are either threaded into position or are pressed into position and seal
welded to the valve body. The latter form of construction is recommended for higher temperature service.
Integral seats provide a seat of the same material of construction as the valve body while the pressed-in or
threaded-in seats permit variation. Rings with hard facings may be supplied for the application where they are
required.
Small, forged steel, gate valves may have hard faced seats pressed into the body. In some series, this type of
valve in sizes from 1/2 to 2 inches is rated for 2500 psig steam service. In large gate valves, disks are often of the
solid wedge type with seat rings threaded in, welded in, or pressed in. Screwed in seat rings are considered
replaceable since they may be removed and new seat rings installed.
Globe Valves
A globe valve is a linear motion valve used to stop, start, and regulate fluid flow. A Z-body globe valve is
illustrated in Figure 9.
As shown in Figure 9, the globe valve disk can be totally removed from the flowpath or it can completely close
the flowpath. The essential principle of globe valve operation is the perpendicular movement of the disk away
from the seat. This causes the annular space between the disk and seat ring to gradually close as the valve is
closed. This characteristic gives the globe valve good throttling ability, which permits its use in regulating flow.
Therefore, the globe valve may be used for both stopping and starting fluid flow and for regulating flow.
When compared to a gate valve, a globe valve generally yields much less seat leakage. This is because the disk-
to-seat ring contact is more at right angles, which permits the force of closing to tightly seat the disk.
Globe valves can be arranged so that the disk closes against or in the same direction of fluid flow. When the disk
closes against the direction of flow, the kinetic energy of the fluid impedes closing but aids opening of the valve.
When the disk closes in the same direction of flow, the kinetic energy of the fluid aids closing but impedes
opening. This characteristic is preferable to other designs when quick-acting stop valves are necessary.
Globe valves also have drawbacks. The most evident shortcoming of the simple globe valve is the high head loss
from two or more right angle turns of flowing fluid. Obstructions and discontinuities in the flowpath lead to
head loss. In a large high pressure line, the fluid dynamic effects from pulsations,
impacts, and pressure dropscan damage trim, stem packing, and actuators. In addition, large valve sizes require
considerable power to operate and are especially noisy in high pressure applications.
Other drawbacks of globe valves are the large openings necessary for disk assembly, heavier weight than other
valves of the same flow rating, and the cantilevered mounting of the disk to the stem.

Globe Valve Body Designs

The three primary body designs for globe valves are Z-body, Y-body, and Angle.
Z-Body Design
The simplest design and most common for water applications is the Z-body. The Z-body is illustrated in
Figure 9. For this body design, the Z-shaped diaphragm or partition across the globular body contains the
seat. The horizontal setting of the seat allows the stem and disk to travel at right angles to the pipe axis.
The stem passes through the bonnet which is attached to a large opening at the top of the valve body.
This provides a symmetrical form that simplifies manufacture, installation, and repair.
Y-Body Design
Figure 10 illustrates a typical Y-body globe valve. This design is a remedy for the high pressure drop
inherent in globe valves. The seat and stem are angled at approximately 45°. The angle yields a straighter
flowpath (at full opening) and provides the stem, bonnet, and packing a relatively pressureresistant
envelope.
Y-body globe valves are best suited for high pressure and other severe services. In small sizes for
intermittent flows, the pressure loss may not be as important as the other considerations favoring
the Y-body design. Hence, the flow passage of small Y-body globe valves is not as carefully streamlined as that

Y-Body Globe Valve

 Angle Valve Design
The angle body globe valve design, illustrated in
Figure 11, is a simple modification of the basic
globe valve. Having ends at right angles, the
diaphragm can be a simple flat plate. Fluid is able
to flow through with only a single 90° turn and
discharge downward more symmetrically than the
discharge from an ordinary globe. A particular
advantage of the angle body design is that it can
function as both a valve and a piping elbow.
For moderate conditions of pressure,
temperature, and flow, the angle valve closely
resembles the ordinary globe. The angle valve's
discharge conditions are favorable with respect to
fluid dynamics and erosion.

Globe Valve Disks

Most globe valves use one of three basic disk designs: the ball
disk, the composition disk, Figure 11 Angle Globe Valve and
the plug disk.
 Ball Disk
The ball disk fits on a tapered, flat-surfaced seat. The ball disk design is used primarily in relatively low
pressure and low temperature systems. It is capable of throttling flow, but is primarily used to stop and
start flow.
Composition Disk
The composition disk design uses a hard, nonmetallic insert ring on the disk. The insert ring creates a
tighter closure. Composition disks are primarily used in steam and hot water applications. They resist
erosion and are sufficiently resilient to close on solid particles without damaging the valve. Composition
disks are replaceable.
Plug Disk
Because of its configuration, the plug disk provides better throttling than ball or composition designs.
Plug disks are available in a variety of specific configurations. In general, they are all long and tapered.

Globe Valve Disk and Stem Connections

Globe valves employ two methods for connecting disk and stem: T-slot construction and disk nut construction. In
the T-slot design, the disk slips over the stem. In the disk nut design, the disk is screwed into the stem.
Globe Valve Seats
Globe valve seats are either integral with or screwed into the valve body. Many globe valves have backseats. A
backseat is a seating arrangement that provides a seal between the stem and bonnet. When
the valve is fully open, the disk seats against the backseat. The backseat design prevents system pressure from
building against the valve packing.
Globe Valve Direction of Flow
For low temperature applications, globe and angle valves are ordinarily installed so that pressure is under the
disk. This promotes easy operation, helps protect the packing, and eliminates a certain amount of erosive
action to the seat and disk faces. For high temperature steam service, globe valves are installed so that
pressure is above the disk. Otherwise, the stem will contract upon cooling and tend to lift the disk off the seat.

Ball Valves
A ball valve is a rotational motion valve that uses a ball-shaped disk to stop or start fluid flow. The ball, shown
in Figure 12, performs the same function as the disk in the globe valve. When the valve handle is turned to
open the valve, the ball rotates to a point where the hole through the ball is in line with the valve body inlet
and outlet. When the valve is shut, the ball is rotated so that the hole is perpendicular to the flow openings
of the valve body and the flow is stopped.
Most ball valve actuators are of the quick-acting type, which require a 90° turn of the valve handle to operate
the valve. Other ball valve actuators are planetary gear-operated. This type of gearing allows the use of a
relatively small handwheel and operating force to operate a fairly large valve.
Some ball valves have been developed with a spherical surface coated plug that is off to one side in the open
position and rotates into the flow passage until it blocks the flowpath completely. Seating is accomplished by
the eccentric movement of the plug. The valve requires no lubrication and can be used for throttling service.
 Advantages
A ball valve is generally the least
expensive of any valve configuration
and has low maintenance costs. In
addition to quick, quarter turn on-off
operation, ball valves are compact,
require no lubrication, and give tight
sealing with low torque.
Disadvantages
Conventional ball valves have
relatively poor throttling
characteristics. In a throttling
position, the partially exposed seat
rapidly erodes because of the
impingement of high velocity flow.

Port Patterns
Ball valves are available in the venturi,
reduced, and full port pattern. The full port
pattern has a ball with a bore equal to the
inside diameter of the pipe.
 Valve Materials
Balls are usually metallic in metallic bodies with trim (seats) produced from elastomeric (elastic materials
resembling rubber) materials. Plastic construction is also available.
The resilient seats for ball valves are made from various elastomeric material. The most common seat
materials are teflon (TFE), filled TFE, Nylon, Buna-N, Neoprene, and combinations of these materials.
Because of the elastomeric materials, these valves cannot be used at elevated temperatures. Care must be
used in the selection of the seat material to ensure that it is compatible with the materials being handled
by the valve.
Ball Valve Stem Design
The stem in a ball valve is not fastened to the ball. It normally has a rectangular portion at the ball end which fits
into a slot cut into the ball. The enlargement permits rotation of the ball as the stem is turned.
Ball Valve Bonnet Design
A bonnet cap fastens to the body, which holds the stem assembly and ball in place. Adjustment of the bonnet
cap permits compression of the packing, which supplies the stem seal. Packing for ball valve stems is usually in
the configuration of die-formed packing rings normally of TFE, TFE-filled, or TFE-impregnated material. Some
ball valve stems are sealed by means of O-rings rather than packing.
Ball Valve Position
Some ball valves are equipped with stops that permit only 90° rotation. Others do not have stops and may be
rotated 360°. With or without stops, a 90° rotation is all that is required for closing or opening a ball valve.
The handle indicates valve ball position. When the handle lies along the axis of the valve, the valve is open.
When the handle lies 90° across the axis of the valve, the valve is closed. Some ball valve stems have a groove
cut in the top face of the stem that shows the flowpath through the ball. Observation of the groove position
indicates the position of the port through the ball. This feature is particularly advantageous on multiport ball
valves.
Plug Valves
A plug valve is a rotational motion valve used to stop or start fluid flow. The name is derived from the shape of
the disk, which resembles a plug. A plug valve is shown in Figure 13. The simplest form of a plug valve is the
petcock. The body of a plug valve is machined to receive the tapered or cylindrical plug. The disk is a solid plug
with a bored passage at a right angle to the longitudinal axis of the plug.
In the open position, the passage in the plug lines up with the inlet and outlet ports of the valve body. When
the plug is turned 90° from the open position, the solid part of the plug blocks the ports and stops fluid flow.
Plug valves are available in either a lubricated or nonlubricated design and with a variety of styles of port
openings through the plug as well as a number of plug designs.

Plug Ports
An important characteristic of the plug valve is its easy adaptation to multiport construction. Multiport valves
are widely used. Their installation simplifies piping, and they provide a more convenient operation than
multiple gate valves. They also eliminate pipe fittings. The use of a multiport valve, depending upon the
number of ports in the plug valve, eliminates the need of as many as four conventional shutoff valves.
Plug valves are normally used in non-throttling, on-off operations, particularly where frequent operation of
the valve is necessary. These valves are not normally recommended for throttling service because, like the
gate valve, a high percentage of flow change occurs near shutoff at high velocity. However, a diamond-
shaped port has been developed for throttling service.
Multiport Plug Valves
Multiport valves are particularly advantageous on transfer lines and for diverting services. A single multiport
valve may be installed in lieu of three or four gate valves or other types of shutoff valve. A disadvantage is
that many multiport valve configurations do not completely shut off flow.
In most cases, one flowpath is always open. These valves are intended to divert the flow of one line while
shutting off flow from the other lines. If complete shutoff of flow is a requirement, it is necessary that a style
of multiport valve be used that permits this, or a secondary valve should be installed on the main line ahead
of the multiport valve to permit complete shutoff of flow.
In some multiport configurations, simultaneous flow to more than one port is also possible. Great care
should be taken in specifying the particular port arrangement required to guarantee that proper operation
will be possible.
Plug Valve Disks
Plugs are either round or cylindrical with a taper. They may have various types of port openings, each with a
varying degree of area relative to the corresponding inside diameter of the pipe.
Rectangular Port Plug
The most common port shape is the rectangular port. The rectangular port represents at least 70% of
the corresponding pipe's cross-sectional area.
 Round Port Plug
Round port plug is a term that describes a valve that has a round opening through the plug. If the port is
the same size or larger than the pipe's inside diameter, it is referred to as a full port. If the opening is
smaller than the pipe's inside diameter, the port is referred to as a standard round port. Valves having
standard round ports are used only where restriction of flow is unimportant.
Diamond Port Plug
A diamond port plug has a diamond-shaped port through the plug. This design is for throttling service.
All diamond port valves are venturi restricted flow type.
Lubricated Plug Valve Design
Clearances and leakage prevention are the chief considerations in plug valves. Many plug valves are of all
metal construction. In these versions, the narrow gap around the plug can allow leakage. If the gap is
reduced by sinking the taper plug deeper into the body, actuation torque climbs rapidly and galling can occur.
To remedy this condition, a series of grooves around the body and plug port openings is supplied with grease
prior to actuation. Applying grease lubricates the plug motion and seals the gap between plug and body.
Grease injected into a fitting at the top of the stem travels down through a check valve in the passageway,
past the plug top to the grooves on the plug, and down to a well below the plug. The lubricant must be
compatible with the temperature and nature of the fluid. All manufacturers of lubricated plug valves have
developed a series of lubricants that are compatible with a wide range of media. Their recommendation
should be followed as to which lubricant is best suited for the service.
The most common fluids controlled by plug valves are gases and liquid hydrocarbons. Some water lines have
these valves, provided that lubricant contamination is not a serious danger. Lubricated plug valves may be as
large as 24 inches and have pressure capabilities up to 6000 psig. Steel or iron bodies are available. The plug
can be cylindrical or tapered.
Nonlubricated Plugs
There are two basic types of nonlubricated plug valves: lift-type and elastomer sleeve or plug coated. Lift-type
valves provide a means of mechanically lifting the tapered plug slightly to disengage it from the seating surface
to permit easy rotation. The mechanical lifting can be accomplished with a cam or external lever.
In a common, nonlubricated, plug valve having an elastomer sleeve, a sleeve of TFE completely surrounds the
plug. It is retained and locked in place by a metal body. This design results in a primary seal being maintained
between the sleeve and the plug at all times regardless of position. The TFE sleeve is durable and inert to all
but a few rarely encountered chemicals. It also has a low coefficient of friction and is, therefore, self-
lubricating.
Manually Operated Plug Valve Installation
When installing plug valves, care should be taken to allow room for the operation of the handle, lever, or
wrench. The manual operator is usually longer than the valve, and it rotates to a position parallel to the pipe
from a position 90° to the pipe.
Plug Valve Glands
The gland of the plug valve is equivalent to the bonnet of a gate or globe valve. The gland secures the
stem assembly to the valve body. There are three general types of glands: single gland, screwed gland, and
bolted gland.
To ensure a tight valve, the plug must be seated at all times. Gland adjustment should be kept tight enough to
prevent the plug from becoming unseated and exposing the seating surfaces to the live fluid. Care should be
exercised to not overtighten the gland, which will result in a metal-to-metal contact between the body and the
plug. Such a metal-to-metal contact creates an additional force which will require extreme effort to operate
the valve.
Diaphragm Valves
A diaphragm valve is a linear motion valve that is used to start, regulate, and stop fluid flow. The name is
derived from its flexible disk, which mates with a seat located in the open area at the top of the valve body to
form a seal. A diaphragm valve is illustrated Diaphragm valves are, in effect, simple "pinch clamp" valves. A
resilient, flexible diaphragm is connected to a compressor by a stud molded into the diaphragm. The
compressor is moved up and down by the valve stem. Hence, the diaphragm lifts when the compressor is
raised. As the compressor is lowered, the diaphragm is pressed against the contoured bottom in the straight
through valve illustrated in Figure 14 or the body weir in the weir-type valve illustrated in Figure 15.
Diaphragm valves can also be used for throttling service. The weir-type is the better throttling valve but has a
limited range. Its throttling characteristics are essentially those of a quickopening valve because of the large
shutoff area along the seat.
A weir-type diaphragm valve is available to control small flows. It uses a two-piece compressor component.
Instead of the entire diaphragm lifting off the weir when the valve is opened, the first
increments of stem travel raise an inner compressor component that causes only the central part of the
diaphragm to lift. This creates a relatively small opening through the center of the valve. After the inner
compressor is completely open, the outer compressor component is raised along with the inner compressor
and the remainder of thethrottling is similar to the throttling that takes place in a conventional valve.
Diaphragm valves are particularly suited for the handling of corrosive fluids, fibrous slurries, radioactive fluids,
or other fluids that must remain free from contamination.
Diaphragm Construction
The operating mechanism of a diaphragm valve is not exposed to the media within the pipeline. Sticky or
viscous fluids cannot get into the bonnet to interfere with the operating mechanism. Many fluids that would
clog, corrode, or gum up the working parts of most other types of valves will pass through a diaphragm valve
without causing problems. Conversely, lubricants used for the operating mechanism cannot be allowed to
contaminate the fluid being handled. There are no packing glands to maintain and no possibility of stem
leakage. There is a wide choice of available diaphragm materials. Diaphragm life depends upon the nature of
the material handled, temperature, pressure, and frequency of operation.
Some elastomeric diaphragm materials may be unique in their excellent resistance to certain chemicals at
high temperatures. However, the mechanical properties of any elastomeric material will be lowered at the
higher temperature with possible destruction of the diaphragm at high pressure. Consequently, the
manufacturer should be consulted when they are used in elevated temperature applications.
All elastomeric materials operate best below 150°F. Some will function at higher temperatures. Viton, for
example, is noted for its excellent chemical resistance and stability at high temperatures. However, when
fabricated into a diaphragm, Viton is subject to lowered tensile strength just as any other elastomeric
material would be at elevated temperatures. Fabric bonding strength is also lowered at elevated
temperatures, and in the case of Viton, temperatures may be reached where the bond strength could
become critical.
Fluid concentrations is also a consideration for diaphragm selection. Many of the diaphragm materials exhibit
satisfactory corrosion resistance to certain corrodents up to a specific concentration and/or temperature. The
elastomer may also have a maximum temperature limitation based on mechanical properties which could be
in excess of the allowable operating temperature depending upon its corrosion resistance. This should be
checked from a corrosion table.
Diaphragm Valve Stem Assemblies
Diaphragm valves have stems that do not rotate. The valves are available with indicating and nonindicating
stems. The indicating stem valve is identical to the nonindicating stem valve except that a longer stem is
provided to extend up through the handwheel. For the nonindicating stem design, the handwheel rotates a
stem bushing that engages the stem threads and moves the stem up and down. As the stem moves, so does
the compressor that is pinned to the stem. The diaphragm, in turn, is secured to the compressor.
Diaphragm Valve Bonnet Assemblies
Some diaphragm valves use a quick-opening bonnet and lever operator. This bonnet is interchangeable with
the standard bonnet on conventional weir-type bodies. A 90° turn of the lever moves the diaphragm from full
open to full closed. Diaphragm valves may also be equipped with chain wheel operators, extended stems,
bevel gear operators, air operators, and hydraulic operators.
Many diaphragm valves are used in vacuum service. Standard bonnet construction can be employed in vacuum
service through 4 inches in size. On valves 4 inches and larger, a sealed, evacuated, bonnet should be
employed. This is recommended to guard against premature diaphragm failure.
Sealed bonnets are supplied with a seal bushing on the nonindicating types and a seal bushing plus O-ring on
the indicating types. Construction of the bonnet assembly of a diaphragm valve is illustrated in Figure 15. This
design is recommended for valves that are handling dangerous liquids and gases. In the event of a diaphragm
failure, the hazardous materials will not be released to the atmosphere.
Reducing Valves
Reducing valves automatically reduce supply pressure to a preselected pressure as long as the supply pressure is at least as
high as the selected pressure. As illustrated in Figure 16, the principal parts of the reducing valve are the main valve; an
upward-seating valve that has a piston on top of its valve stem, an upward-seating auxiliary (or controlling) valve, a
controlling diaphragm, and an adjusting spring and screw.
Reducing valve operation is controlled by high pressure at the valve inlet and the adjusting screw on top of the valve
assembly. The pressure entering the main valve assists the main valve spring in keeping the reducing valve closed by pushing
upward on the main valve disk. However, some of the high pressure is bled to an auxiliary valve on top of the main valve. The
auxiliary valve controls the admission of high pressure to the piston on top of the main valve. The piston has a larger surface
area than the main valve disk, resulting in a net downward force to open the main valve. The auxiliary valve is controlled by a
controlling diaphragm located directly over the auxiliary valve.
The controlling diaphragm transmits a downward force that tends to open the auxiliary valve. The downward force is exerted
by the adjusting spring, which is controlled by the adjusting screw. Reduced pressure from the main valve outlet is bled back
to a chamber beneath the diaphragm to counteract the downward force of the adjusting spring. The position of the auxiliary
valve, and ultimately the position of the main valve, is determined by the position of the diaphragm. The position of the
diaphragm is determined by the strength of the opposing forces of the downward force of the adjusting spring versus the
upward force of the outlet reduced pressure. Other reducing valves work on the same basic principle, but may use gas,
pneumatic, or hydraulic controls in place of the adjusting spring and screw.
Non-variable reducing valves, illustrated in Figure 17, replace the adjusting spring and screw with a pre-pressurized dome
over the diaphragm. The valve stem is connected either directly or indirectly to the diaphragm. The valve spring below the
diaphragm keeps the valve closed. As in the variable valve, reduced pressure is bled through an orifice to beneath the
diaphragm to open the valve. Valve position is determined by the strength of the opposing forces of the downward force of
the pre-pressurized dome versus the upward force of the outlet-reduced pressure.
Non-variable reducing valves eliminate the need for the intermediate auxiliary valve found in variable reducing
valves by having the opposing forces react directly on the diaphragm. Therefore, non-variable reducing valves are
more responsive to large pressure variations and are less susceptible to failure than are variable reducing valves.

Non-Variable Reducing Valve

Pinch Valves
The relatively inexpensive pinch valve, illustrated in Figure 18, is the simplest in any valve design. It is simply an
industrial version of the pinch cock used in the laboratory to control the flow of fluids through rubber tubing.
Pinch valves are suitable for on-off and throttling services. However, the effective throttling range is usually
between 10% and 95% of the rated flow capacity.
Pinch valves are ideally suited for the handling of slurries, liquids with large amounts of suspended solids, and
systems that convey solids pneumatically. Because the operating mechanism is completely isolated from the
fluid, these valves also find application where corrosion or metal contamination of the fluid might be a
problem.
The pinch control valve consists of a sleeve molded of rubber or other synthetic material and a pinching
mechanism. All of the operating portions are completely external to the valve. The molded sleeve is referred to
as the valve body.
Pinch valve bodies are manufactured of natural and synthetic rubbers and plastics which have good abrasion
resistance properties. These properties permit little damage to the valve sleeve, thereby providing virtually
unimpeded flow. Sleeves are available with either extended hubs and clamps designed to slip over a pipe end,
or with a flanged end having standard dimensions.

Pinch Valve Bodies

Pinch valves have molded bodies reinforced with fabric. Pinch valves generally have a maximum operating
temperature of 250oF. At 250oF, maximum operating pressure varies generally from 100 psig for a 1-inch
diameter valve and decreases to 15 psig for a 12-inch diameter valve. Special pinch valves are available for
temperature ranges of -100oF to 550oF and operating pressures of 300 psig.
Most pinch valves are supplied with the sleeve (valve body) exposed. Another style fully encloses the sleeve
within a metallic body. This type controls flow either with the conventional wheel and screw pinching device,
hydraulically, or pneumatically with the pressure of the liquid or gas within the metal case forcing the sleeve
walls together to shut off flow.
Most exposed sleeve valves have limited vacuum application because of the tendency of the sleeves to collapse
when vacuum is applied. Some of the encased valves can be used on vacuum service by applying a vacuum
within the metal casing and thus preventing the collapse of the sleeve.
Butterfly Valves
A butterfly valve, illustrated in Figure 19, is a rotary motion valve that is used to stop, regulate, and start fluid
flow. Butterfly valves are easily and quickly operated because a 90o rotation of the handle moves the disk from a
fully closed to fully opened position. Larger butterfly valves are actuated by handwheels connected to the stem
through gears that provide mechanical advantage at the expense of speed.
Butterfly valves possess many advantages over gate, globe, plug, and ball valves, especially for large valve
applications. Savings in weight, space, and cost are the most obvious advantages. The maintenance costs are
usually low because there are a minimal. Butterfly valves are especially well-suited for the handling of large flows
of liquids or gases at relatively low pressures and for the handling of slurries or liquids with large amounts of
suspended solids.
Butterfly valves are built on the principle of a pipe damper. The flow control element is a disk of approximately
the same diameter as the inside diameter of the adjoining pipe, which rotates on either a vertical or horizontal
axis. When the disk lies parallel to the piping run, the valve is fully opened. When the disk approaches the
perpendicular position, the valve is shut. Intermediate positions, for throttling
purposes, can be secured in place by handle-locking devices.
Butterfly Valve Seat Construction
Stoppage of flow is accomplished by the valve disk sealing against a seat that is on the inside diameter
periphery of the valve body. Many butterfly valves have an elastomeric seat against which the disk seals. Other
butterfly valves have a seal ring arrangement that uses a clamp-ring and backing-ring on a serrated edged
rubber ring. This design prevents extrusion of the O-rings. In early designs, a metal disk was used to seal against
a metal seat. This arrangement did not provide a leak-tight closure, but did provide sufficient closure in some
applications (i.e., water distribution lines).
Butterfly Valve Body Construction
Butterfly valve body construction varies. The most economical is the wafer type that fits between two pipeline
flanges. Another type, the lug wafer design, is held in place between two pipe flanges by bolts that join the two
flanges and pass through holes in the valve's outer casing. Butterfly valves are available with conventional
flanged ends for bolting to pipe flanges, and in a threaded end construction.
Butterfly Valve Disk and Stem Assemblies
The stem and disk for a butterfly valve are separate pieces. The disk is bored to receive the stem. Two methods
are used to secure the disk to the stem so that the disk rotates as the stem is turned. In the first method, the
disk is bored through and secured to the stem with bolts or pins. The alternate method involves boring the disk
as before, then shaping the upper stem bore to fit a squared or hex-shaped stem. This method allows the disk
to "float" and seek its center in the seat. Uniform sealing is accomplished and external stem fasteners are
eliminated. This method of assembly is advantageous in the case of covered disks and in corrosive applications.
In order for the disk to be held in the proper position, the stem must extend beyond the bottom of the disk and
fit into a bushing in the bottom of the valve body. One or two similar bushings are along the upper portion of the
stem as well. These bushings must be either resistant to the media being handled or sealed so that the corrosive
media cannot come into contact with them.
Stem seals are accomplished either with packing in a conventional stuffing box or by means of O-ring seals.
Some valve manufacturers, particularly those specializing in the handling of corrosive materials, place a stem
seal on the inside of the valve so that no material being handled by the valve can come into contact with the
valve stem. If a stuffing box or external O-ring is employed, the fluid passing through the valve will come into
contact with the valve stem.
Needle Valves
A needle valve, as shown in Figure 20, is used to make relatively fine adjustments in the amount of fluid flow.
The distinguishing characteristic of a needle valve is the long, tapered, needlelike point on the end of the valve
stem. This "needle" acts as a disk. The longer part of the needle is smaller than the orifice in the valve seat and
passes through the orifice before the needle seats. This arrangement permits a very gradual increase or
decrease in the size of the opening. Needle valves are often used as component parts of other, more
complicated valves. For example, they are used in some types of reducing valves.
Needle Valve Applications
Most constant pressure pump governors have needle valves to minimize the effects of fluctuations in pump
discharge pressure. Needle valves are also used in some components of automatic control systems where very
precise flow regulation is necessary.
Needle Valve Body Designs
One type of body design for a needle valve is the bar stock
body. Bar stock bodies are common, and, in globe types, a ball
swiveling in the stem provides the necessary rotation for
seating without damage. The bar stock body is illustrated in
Needle valves are frequently used as metering valves. Metering valves are used for extremely fine flow
control. The thin disk or orifice allows for linear flow characteristics. Therefore, the number of handwheel
turns can be directly correlated to the amount of flow. A typical metering valve has a stem with 40 threads
per inch.
Needle valves generally use one of two styles of stem packing: an O-ring with TFE backing rings or a TFE
packing cylinder. Needle valves are often equipped with replaceable seats for ease of maintenance.
Check Valves
Check valves are designed to prevent the reversal of flow in a piping system. These valves are activated by
the flowing material in the pipeline. The pressure of the fluid passing through the system opens the valve,
while any reversal of flow will close the valve. Closure is accomplished by the weight of the check
mechanism, by back pressure, by a spring, or by a combination of these means. The general types of check
valves are swing, tilting-disk, piston, butterfly, and stop.
Swing Check Valves
A swing check valve is illustrated in Figure 22. The valve allows full, unobstructed flow and automatically
closes as pressure decreases. These valves are fully closed when the flow reaches zero and prevent back
flow. Turbulence and pressure drop within the valve are very low.
A swing check valve is normally recommended for use in systems employing gate valves because of the low
pressure drop across the valve. Swing check valves are available in either Y-pattern or straight body design. A
straight check valve is illustrated in Figure 22. In either style, the disk and hinge are suspended from the body
by means of a hinge pin. Seating is either metal-tometal or metal seat to composition disk. Composition
disks are usually recommended for services where dirt or other
particles may be present in the fluid, where noise is objectionable, or where positive shutoff is required.
Straight body swing check valves contain a disk that is hinged at the top. The disk seals against the seat, which
is integral with the body. This type of check valve usually has replaceable seat rings. The seating surface is
placed at a slight angle to permit easier opening at lower pressures, more positive sealing, and less shock when
closing under higher pressures.
Swing check valves are usually installed in conjunction with gate valves because they provide relatively free
flow. They are recommended for lines having low velocity flow and should not be used on lines with pulsating
flow when the continual flapping or pounding would be destructive to the seating elements. This condition can
be partially corrected by using an external lever and weight.
Tilting Disk Check Valves
The tilting disk check valve, illustrated in Figure 23, is similar to the swing check valve. Like the swing check,
the tilting disk type keeps fluid resistance and turbulence low because of its straight-through design.
Tilting disk check valves can be installed in horizontal lines and vertical lines having upward flow. Some
designs simply fit between two flange faces and provide a compact, lightweight installation, particularly in
larger diameter valves.
The disk lifts off of the seat to open the valve. The airfoil design of the disk allows it to "float" on the flow.
Disk stops built into the body position the disk for optimum flow characteristics. A large body cavity helps
minimize flow restriction. As flow decreases, the disk starts closing and seals before reverse flow occurs.
Backpressure against the disk moves it across the soft seal into the metal seat for tight shutoff without
slamming. If the reverse flow pressure is insufficient to cause a tight seal, the
valve may be fitted with an external lever and weight.
These valves are available with a soft seal ring, metal seat seal, or a metal-to-metal seal. The latter is
recommended for high temperature operation. The soft seal rings are replaceable, but the valve must be
removed from the line to make the replacement.
Lift Check Valves
A lift check valve, illustrated in Figure 24, is commonly used in piping systems in which globe valves are being
used as a flow control valve. They have similar seating arrangements as globe valves.
Lift check valves are suitable for installation in horizontal or vertical lines with upward flow. They are
recommended for use with steam, air, gas, water, and on vapor lines with high flow velocities. These valves are
available in three body patterns: horizontal, angle, and vertical.
Flow to lift check valves must always enter below the seat. As the flow enters, the disk or ball is raised within
guides from the seat by the pressure of the upward flow. When the flow stops or reverses, the disk or ball is
forced onto the seat of the valve by both the backflow and gravity.
Some types of lift check valves may be installed horizontally. In this design, the ball is suspended by a system of
guide ribs. This type of check valve design is generally employed in plastic check valves.
The seats of metallic body lift check valves are either integral with the body or contain renewable seat rings. Disk
construction is similar to the disk construction of globe valves with either metal or composition disks. Metal disk
and seat valves can be reground using the same techniques as is used for globe valves.
Piston Check Valves
A piston check valve, illustrated in Figure 25, is essentially a lift check valve. It has a dashpot consisting of a
piston and cylinder that provides a cushioning effect during operation. Because of the similarity in design to
lift check valves, the flow characteristics through a piston check valve are essentially the same as through a lift
check valve.
Installation is the same as for a lift check in that the flow must enter from under the seat. Construction of the
seat and disk of a piston check valve is the same as for lift check valves.
Piston check valves are used primarily in conjunction with globe and angle valves in piping systems
experiencing very frequent changes in flow direction. Valves of this type are used on water, steam, and air
systems.
Butterfly Check Valves
Butterfly check valves have a seating arrangement similar to the seating arrangement of butterfly valves.
Flow characteristics through these check valves are similar to the flow characteristics through butterfly
valves. Consequently, butterfly check valves are quite frequently used in systems using butterfly valves. In
addition, the construction of the butterfly check valve body is such that ample space is provided for
unobstructed movement of the butterfly valve disk within the check valve body without the necessity of
installing spacers.
The butterfly check valve design is based on a flexible sealing member against the bore of the valve body at
an angle of 45o. The short distance the disk must move from full open to full closed inhibits the "slamming"
action found in some other types of check valves. Figure 26
illustrates the internal assembly of the butterfly check valve.
Because the flow characteristics are similar to the flow characteristics of butterfly valves, applications of
these valves are much the same. Also, because of their relatively quiet operation they find application in
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems. Simplicity of design also permits their construction in large
diameters - up to 72 inches.
As with butterfly valves, the basic body design lends itself to the installation of seat liners constructed of
many materials. This permits the construction of a corrosion-resistant valve at less expense than would be
encountered if it were necessary to construct the entire body of the higher alloy or more expensive metal.
This is particularly true in constructions such as those of titanium.
Flexible sealing members are available in Buna-N, Neoprene, Nordel, Hypalon, Viton, Tyon, Urethane, Butyl,
Silicone, and TFE as standard, with other materials available on special order.
The valve body essentially is a length of pipe that is fitted with flanges or has threaded, grooved, or plain ends.
The interior is bored to a fine finish. The flanged end units can have liners of various metals or plastics installed
depending upon the service requirements. Internals and fasteners are always of the same material as the liner.
Butterfly check valves may be installed horizontally or vertically with the vertical flow either upward or
downward. Care should be taken to ensure that the valve is installed so that the entering flow comes from the
hinge post end of the valve; otherwise, all flow will be stopped.

Stop Check Valves

A stop check valve, illustrated in Figure 27, is a combination
of a lift check valve and a globe valve. It has a stem which,
when closed, prevents the disk from coming off the seat and
provides a tight seal (similar to a globe valve). When the stem
is operated to the open position, the valve operates as a lift
check. The stem is not connected to the disk and functions to
close the valve tightly or to limit the travel of the valve disk in
the open direction.
Relief and Safety Valves
Relief and safety valves prevent equipment damage by relieving accidental over-pressurization of fluid systems.
The main difference between a relief valve and a safety valve is the extent of opening at the setpoint pressure.
A relief valve, illustrated in Figure 28, gradually opens as the inlet pressure increases above the setpoint. A relief
valve opens only as necessary to relieve the over-pressure condition. A safety valve, illustrated in Figure 29,
rapidly pops fully open as soon as the pressure setting is reached. A safety valve will stay fully open until the
pressure drops below a reset pressure. The reset pressure is lower than the actuating pressure setpoint. The
difference between the actuating pressure setpoint and the pressure at which the safety valve resets is called
blowdown.Blowdown is expressed as a percentage of the actuating pressure setpoint.
Relief valves are typically used for incompressible fluids such as water or oil. Safety valves are typically used for
compressible fluids such as steam or other gases. Safety valves can often be distinguished by the presence of an
external lever at the top of the valve body, which is used as an operational check.
As indicated in Figure 29, system pressure provides a force that is attempting to push the disk of the safety valve
off its seat. Spring pressure on the stem is forcing the disk onto the seat. At the pressure determined by spring
compression, system pressure overcomes spring pressure and the relief valve opens. As system pressure is
relieved, the valve closes when spring pressure again overcomes system pressure. Most relief and safety valves
open against the force of a compression spring. The pressure setpoint is adjusted by turning the adjusting nuts on
top of the yoke to increase or decrease the spring compression.
Pumps
There are different types of pumps available in the market. This article will assist you to know the main
functionalities of each type of pump. The type of pump, as well as selection, mainly depend on our requirement.
The application mainly includes the type of fluid you desire to pump, the distance you desire to move the fluid,
and the quantity you require to get over a particular time frame. However, it is complicated to recognize
accurately what kind of pump you must select. The identifying of the pump can be done with the design as well
as positions. To make simpler things while seeking to choose your exact pump, and the pumps can be classified
into two types which function in extremely dissimilar ways & generally summarize most of the pump designs.

Types of Pumps
Pumps are classified into two types namely Dynamic pumps as well as Positive Displacement Pumps.
Dynamic Pumps
Dynamic pumps are classified into different types but some of them are discussed below like Centrifugal, Vertical
centrifugal, Horizontal centrifugal, Submersible, and Fire hydrant systems.
1). Centrifugal Pumps
These types of pumps are most commonly used worldwide. The working is very simple, described well and
carefully tested. This pump is strong, efficient and fairly cheap to make. Whenever the pump is in action, then
the fluid pressure will increase from the inlet of the pump to its outlet. The change of pressure will drive the
liquid throughout the system.

This kind of pump produces an enhancement within force by transmitting mechanical power from the electrical
motor to the liquid throughout the revolving impeller. The flow of liquid will enter the center of impeller and
exits along with its blades. The centrifugal power hereby enhances the velocity of fluid & also the energy like
kinetic can be altered to force.
2). Vertical Centrifugal Pumps
Vertical centrifugal pumps are also called as cantilever pumps. These pumps use an exclusive shaft &
maintain design that permits the volume to fall within the pit as the bearings are external to the pit. This
mode of pump utilizes no filling container to cover the shaft however in its place uses a throttle bushing. A
parts washer is the common application of this kind of pump.
3). Horizontal Centrifugal Pumps
These types of pumps include a minimum of two otherwise more impellers. These pumps are utilized in
pumping services. Every stage is fundamentally a divide pump.

All the phases are in a similar shelter & mounted on a similar shaft. On a solo horizontal shaft, a minimum of
eight otherwise additional stages can be mounted. Every stage enhances the head by around an equal
amount. These types of pumps are normally utilized in companies that transfer large amounts of industrial
fluids. All kinds of pumps have been providing as well as servicing this type of centrifugal pump.
4). Submersible Pumps
These pumps are also named as stormwater, sewage, and septic pumps. The applications of these pumps
mainly include building services, domestic, industrial, commercial, rural, municipal, & rainwater recycle
applications.

These pumps are apt for shifting stormwater, subsoil water, sewage, black water, grey water, rainwater, trade
waste, chemicals, bore water, and foodstuffs. The applications of these pipes mainly include in different
impellers like closed, contra-block, vortex, multi-stage, single channel, cutter, otherwise grinder pumps. For
different applications, there is an extensive selection is accessible which includes high flow, low flow, low
head, otherwise high head.
5). Fire Hydrant Systems
Fire hydrant pump systems are also named as hydrant boosters, fire pumps, & fire water pumps. These are
high force water pumps intended to enhance the capacity of fire fighting of construction by increasing the
force within the hydrant service as mains is not sufficient. The applications of this system mainly include
irrigation as well as water transfer.
Positive Displacement Pumps
Positive displacement pumps are classified into different types but some of them are
discussed below like diaphragm, gear, peristaltic, lobe, and piston pumps.
1). Diaphragm Pumps
Diaphragm pumps also known as AOD pumps (Air operated diaphragms), pneumatic, and AODD pumps. The
applications of these pumps mainly include in continuous applications like in general plants, industrial and
mining. AOD pumps are particularly employed where power is not obtainable, otherwise in unstable and
combustible regions. These pumps are also utilized for transferring chemical, food manufacturing,
underground coal mines, etc.
These pumps are responding pumps and include two diaphragms which are driven with condensed air. The
section of air by transfer valve applies air alternately toward the two diaphragms; where every diaphragm
contains a set of ball or check valves.
2). Gear Pumps
These pumps are a kind of rotating positive dislocation pump, which means they force a stable amount of
liquid for every revolution. These pumps move liquid with machinery coming inside and outside of mesh for
making a non-exciting pumping act. These pumps are capable of pumping on high forces & surpass at
pumping high thickness fluids efficiently.

A gear pump doesn’t contain any valves to cause losses like friction & also high impeller velocities. So this
pump is compatible for handling thick liquids like fuel as well as grease oils. These pumps are not suitable for
driving solids as well as harsh liquids.
3). Peristaltic Pumps
Peristaltic pumps are also named as tube pumps, peristaltic pumps. These are a kind of positive displacement pumps
and the applications of these pumps mainly involve in processing of chemical, food, and water treatment industries. It
makes a stable flow for measuring & blending and also capable of pumping a variety of liquids like toothpaste and all
kinds of chemicals.
4). Lobe Pumps
These pumps offer different characteristics like an excellent high efficiency, rust resistance, hygienic
qualities, reliability, etc. These pumps can handle high thickness fluids & solids without hurting them. The
working of these pumps can be related to gear pumps, apart from the lobes which do not approach into
contact by each other. Additionally, these pumps have superior pumping rooms compare with gear pumps
that allow them to move slurries. These are made with stainless steel as well as extremely polished.
5). Piston Pumps
Piston pumps are one kind type of positive dislocation pumps wherever the high force seal responds
through the piston. These pumps are frequently used in water irrigation, scenarios requiring high, reliable
pressure and delivery systems for transferring chocolate, pastry, paint, etc.

Thus, this is all about classification of pumps like centrifugal & positive displacement. These are used in
different kinds of buildings to make simpler the movement of liquid materials. The pumps which are used in
housing & commercial can handle water. Fire pumps supply a rushed water supply for automatic sprinklers
and firefighters, and booster pumps supply clean water to higher floors in apartments. Here is a question for
you, what is the function of Hydronic Pumps within HVAC systems?
WELDING
1. INTRODUCTION
Welding is a process by which metals are joined by heating them to a suitable temperature with or without the
application of pressure and addition of filler materials. Welding processes are employed in most of the modern
fabrication works and industries.
CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESSES
Welding processes are broadly classified under two main
i)Pressure welding or Plastic welding : - In this process, the ends of metal pieces to be joined are heated
to plastic state and are joined together by applying pressure on them. No additional filler material is used. eg:
Blacksmith welding, Resistance welding, Cold pressure welding etc.
ii)Non Pressure welding or Fusion welding:- here the material at the joint is heated to molten state
(fusion state) and allowed to solidify. Thus the two parts are joined together without the application of any
pressure. It uses a filler material such as an electrode. eg: Gas welding, Arc welding, Thermit welding etc.
ARC WELDING
Arc welding is a fusion welding process in which welding is done by producing heat from an electric arc
between the work and electrode. Both D.C. and A.C. electric supply are used for this. The arc between the
two terminals produces heat to melt the metal. If two pieces of metal that are to be joined are placed so
that they touch or almost touch one another and the arc from the electrode is directed at this junction, the
heat generated by the arc (approx. 3500oC) causes a small section of the edges of both pieces to melt.
These molten portions along with the molten portions of the electrode flow together. As the arc column is
moved, the molten puddle solidifies joining the two pieces of metal with a combination of electrode and
base metal.
There are different methods of arc welding in practice as listed below:
i)Metal Arc Welding
ii)Carbon Arc Welding
iii) Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding
iv) Tungsten inert gas Arc Welding (TIG)
v) Metal inert gas Arc Welding (MIG)
vi) Submerged Arc Welding
vii) Plasma Arc Welding
Metal Arc Welding
The commonly used arc welding method is metal arc welding. In this process a metal electrode is used. The
metal electrode itself melts and acts as a filler material. An arc welding circuit consists of the following
essential items:
a)The power source i.e. the Welding machine
b)Welding lead cable and electrode holder
c)Welding return cable and clamp
d)Welding earth
Arc Welding Machines
There are three types of welding machines in use:

i) Welding transformer
It is used to change the voltage and current to the desired range suitable for welding. Normally low voltage
high current (high amperage) supply is preferred for welding. The welding transformer operates on A .C.
supply only and it has no rotating parts. It is a step down transformer which reduces the main supply
voltage (220 or 440 V) to the welding supply open circuit voltage between 40 and 100 V.
ii) Welding generator
It is used to generate D.C supply for arc welding. It may be driven by an A.C. motor or driven by a petrol or
diesel engine. It can be used anywhere in the field work, away from the electric lines.
iii) Welding rectifier
It is used to convert A.C. into D.C welding supply and does not have any rotating parts. It is basically a
transformer, but the output of which is connected with a rectifier to change the A.C in to D.C
Welding Electrode
Electrode is a conductor from which an arc struck. The arc melts electrode and parent metal. They join
together to form a good weld when solidifies. The electrode is a core, coated with a solid flux acts as a filler
material and is consumed during welding by keeping a constant arc length. The flux when melts produces a
slag which floats on the metal pool, protects the weld from oxidation. The flux of electrode mainly contains
cellulose (burns and produces a gaseous shield around the arc), calcium carbonate and calcium fluoride
(impart fluidity to the slag), Iron powder (for higher penetration and deposition), Titania (for stabilising the
arc), asbestos etc.
Electrodes are available in different standard lengths of 450, 350, 300and 200 mm. A core length of 25mm from one
end is left uncoated for holding in the electrode holder. It is mainly specified by its core diameter.

Electrode size in mm Gauge No.(SWG) Current range in ampere (A)

1.6 16 40-60

2.5 12 50-80

3.2 10 90-130

4.0 8 120-170

5.0 6 130-270

6.0 4 300-400
GAS WELDING
Oxy-fuel welding, commonly referred to as oxy welding or gas welding is a process of joining metals by
application of heat created by gas flame. The fuel gas commonly acetylene, when mixed with proper
proportion of oxygen in a mixing chamber of welding torch, produces a very hot flame of about 3150 - 3300
oC .
Different gases suitable for welding and cutting are Acetylene, hydrogen, LPG, Methane etc.
Oxy- Acetylene Gas Welding
The oxy-acetylene welding process uses a combination of oxygen and acetylene gas to provide a high
temperature flame. The high temperature flame melts the metal faces of the workpieces to be joined,
causing them to flow together. A filler metal alloy is normally added and sometimes used to prevent
oxidation and to facilitate the metal union.
OXY-ACETYLENE GAS WELDING APPARATUS
Oxy-fuel apparatus consists of two cylinders (one oxygen and one acetylene) equipped with two regulators,
pressure gauges, two lengths of hose, and a blow torch. The regulators are attached to cylinders and are
used to reduce and maintain a uniform pressure of gases at the torch. The gases at reduced pressure are
conveyed to the torch by the hoses. The regulators include high pressure and low pressure gauges to
indicate the contents of the cylinder and the working-pressure on each hose. When the gases reach the
torch they are there mixed and combustion takes place at the welding tip fitted to the torch.
The basic equipment's used to carry out gas welding are:
1. Oxygen gas cylinder (coloured in black) with valve made of brass having right hand threads
2. Acetylene gas cylinder (coloured in maroon/red) with valve having left hand threads
3. Oxygen pressure regulator
4. Acetylene pressure regulator
5. Oxygen gas hose(Black)
6. Acetylene gas hose(Red/maroon)
7. Welding torch or blow pipe with a set of nozzles and gas lighter
8. Trolleys for the transportation of oxygen and acetylene cylinders
9. Set of keys and spanners
10. Filler rods and fluxes
11. Protective clothing for the welder (e.g., asbestos apron, gloves, goggles, etc.)
WELDING TORCH ( BLOW PIPE)
A welding torch mixes oxygen and acetylene in the desired proportions, burns the mixture at the end of the
tip, and provides a means for moving and directing the flame.
There are two types of welding torches, namely:
a)High pressure (or equal pressure) type
b)Low pressure (or injector) type
High pressure blowpipes or torches are used with (dissolved) acetylene stored in cylinders at a pressure of
117 psi. Low pressure blowpipes are used with acetylene obtained from an acetylene generator at a
pressure of 8 inch - head of water (approximately 0.3 psi).
To change the power of the welding torch, it is only necessary to change the nozzle tip (size) and increase
or decrease the gas pressures appropriately.
Types of Gas Welding Flames
In oxyacetylene welding, flame is the most important tool. All the welding equipment simply serves to
maintain and control the flame. The flame must be of the proper size, shape and condition in order to
operate with maximum efficiency. Three distinct types of flames are possible on adjusting the proportions
of acetylene and oxygen:
1.Neutral Flame (Acetylene oxygen in equal proportions)
2.Oxidizing Flame (Excess of oxygen)
3.Reducing Flame (Excess of acetylene)
TOOLS AND ACCESSORIES USED IN WELDING SHOP
1)Flat file
A file is a hardened piece of high grade steel with slanting rows of teeth and is used for removing excess
material to smooth or fit metal parts. Files are generally forged out of high carbon steel or tungsten steel
followed by cutting of teeth, hardening and tempering.
2)Hack saw
The hack saw is used to cut metals of different sections. The main parts are frame, handle and a
replaceable blade. The blades are available in standard lengths 225, 250 and 300mm.
3)Try square
Try square is mainly used for checking the squarness of surfaces or edges which are adjacent, flatness of a
filed surface and for marking out lines on workpieces. It consists of a blade and stock which are made of
steel fixed rigidly at 90o to each other.
4)Steel rule/ Brass rule
The steel rule consists of a hardened steel strip having line graduations etched or engraved in it. They are
usually 150mm or 300mm long and is used to take linear measurements to an accuracy of 1mm or 0.5mm.
The brass rule is similar to steel rule, but it is made of brass. Since the brass possess low coefficient of
linear expansion, its dimensional accuracy will be more reliable in heated regions.
5)Ball peen hammer
Hammer is a hand tool made of tool steel, largely used for striking on the metals. A hammer is named by
its peen. The ball shaped peen hammer is known as ball peen hammer. The peen and face are hardened.
Punches
Punches are percussion tools and are manufactured from tool steel. They are used on any scribed lines by
indentations. Tips are tapered, hardened and tempered. The shanks are knurled for easier handling and
gripping. The punch whose tip is tapered at an angle of 90o is known as centre punch used to mark centres
to be drilled or to mark centre of an edge. A dot punch with tip tapered at 60o is used to punch a chain of
dots on a scribed line.
Chipping hammer
It is a welding tool used to remove slag from the weldment
Electrode holder
It is used to hold the electrode properly. Its mouth grips the electrode and passes current to the electrode
through the welding cable connected at the other end of the holder. It should be well insulated.
Tongs
They are used to handle the hot metal (welding job) for positioning or while cleaning.
Wire brush
It is used for cleaning the surface of the metal as well as for the slag from the welds. The wire brush is made
of steel wires fitted on a wooden piece.
Apron
It protects the welder’s body and clothes from heat and sparks. Usually leather apron is employed.
Face shield / eye shield ( Welding screen)
It is used to prevent direct rays of arc, weld spatter and slag and protects the operator’s eyes and face. It consists of a
cover slag and a dark filter glass. The filter glass absorbs the ultra violet rays radiated by the arc.
Hand gloves
Mainly leather gloves are used to protect arm from welding spark and heat.
Earth clamp
It is used to connect the return lead firmly to the work piece or to the welding table.
POSITIONS OF WELDING
All welding can be classified according to the position of the workpiece or the position of the welded joint
on the plates or sections being welded.
There are four basic welding positions, which are illustrated in figure below
REQUIREMENTS
The Washington State Department of Labor and Industries (L&I) in WAC 296-800-160 Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE) requires all employers to assess their workplace for hazards that might require the use of
personal protective equipment. If PPE has to be used, the supervisor must select the proper equipment and
require its use.
HAZARD CONTROL
Eliminating hazards through engineering or administrative control measures is the best way to protect people.
The strategy used for the selection of controls is called the “hierarchy of controls” which prioritizes the types of
controls that are most effective in eliminating or reducing the risk of exposure to the hazard.
PPE is the least effective method for controlling or preventing exposure to a hazard. PPE provides a barrier to
protect the worker from potential exposure to hazards, however due to the reliance on the worker to select,
wear and maintain PPE, the likelihood of exposure to the hazard with PPE alone increases.
In some cases, PPE is required by regulations or internal procedures and can provide an additional control to
help protect the worker. This guide will provide information and tools to assess PPE, manage and understand
the limitations of PPE.

SUPERVISOR RESPONSIBILITIES
Each Supervisor has the responsibility to review all of their employees’ jobs for PPE needs. The regulations,
the degree of hazard, and the engineering or administrative controls that are in place will determine what PPE
is needed. If departments will be using PPE for personnel hazards, the following items must be completed:

• Assess the workplace for hazards

• Select appropriate PPE
• Ensure PPE is used
• Establish inspection, maintenance and replacement procedures to make sure damaged PPE is not used
• Train employees in proper use, limitations, care and maintenance of PPE • Document assessment,
selection, and training
If all of the above mentioned items are documented in existing departmental procedures, such as a laboratory
safety manual, departmental Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) or Job Hazard Analyses (JHAs), for all
employee worksites, then no further work is needed.
When the hazard assessment indicates that PPE is required, employing departments must provide the PPE to
employees free of charge. Exceptions are prescription safety glasses and safety shoes.
Where a hazard assessment determines that no PPE is needed, document the assessment and you are done.
However, remember that if a hazard exists which does not require PPE, other regulations or programs may be
applicable. Contact EH&S if you have questions or concerns.

HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE

This guide is designed to help departments, organizations, and units, and supervisors in the steps to assess their
workplace, select the right equipment, train employees and document this work. In addition, EH&S has
developed the following “PPE Tools” for laboratories and shops to assist Principle Investigators (PIs), laboratory
managers and shop supervisors in assessing and documenting hazards and appropriate PPE for their specific
work areas.
• Laboratory PPE Hazard Assessment Guide
• Shop PPE Hazard Assessment Guide
Step One: Assessment
Select the job, process or procedure you are going to assess. Survey the worksite and identify the hazards the
worker will be exposed to while doing the work. Use one of the EH&S PPE Hazard Assessment Guides or a
worksheet of your own to list the identified hazards. The HAZARD CONTROL AND PPE section below may help
determine the hazards.
Step Two: PPE Selection
If PPE must be used, list the PPE that will be used for each hazard identified on your form. The supervisor or
person completing the assessment and selection must sign and date the form.
Step Three: Training
After the assessment and selection, employees required to use PPE must be trained before they are required to
use the PPE. Retraining must be done if PPE requirements change and as needed. All of the following must be
covered:
• What PPE to use and when to use it
• Limitations of the PPE
• How to put it on, take it off and adjust it
• Inspection and maintenance
• Any manufacturer instructions and warnings
• Make sure the PPE fits well
• How to obtain PPE
• How to dispose of PPE
Step Four: Documentation
The following information must be retained by University departments to document the PPE hazard assessment,
PPE selection and training.
• Job, process, or activity being assessed
• Hazards identified
• Selection of PPE used for each hazard identified. PPE type, brand, model may need to be specified.
• Person(s) or job title identified to use PPE
• Name and title of person completing the hazard assessment
• Date hazard assessment was completed
• Name, title, training date for all employees required to wear PPE.
Forms are included in the laboratory and shop PPE hazard assessment guides. You may devise your own
method for documenting these actions.
Remember: Departments that record this information in existing policies or procedures may continue to use
their current method and do not need to create new documentation for PPE.
For example, laboratories write an SOP as part of their Chemical Hygiene Plan. A properly written SOP contains
all of the needed information along with documentation of the employee training.
HAZARD CONTROL AND PPE
This section provides an overview of exposure controls and PPE that may be needed for a variety of tasks that
have potential hazards. For specific task procedures and recommended controls in laboratories, consult the
Laboratory Safety Manual; for Shops and Maintenance work, consult the UW Facilities employee website.
Laboratory workers
Task(s) Potential Hazard Controls PPE
Working with low hazard chemicals when a low Skin and eye irritation Fume hood, local exhaust, good Safety glasses
probability of splash exists general ventilation, enclose Light chemical resistant gloves Lab coat, closed shoes,
process long pants, long skirt or equivalent leg covering (no
shorts)
Working with smaller amounts Skin and eye damage Fume hood, local exhaust, good Chemical splash goggles
(<1 liter) of corrosive or injurious chemicals where a general ventilation, enclose process Light chemical resistant gloves Lab coat, closed shoes,
reasonable probability of splash exists Bench top shield long pants, long skirt or equivalent leg covering (no
shorts)

Working with larger quantities of corrosive liquids (> Large surface area skin and eye damage Fume hood, local exhaust, good Chemical splash goggles & face shield
1 liter), or toxic corrosives Poisoning, or great potential for eye and general ventilation, enclose Appropriate heavy chemical
skin damage process resistant gloves
Lab coat, closed shoes, long pants, long skirt or equivalent
leg covering (no shorts) and chemical resistant apron

Working with small volumes of organic solvents (< 1 Skin and eye damage Slight poisoning Fume hood, local exhaust, good Safety glasses, goggles if splash hazard exists
liter) potential through skin absorption general ventilation, enclose Light chemical resistant gloves Lab coat, closed shoes,
process long pants, long skirt or equivalent leg covering (no
shorts)

Working with large volumes of organic solvents (> 1 Major skin and eye damage Fume hood, local exhaust, good Safety goggles & face shield Appropriate heavy chemical
liter), highly toxic organic solvents or work which Potential poisoning through skin general ventilation, enclose process resistant gloves
may create a splash hazard absorption Bench top shield Lab coat, closed shoes, long pants, long skirt or equivalent
leg covering (no shorts) and chemical resistant apron

Working with small volumes of human blood, body Potentially infected with infectious Biological safety cabinet (BSC) Safety glasses
fluids or other potentially infectious materials disease (BBP) Potential spread of Disposable nitrile gloves
(OPIM) as defined in the UW Bloodborne Pathogen infectious disease Lab coat, closed shoes, long pants, long skirt or equivalent
Exposure Control procedures leg covering (no shorts)
 Working with small volumes of human Potentially infected with Biological safety cabinet (BSC) Safety glasses
blood, body fluids or other potentially infectious disease (BBP) Potential Disposable nitrile gloves
infectious materials (OPIM) as defined in the spread of infectious disease Lab coat, closed shoes, long pants, long skirt or
UW Bloodborne Pathogen Exposure Control equivalent leg covering (no shorts)
procedures

Laboratory workers (continued)

Task(s) Potential Hazard Controls PPE
Working with large volumes of human blood, Increase potential of becoming BSC Safety goggles & face shield, nitrile gloves, lab
body fluids or other potentially infectious infected with infectious disease Bench top shield coat, closed shoes, long pants, long skirt or
materials and/or splash hazards (BBP) Increased potential spread of equivalent leg covering (no shorts), coveralls and
infectious disease foot covers may be necessary
Working with hazardous powders Potential skin and eye damage Fume hood, good general Safety glasses, goggles for large quantities
Potential for poisoning through ventilation, enclose process Light chemical resistant gloves Lab coat, closed
skin absorption shoes, long pants, long skirt or equivalent leg
covering (no shorts)
Working with acutely toxic hazardous Great potential skin and Fume hood, good general Safety goggles
powders eye damage ventilation, enclose process Appropriate chemical resistant gloves
Great potential for poisoning Lab coat, closed shoes, long pants, long skirt or
through skin absorption equivalent leg covering (no shorts), coveralls and
booties if necessary
Working with dispersible radioactive Potential tissue damage Potential Shield the source Minimize Appropriate eye protection
materials spread of radioactive exposure time Disposable nitrile gloves
contamination Increase distance to source Lab coat, closed shoes, long pants, long skirt or
equivalent leg covering (no shorts)
Working with radioactive chemicals See appropriate chemical section Fume hood, good general Safety glasses, goggles for splash hazard
(corrosives, solvents, toxics, etc.) above Potential tissue damage ventilation, enclose process Light chemical resistant gloves Lab coat, closed
Potential spread of radioactive shoes, long pants, long skirt or equivalent leg
contamination covering (no shorts).
Use PPE for applicable tasks above.
Working with radioactive human blood, body Potential tissue damage Potential BSC Safety glasses, goggles for splash hazard
fluids or other potentially infectious spread of radioactive Shield the source Minimize Disposable nitrile gloves
materials contamination Potential exposure exposure time Lab coat, closed shoes, long pants, long skirt or
to OPIM Increase distance to source equivalent leg covering (no shorts)

Working with sealed radioactive sources Damaged or leaking source may Fume hood Safety glasses
spread contamination Some Bench top shield Minimize Light gloves
leaking sources may pose an exposure time Shield may be needed for high energy source
external dose risk. Increase distance to source

Laboratory workers (continued)

Task(s) Potential Hazard Controls PPE
Working with cryogenic liquids Major skin, tissue and eye damage Good general ventilation Chemical splash goggle and face shield
Cryogenic insulated gloves
Lab coat, closed shoes, long pants, long skirt or
equivalent leg covering (no shorts)
Working with very cold materials and Frostbite Use tools to handle objects Safety glasses
equipment (freezers, dry ice) Hypothermia Well insulated storage Insulated gloves and warm clothing Lab coat,
containers closed shoes, long pants, long skirt or equivalent
leg covering (no shorts)
Working with hot liquids, equipment and/or Skin damage Eye damage Exhaust heat, good general Safety glasses or goggles for large volumes or
open flames (autoclave, Bunsen burner, water ventilation Equipment guards splash hazards
bath, oil bath) Insulated gloves
Lab coat, closed shoes, long pants, long skirt or
equivalent leg covering (no shorts)
Working with large volumes of hot, cold, or Major skin and eye damage Excellent general ventilation Safety glasses or goggles and face shield
cryogenic liquids Frozen or burned body tissues Well insulated storage Heavy insulated gloves
containers Lab coat, closed shoes, long pants, long skirt or
equivalent leg covering
(no shorts), apron or coveralls
Working with Ultraviolet Radiation Conjunctivitis Guard source or use bench top UV face shield and goggles
Corneal eye damage shield Lab coat, closed shoes, long pants, long skirt or
Erythema equivalent leg covering (no shorts)

Working with LASER radiation Retinal eye damage Skin damage Guard source or use bench top Appropriate shaded goggles with optical density
shield based on individual beam parameters
Lab coat, closed shoes, long pants, long skirt or
equivalent leg covering (no shorts)
No jewelry/reflective items allowed

Working with Infrared emitting equipment Cataracts and flash burns to Guard source or use bench top Appropriate shaded goggles Lab coat, closed
(glass blowing) cornea shield shoes, long pants, long skirt or equivalent leg
covering (no shorts)

Arc/TIG welding Conjunctivitis Local exhaust ventilation, Appropriate shaded goggles, welder’s helmet
Corneal eye damage excellent general ventilation with appropriate eye shade (see Appendix A)
Erythema Shielding Working gloves

Instrument or equipment repair/service Eye damage from foreign objects Equipment guards Local Safety glasses
exhaust No loose clothing or jewelry
Metal working/Woodworking shop Eye damage from foreign objects Equipment guards Local Safety glasses
exhaust No loose clothing or jewelry
Glassware washing Skin lacerations Designated area Appropriate Safety glasses
equipment and supplies Heavy rubber gloves
Lab coat, closed shoes, long pants, long skirt or
equivalent leg covering (no shorts)
Laboratory workers (continued)
Task(s) Potential Hazard Controls PPE
Working in Industrial lab with potential injury from Head injury, foot injury Equipment bracing, securements, Hard hat
falling equipment or tools (ex. Earthquake lab, tool lanyards Steel toe shoes
Structural
Engineering lab, etc.)

Shop and Maintenance workers

Task(s) Potential Hazard Controls PPE
Automobile/Heavy Equipment Mechanic Flying particles, petroleum solvents Equipment guards, shielding Safety glasses, chemical resistant gloves
Work and wastes Local exhaust, good general
ventilation Good housekeeping

Locksmith Work Flying particles Equipment guards, shielding Safety glasses, face shield when using high speed
Local exhaust, good general tools
ventilation Good housekeeping

Wood Working Work (Shop) Noise, flying particles, Equipment guards, shielding Hearing protection, safety glasses, face shield for
lifting/carrying, rough surfaced Local exhaust, good general high speed tools, puncture/cut resistant gloves,
materials ventilation Good housekeeping safety shoes, guards in place
Insulate, secure noisy
equipment
Metal Working Work (Shop) Noise, flying particles, Equipment guards, shielding Hearing protection, safety glasses, face shield
lifting/carrying, rough surfaced Local exhaust, good general for high speed tools, puncture/cut resistant
materials, metal working ventilation Good housekeeping gloves, safety shoes, guards in place
chemicals Insulate, secure noisy
equipment

Painting (Shop) Vapors, mists, solvents and Local exhaust, good general Safety glasses, organic vapor respirator
chemicals, flammables ventilation Good housekeeping w/particulate pre-filter, chemical resistant gloves

Power Plant Work Hot surfaces, contact with surfaces Equipment guards, shielding Heat resistant gloves, hard hats, hearing
(head), noise Local exhaust, good general protection
ventilation Insulate, secure
noisy equipment

Tunnel Work Contact (head), restricted access Good general ventilation, Hard hat, light clothing, temperature resistant
areas, heat stress, hot surfaces lighting gloves, safety glasses

Elevator Maintenance Work Uncovered electrical switches and Equipment guards, shielding Electrically insulated gloves (rated for energized
circuits, falling, moving machinery Local exhaust, good general voltage), fall protection, cut/puncture resistant
ventilation gloves
PPE SELECTION
PPE selection should be based on a job hazard analysis (JHA), which includes evaluation of hazards, specific tasks,
procedures and work practices, in consultation with area supervision and EH&S as needed. See the EH&S Job
Hazard Analysis webpage for more information and link to a template JHA. This PPE selection guidance is not
intended to be a comprehensive resource on PPE.

Eye and Face Protection Head Protection

Hand Protection Foot and Leg Protection
Skin and Body Protection Hearing Protection
Respiratory Protection Fall Protection
Bench Top Shields Arc Flash Protective Clothing and PPE
for Electrical Workers

Eye and Face Protection

Safety glasses, safety goggles, laser eyewear, face shields and helmets provide a level of protection as
designated by the manufacturer. The hazard and the protection standards for each piece of eye and face
protection PPE must be considered during selection.
 PPE Specific Type Characteristics Applications
Polycarbonate lens, side shields Working with chemical, biological,
[Note: Personnel with corrective lenses will radiation, physical hazards
need “over-prescription” safety glasses or
prescription safety glasses.
Safety glasses See Appendix B for procedure to obtain
prescription safety glasses]

Direct vented Allows the flow of air into the goggle. Working with
Protection from impact particulates

[Tends to fog less, but should not

be used with liquid or fine dust
hazards]

Goggles
Indirect vented Provides protection from splash entry by a Protection from particulates and
hooded or covered vent from chemical splash

Non-vented Provides protection against the passage of Protection from particulates,

dust, mist, liquid and vapors chemical splash, and mist, liquid
and
vapors

Provides protection from splash, spray, Health care,

spatter or droplets of blood or other biological hazards
potentially infectious materials.
Disposable
medical
eye shield
 Appropriately shaded Working with Class 3 or Class 4
goggles; optical density based on beam lasers, consult laser use
parameters authorization for
specific applications.
Laser eyewear

Protects nose and mouth from direct contact with Anatomical, surgical, medical
Surgical/ procedure mask biological and chemical fluids; prevents spread of and clinical settings [Note:
aerosolized infectious biological agents Mask is not a respirator that
protects from breathing
anything into the lungs.]

Impact and chemical resistant face shield must be For use with potential chemical
combined with safety glasses or goggles splash or
projectiles, apparatus under
Face shield pressure or vacuum, cryogenics
handling
Comply with
ANSI Z87.1
Provides protection from splash, spray, spatter or Health care,
droplets of blood or other potentially infectious biological hazards
Disposable medical face shield materials

[Note: Not for protection from

[Not ANSI Z87.1 compliant] chemical, physical, and impact
hazards]
Face shield with special optical density (OD) value Working with UV or
for ultraviolet radiation (UV) or infrared shielding infrared emitting equipment
Optical face shield
 Impact resistant lenses and available in Welding with potential
graduated shades of light filtration sparking, scaling, harmful light
rays
Welder’s goggles

Welder’s helmet Durable helmet with filtered lens Welding to protect eyes and
Ensure proper shade number is chosen for face against heat, speaks, flash
darkness of the lens. See Appendix A. burn, ultraviolet or infrared light

Arc-rated face shield Specialized electrical safety equipment for Electrical safety applications
facial protection with higher hazard/risk or
unknown

Hand Protection
Gloves should be selected for each procedure to provide protection from the hazards. In some circumstances there
may be several hazards and glove selection may involve different gloves for different steps of the procedure and/or
several layers of gloves may be needed to address all hazards. For example, when injecting radioactive materials into
a research animal one may need a layer of disposable gloves for protection from the radioactive liquid augmented
with a metal mesh glove for protection from animal bites.
 In general, heavy loose gloves should not be worn around moving machinery. Moving parts can pull the glove,
hand and arm into the machine.
For glove chemical resistance and permeation information consult the glove manufacturer’s website or contact
EH&S for assistance. The SDS of chemicals may also provide specific glove recommendations and information.

PPE Specific Type Characteristics Applications

Disposable nitrile gloves Some chemical resistance – consult glove Working with biological
resistance chart, incidental chemical hazards and chemical
contact only hazards of small quantity

Disposable vinyl gloves Economical and thin Working with biological

hazards, not for chemical
handling
Disposable gloves, thingauge*
(<8 – 10 mils)

Disposable latex gloves Some chemical resistance – consult glove Working with biological
resistance chart, incidental chemical hazards (known or
contact only potentially infectious
materials including work
[Note: Avoid powdered gloves - banned in medical [Note: some workers may be allergic to
use, possible inflammation and allergic reactions]
with animals)
latex]
Protect and comfort hands from moderate Handling sharp objects and
Leather gloves temperatures, sharp objects, damage by metal, field work, welding
friction
 Cut resistant Working with sharp
Wire mesh gloves instruments or live
animals

Natural rubber latex Good resistance to biological or water-based Working with small volumes of
materials, poor organic solvent resistance – aqueous-based low hazard
consult glove resistance chart chemicals

Nitrile gloves Chemical resistant to many chemicals – consult Working with larger volumes of
glove resistance chart chemicals
Chemical resistant gloves,
multi-use*

Butyl gloves Generally good chemical resistance to many Working with larger volumes of
chemicals – consult glove resistance chart chemicals, hazardous material
spills
[Note: Avoid powdered gloves -
banned in medical use, possible
inflammation and allergic reactions]
Viton® II gloves Generally good chemical resistance to many Working with larger volumes of
chemicals, consult glove resistance chart chemicals, hazardous material
spills

Silver Shield gloves Generally good chemical resistance to many Working with larger volumes of
chemicals, consult glove resistance chart, may chemicals, hazardous material
need overglove for manual dexterity spills, good resistance to
methylene chloride
 Terrycloth autoclave gloves Heat resistant Working with hot
equipment

Flame resistant (FR) gloves and glove liners Heat resistant due to fabric construction Some pyrophorics handling,
and properties, some typical materials liners can be worn under
include Nomex® and leather, Nomex® and chemical-resistant gloves,
lycra blend, Rhovy/ESD carbon filament, flight gloves can be worn
and acrylic/FR rayon knit. Gloves may be over chemical-resistant
referred to as “flight gloves” gloves. Consult EH&S for the
Insulated gloves best FR glove for your needs
and materials.

Cryogen gloves Water resistant protection against ultra- Cryogenics handling

cold temperatures

Electrical safety gloves Insulated voltage-rated rubber, gauntlet Electrical safety applications
length, leather gloves worn over to protect with higher hazard/risk
against cuts, abrasions and punctures The or unknown
different voltage classes of gloves are as
follows: Class 00 – up to 500 volts
Class 0 – up to 1000 volts
Class 1 – up to 7500 volts
Class 2 – up to 17,000 volts
Class 3 – up to 26,500 volts Class 4 – up to
36,000 volts
Skin and Body Protection
Laboratory coats, scrubs, uniforms and disposable body coverings provide a level of protection from splash hazards.
Special hazards and material qualities such as flame resistance, specific chemical resistance, physical strength (e.g.,
leather) and visibility should be considered when selecting PPE for skin and body protection.

PPE Specific Type Characteristics Applications

Disposable sleeves Disposable clothing and skin protection, Working with particulates or
protection from particulates potent compounds
Some sleeve materials are coated for chemical
resistance

Disposable gowns Clothing and skin protection, manufactured from Working with biohazards and
variety of materials depending upon needed animals
application

Scrubs Provides a layer of protection for the skin and/or Working in clinical, medical and
clothing from contact with biological and surgical settings as needed
chemical fluids

Tyvek gown/coveralls Clothing and skin protection, tear resistant, Working with biohazards,
protection from particulates chemicals, animals or airborne
Some Tyvek clothing is coated for chemical particulates
resistance
 Safety (visibility) vest Colorful and/or reflective Construction sites,
traffic hazard areas, emergency
response

Compartments contain chemical coolant and can be Hot environments

heavy
Cooling vest

Lab coats Cotton Protects skin and clothing from dirt, inks, non- General use; chemical, biological,
(knee length) hazardous chemicals, biohazards without aerosol radiation, physical and animal
exposure hazards

Barrier Does not permit blood or other potentially infectious Working with human blood, body
materials to pass through due to 3-layer construction fluids, tissues, cells or other
potentially infectious material which
may contain human bloodborne
pathogens

Flame Resistant (FR) Flame resistant (e.g. Nomex or flame resistant cotton) Working with water or air reactive
chemicals, flammable solvents,
potentially explosive chemicals

Flame resistant coveralls Flame resistant (e.g. Nomex or flame resistant cotton) Working with water or air reactive
chemicals, flammable solvents,
potentially explosive chemicals,
welding, or electrical systems
Respiratory Protection
In a laboratory, airborne contaminants are kept very low through adequate general room ventilation and by
working with open containers of volatile materials inside a chemical fume hood or enclosure designed to
effectively capture air contaminants at the source. When airborne contaminants cannot be adequately controlled
by engineered exhaust ventilation respiratory protection may be needed. The use of respiratory protection has
very stringent regulatory requirements. Users must participate in the UW Respiratory Protection Program, which
includes medical clearance, annual training and fit testing.
Although not respirators, different types of face masks are listed because they may be used for protection in
various environments under certain conditions. See the chart Masks and Respirators – Understanding the
Difference in Appendix C for more information
PPE Specific Type Characteristics Applications

Cloth masks Not a respirator, surgical or procedure mask Infection control in office work
(does not require fit testing). May protect areas, public environments
persons nearby from wearer’s respiratory
emissions
(speaking, coughing, sneezing).

Surgical and procedure Not a respirator (does not require fit testing). Infection control, working in
masks Protects the wearer against large droplets, splash clinical settings, working with
and/or aerosols. Protects persons nearby from live animals or potentially
the wearer’s respiratory emissions (speaking, infectious materials
coughing, sneezing).
 Not a respirator. May protect against dusts, Dusty environments, working
fumes, mists, microorganisms including animal with live animals or potentially
Dust mask allergens (does not require fit testing). infectious materials

Protects against dusts, fumes, mists, Dusty environments, working

microorganisms including animal allergens with live animals or potentially
Respirator pictured has an exhalation valve option that reduces
N95 respirator exhalation resistance, which makes it easier to breathe (exhale). infectious materials
Also may keep face cooler and reduce moisture build up inside the N95 respirators filter at least 95% of airborne particles. They are
facepiece. not resistant to oil.

Half face air-purifying Protects against variety of particulates, vapors, dust, Dusty environments, potentially
mists, fumes, or a combination of these; depends on infectious materials, chemical vapors,
filter or cartridge used particulates, and select gases
(cartridge dependent)

Cartridge respirator

Full face air-purifying Similar to half-face, but with greater protection factor, Dusty environments, potentially
and greater protection of eyes and face; depends on filter infectious materials, chemical vapors,
or cartridge used particulates, and select gases
(cartridge dependent)
 Powered air purifying respirator delivers steady Working in some BSL-3
supply of filtered air with loose fitting hood; can environments, high levels of
be used with HEPA filters or chemical cartridges chemical vapors, particulates.
For persons with facial hair.
Powered air purifying respirator (PAPR)

Powered air purifying respirator for welders, Welding in low ventilation areas;
selection of shades, HEPA filter tack welding, stick, MIG/MAG, TIG
>1A, plasma, grinding

Bulky, limited operation time, highly protective Used in oxygen deficient

Self-contained breathing (mostly used by emergency response personnel) atmospheres, immediately
apparatus (SCBA) dangerous to life or health (IDLH)
or areas of high concentration or
unknown airborne contaminants

Head Protection
Head protection may be as simple as a disposable bouffant surgical cap to protect the head from aerosols during
surgical operations, or a hard hat to protect from overhead hazards. Electrical work may require arc flash
protection of the head, face, hands and body; please consult your supervisor or EH&S safety staff for guidance.
 PPE Specific Type Characteristics Applications
Economical protection for hygienic work environments; Working with biohazards, surgical
protection from dirt, dust applications, animal facilities
Bouffant cap

Specialized electrical safety equipment Electrical safety applications with

Flame resistant balaclava higher hazard/risk or unknown

Light-weight plastic cap used to protect against scraping Designed for use in areas with low
or bumping one’s head head clearance.
Recommended for areas where
protection is needed from head
Bump cap bumps and lacerations. These are not
designed to protect against falling or
flying objects and are not ANSI
approved.
 Light-weight, metal or reinforced plastic to Hard hats are divided into
protect against overhead hazards incorporates a three industrial classes: Class A
suspension to dissipate impact from falling hard hats provide impact and
objects penetration resistance along
with limited voltage protection
Hard hats have an expiration date and should be (up to 2,200 volts). Class B hard
replaced before they expire. hats provide the highest level
of protection against electrical
hazards, with highvoltage
shock and burn protection (up
to 20,000 volts). They also
provide protection from impact
and penetration hazards by
Hard hat flying/falling objects.
Class C hard hats provide
lightweight comfort and impact
protection but offer no
protection from electrical
hazards.

Foot and Leg Protection

Foot protection may be simple disposable shoe covers to minimize spread of contamination. In food service and
vivariums, slip resistant shoes may reduce the risk of slips, trips and falls. In shops and industrial activities, the
supervisor must evaluate the hazards and select foot protection accordingly.
 PPE Specific Type Characteristics Applications
Protection from dirt, dust; maintenance of Working with biohazards, animal
Shoe cover hygienic work environments, non-slip soles facilities, or
potential floor contaminants

Typically strap on to legs or feet Use of highpressure washers,

Foot/shin guards, knee pads protection of shins and feet
If hazard is severe, use safety shoes with when handling heavy materials.
metatarsal guards. Protection of knees when
kneeling.

Shoe with sole designed to enhance traction in Working in animal facilities,

slippery work environments custodial applications, food
Slip resistant shoes service facilities, medical/clinical
settings, and shops

Toe, metatarsal, foot protection, steel Handling heavy items,

reinforcements and inserts. There are numerous construction, warehouse
Safety shoes types of safety shoes for specific applications. applications,
See Appendix B for information on obtaining agricultural field
safety shoes. work
Hearing Protection
In general, if workplace noise is loud enough that you cannot hold a conversation with a person one arm length
away, then a noise assessment must be performed by EH&S prior to PPE selection. Some exposures may require
enrollment in the UW Hearing Conservation Program, which includes annual hearing tests and training. All hearing
protection comes with a “Noise Reduction Rating” or NRR; the higher the rating, the better the protection.

PPE Specific Type Characteristics Applications

Disposable, inexpensive Working with loud equipment,
noises, sounds, alarms, etc.
Ear plugs

Canal caps Inexpensive, easy to insert, not as effective as Working with loud equipment,
ear plugs, but easier to insert with soiled hands noises, sounds, alarms, etc.

Ear muffs Reusable, not as effective when worn with Working with loud equipment,
safety glasses noises, sounds, alarms, etc.
 Fall Protection
A fall protection system is needed where there is a potential for injury due to falling while working at elevated
height. Consult with EH&S prior to procurement of any items for a fall protection system. Fall protection
regulations are contained in both General Industry Standards and Construction Standards. Proper training and
inspection of equipment is required under these regulations. For additional information refer to the EH&S Fall
Protection Program Manual and the EH&S Fall Protection webpage.
PPE Specific Type Characteristics Applications
Full body harness Provides protection from injury while falling from Working at heights (greater than
heights 6 feet) and confined space
retrieval

Connect components of a fall protection system Working at heights (greater than

Locking carabiner 6 feet) and confined space
retrieval

Provides connection from harness to anchor Working at heights (greater than

point with ability to lessen fall force factor, 18.5 feet of fall clearance) for
working length of 6 feet fall arrest situations
Shock absorbing lanyard
 Provides connection from harness to anchor, Working at heights for fall
shorter activation distance reduces fall force arrest situations where greater
Self-retracting lifeline factor worker mobility is needed
w/swivel

Primary point of attachment Working at heights (greater than

for a fall protection system, minimum 5,000 6 feet) and confined space
Anchor pound breaking strength retrieval