Actes des congrès de la Société

d'archéologie médiévale

Prestige, Display and Monuments in Viking Age Scandinavia

Else Roesdahl

Abstract
The article discusses the prestige and display aspects of some Scandinavian Viking Age monuments : a chieftain's residence at
Borg in Lofoten, northern Norway ; the royal monuments at Jelling, Denmark ; the Danish geometrical fortresses ; bridges and
causeways, with a side-view on rune stones. The Danish monuments in question, all dated by dendrochronology and probably
built by King HARALD BLUETOOTH, are unique, and it is argued that they reflect his attempt to introduce new concepts of royal
power. It is further argued that as most Scandinavian type Viking monuments would not have been understood abroad, such
monuments are hardly to be expected there, except in areas with a strong Scandinavian cultural dominance.

Citer ce document / Cite this document :

Roesdahl Else. Prestige, Display and Monuments in Viking Age Scandinavia. In: Les mondes normands (VIIIe-XIIe s.) Actes du
deuxième congrès international d'archéologie médiévale (Caen, 2-4 octobre 1987) Caen : Société d'Archéologie Médiévale,
1989. pp. 17-25. (Actes des congrès de la Société d'archéologie médiévale, 2);

https://www.persee.fr/doc/acsam_0000-0000_1989_act_2_1_1016

Fichier pdf généré le 04/04/2018

Les Mondes Normands (VIIF-XIP s.) 17

Else ROESDAHL*

Prestige, Display and Monuments in Viking Age Scandinavia

SUMMARY
The article discusses the prestige and display aspects of some Scandinavian Viking Age monuments : a chieftain's residence at
Borg in Lofoten, northern Norway ; the royal monuments at Jelling, Denmark ; the Danish geometrical fortresses ; bridges and
causeways, with a side-view on rune stones. The Danish monuments in question, all dated by dendrochronology and probably
built by King HARALD BLUETOOTH, are unique, and it is argued that they reflect his attempt to introduce new concepts of royal
power. It is further argued that as most Scandinavian type Viking monuments would not have been understood abroad, such
monuments are hardly to be expected there, except in areas with a strong Scandinavian cultural dominance.

In this article some monuments of Viking Age Scandinavia But first it should be noted that the three present
will be discussed and with special emphasis on their prestige Scandinavian kingdoms Denmark, Norway and Sweden only started
and display aspects — important features of their function. to take form during the Viking Age ; that Scandinavia is a
The monuments in question are (Fig. 1) : a chieftain's very vast area (constituting about half of Europe's length),
residence at Borg in Lofoten, northern Norway ; the royal dynastic and that the topography and the natural resources vary
monuments at Jelling in Denmark ; the Danish geometrical enormously — from the mountain areas of the midnight sun in the
fortresses of the Trelleborg type ; bridges and causeways, with extreme north to the green lowlands of south Scandinavia.
a side-view on rune stones. The Danish examples are chosen But there was a distinct Scandinavian culture during most of
from among the many Scandinavian Viking monuments the Viking Age, though of course also local differences and
because they are now precisely dated by dendrochronology. developments, and the southern border of Denmark — and
This allows us to consider their context and to suggest — or Scandinavia — was well protected by one of northern
know — which King had them built, and why. Europe's largest earth-works : the Danevirke. The earliest
phase of this border-wall was built in the year 737, and it was
reinforced and changed on a number of occasions till well on
into the 12th century (andersen, madsen, voss, 1976; roes-
dahl, 1982: 141-6). From the late 10th and the 11th centuries,
however, the Scandinavian culture and its physical
expressions gradually became more "European", owing to the
Conversion of the Scandinavian peoples and to the many
foreign contacts established through raids, trade, conquests
<£ / ARCTIC £lRÇ.Ur___L etc.
1. PRESTIGE AND DISPLAY
It is clear from rune stones and Viking Age poetry that the
upper classes of Viking societies were intensely preoccupied
with prestige, honour, reputation, fame ; the Old Norse
vocabulary also had many expressions for such concepts
(GR0NBECH, 1955 11-148 ; JANSSON, 1962 FOOTE, WILSON, 1970 422
ffet passim ; moltke, 1985). It was indisputable not only for
:

military leaders to have it, in order to earn and maintain the

loyalty of the men on whom their power depended. It was
essential to everybody, and also to have his reputation
remembered after death, for his own sake and because it
added to the prestige of his family and descendants. Some
examples : The Gripsholm rune stone in Sôdermanland,
eastern Sweden, raised in the middle of the 1 1th century by a
mother in memory of her warrior son, who had died on his
brother's, the illustrious chieftain Ingvar's ill-fated but
famous expedition to Arab lands. The inscription, ending in a
verse says1 : Tola had this stone erected in memory of her son
Harald, Ingvar's brother.
Fig. 1. They fared like men /far after gold,
* Senior lecturer, Dept. of Medieval Archaelology, Aarhus University, and in the east /gave the eagle food.
Denmark. They died southward /in Serkland.
18

And a verse from the Old Norse poem Hâvamâl says2 : the Rhine area turned up, as well as sherds from imported
Wealth dies /kinsmen die/ glass drinking vessels. Tromso Museum and University took
a man dies likewise himself; over ; it became clear that the objects were from the site of a
I know one thing / that never dies / large building, and a Scandinavian research group was
the verdict on each man dead. formed.
Many more objects have now been excavated in the area,
Prestige, honour, reputation, fame could be possessed, or including more glass and Tating sherds, three sword
be gained. It was acquired on the background of a number of fragments, a bead and a ring ofjet or lignite from the British Isles,
personal qualities and achievements such as, for instance, a small gold ornament, and two or three so-called "guld-
bravery in battle, great achievements (like successful raids or gubber " : tiny gold foils stamped with a picture of a man and
the discovery of new land), good ancestry, wisdom, woman embracing each other, probably fertility symbols
eloquence, hospitality, generosity, and at least in Christian used in pagan cult. A combination of such finds is extremely
times, also achievements for the general benefit of society unusual for settlement sites and so far unique in Norway
like bridge-building or the erection of a church. (LINDEN, HOLMQVIST, OLSEN, 1969).
Prestige, fame etc., once possessed, should be nurtured, or Of the house itself only 21 m has been excavated, and a lot
else it was easily lost. A prosperous man should not conceal remains in both ends, so the building will probably turn out
his prestige and wealth but parade it, for example be the host to be the largest Viking Age building so far known from
of superb feasts in grand halls or the owner of a fast ship ; be Norway. The roof was carried by two rows of free-standing
the cheerful giver of rare and expensive objects such as fine inner posts, and the outer walls were protected with turf, as
swords, a live polar bear or the skin of one, costly table-ware, was usual in the area. The excavated part of the house, which
a golden arm-ring ; or be the builder of lavish monuments. had solid fireplaces, was probably the hall or part of it. There
It was customary and necessary for the upper classes to is clearly more than one phase in the house, and its
show off. But it should be done properly. If they exaggerated preliminary date is from ca. 700 A.D. till somewhere in the
the display they exposed themselves to ridicule. It is on such 10th century. Older finds, however, have also appeared in the
a background that the monuments will be discussed. area.

Fig. 2 Airial viev of Borg in Lofoten, seen from the south. 1 the chieftain's residence. 2 site of the former vicarage. 3 site of the church (recently burnt
down). In the background the Borge fjord leading into the open sea. (Photo Karsten Kristiansen 1986, Tromso Museum).
:

:
:

2. MONUMENTS This large house was prominently situated on a hill-

plateau, clearly for display purposes (it must have been rather
In the Lofoten Islands in northern Norway, north of the unpleasant in the winter storms of this part of the world).
Arctic Circle, a chieftain's site from the very early and And many of the objects found : the glass and pottery from
perhaps middle Viking Age is being excavated at Borg, distant lands, the gold ornament and so on, were clearly
Vestvâgoy (Fig. 2). The excavation is still in progress, so the luxury for display purposes, while the sword fragments, two
following are preliminary notes (stamso munch, johansen, long nausts (boat houses) and a small court site near
LARSSEN, 1987). the water give military associations. Borg must be a
The site was identified in 1981 when the area was ploughed northern chieftain's prestigious residence, with a house large
for the first time in many years, and Tating ware pottery from enough for generous hospitality and grand feasts, celebrated
Les Mondes Normands (VIIP-XIP s.) 19

in style and with costly table-ware and other luxuries tusks, when he visited his court in England in about 890.
displayed. Tusks (Fig. 3) were rare and valuable everywhere in western
It also seems reasonable to suggest that pagan cult feasts Europe (LUND éd., 1984; OLSEN M., 1960: 10-1 1).
took place here. It seems to appear from the Old Norse The royal monuments in Jelling, Denmark (Fig. 4-5), today
literature, for instance SNORRE STURLASSON's Heimskringla include two large mounds, a stone-setting, a royal burial, a
(written about 1230) and from Viking poetry, that such feasts church and two rune stones (there may have been more
sometimes took place in chieftain's halls (olsen o., 1966 55-115 ; monuments). They were erected during the decades around
LIDÉN, HOLMQVIST, OLSEN, 1969 ; FOOTE, WILSON, 1970 398), and and after the middle of the 10th century — the time of the

:
the small golden fertility symbols, the " guldgubber ", were, as Conversion of Denmark — and most of them by King

:
already mentioned, probably used in pagan cult. Moreover, the HARALD BLUETOOTH (ROESDAHL, 1982: 164-179; KROGH,
large house is situated on land which today and far back in time 1983; MOLTKE, 1985: 202-23; CHRISTENSEN, KROGH, 1987;
belonged to the vicarage, a traditional prestige center in rural ROESDAHL, 1987: 79-81, 184-89). The clue to them are the rune stones
areas in northern Scandinavia. The vicarage itself was until (Fig.5)\
recently, when it was blown down in a storm, situated on a The smaller rune stone says : " King GORM made this
near-by hill-plateau, while the church, Borge church, is close to monument in memory of THORVI [THYRE] his wife,
it, on a third plateau. It may well be that Borg has been the cult Denmark's adornment".
centre of the area right back to pagan times and that the The large rune stone says : " King HARALD commanded
celebration of pagan cult in the hall was one of the important this monument to be made in memory of GORM, his father,
prestige functions of the Borg chieftains. and in memory of THORVI [THYRE], his mother - that

Fig. 3 Part of two walrus tusks found together at Rommen, just north of the mouth af Trondheimsfjorden, Norway. The upper one has a runic inscription
saying " Ketil ownes [this tusk] ". On the other are four letters reading OSSK, the meaning af which is obscure. Possibly 12lh century. Now in Universitetet i
:

Trondheim, Museet. (Photo : Per E. Frederiksen).

Borg is the only residence of a Viking chieftain known HARALD who won the whole of Denmark for himself, and
from Norway. But in the Viking Age there were many, also in Norway and made the Danes Christian ".
the northern part of the country. Old Norse sagas and an The Jelling monuments clearly celebrate King
Anglo-Saxon source (King ALFRED'S edition of OROSIUS) HARALD's parents and himself : his rule over a very large
tell of powerful north Norwegian chieftains, who based their territory and his great achievements, including the
wealth on northern luxury goods traded to the south, such as Conversion of the Danes. They are the monuments of a new
furs, skins and tusks of walrusses : ivory. One of these dynasty, displaying its power, wealth and prestige on a scale
chieftains, OTTAR, presented king ALFRED with some walrus never seen before in Scandinavia. And they were erected in
20

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'V^ u i\ i\ \\\\\\u\ i \; \\ // *J"*--^
/ ^ \^1\,'i!i!'
in!,' \] J i'i'j

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0 10 50 100 160 m
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Fig. 4 Plan of Jelling. A : Bronze Age mound. B, C, D, E standing stones. F six large stones. G burial chamber. H the North Mound. K the South
Mound (x marks the central post). L post-holes of the oldest church and its grave. M King Harald's rune stone. N plan of the present stone church. O
:

King Gorm's rune stone ; its original position is unknown. P : extent of churchyard in 1861. Q present extent of churchyard. R bottom of the large
:

excavation in 1942. S : line between the two mound centres. (After Krogh 1983 ; Roesdahl 1987).
:

more than one stage : a pagan monument was changed into a and recently dendrochronology has given some exact dates.
Christian one. Gradually we get to know more and more. Among the oldest
Jelling has been investigated many times, the latest elements, from pagan times, must be the smaller of the two
excavations were in the 1970s and in 1981 by the National Museum, rune stones : King GORM's stone for his queen ; but its
Les Mondes Normands (VIII'-XIF s.) 21

Fig. 5 The Royal rune stones in Jelling. (Photo Erik Moltke, The National Museum).
:

original place and context is unknown (Fig. 4 : 0). There was, large flat top. It was certainly built for display ; it is even
further, an enormous stone-setting here, probably a ship- bigger than the North Mound : 77 metres in diameter and
setting ; but only part of it (B, C, D, E) is preserved, under the 1 1 metres high.
South Mound. If it was a ship-setting, it was the largest King HARALD's rune stone, mentioned above, clearly
known in Denmark. dates from after the Conversion. It was placed exactly
It seems to relate to the North Mound (H), which is the between the centres of the two mounds (Fig. 4 : M) and is the
largest burial mound in Denmark, ca. 65 metres in diameter finest of all rune stones : a large, pyramidical boulder with
and 8 1/2 metres high. It held the burial of a very high- script on one side, Christ on the other, and a lion and snake
ranking man in a wooden chamber (G). Dendrochronology on the third side, and there is no doubt that is was originally
points to the autumn of the year 958 or the spring of 959 for painted in vivid colours.
the closing of this burial chamber — a date fully corroborated Between the rune stone and the North Mound a large
by the (few) objects found in the chamber in the previous wooden church was built (Fig. 4 : L), at least 30 metres long
century (the chamber had been broken into at an early stage). and planned with a wooden burial chamber. It was found
The date is also in accordance with what little we know from when the floor of the present stone church (N) was
written sources about the time of death of the pagan King excavated. In the grave were skeletal remains of a middle-aged
GORM, HARALD's father. This, together with the whole man, who had first been buried elsewhere, as well as remains
context in Jelling, suggests that it was King GORM, who was of rich textiles and two fine strap-ends corresponding closely
buried here by his son with splendid pagan ceremony, and it in style to some of the objects from the burial chamber in the
is the only royal grave from prehistoric Scandinavia from North Mound. The evidence available strongly suggests that
which the dead person has been (we think) safely identified. this was a second grave of King GORM : that HARALD after
But within 6 or 7 years King HARALD and the Danes were the Conversion had his father removed from the pagan burial
converted. Written sources imply that it happened between mound to the prominent grave in the new great church
the years 958 and 965, and according to dendrochronology between the mounds in order to give him a Christian burial.
the South Mound was probably started and certainly finished With this burial and the church and the rune stone the pagan
after the conversion — although the concept of a mound is dynastic monument was converted into an even grander
basically pagan ! No grave was found here during the Christian monument focusing on HARALD himself and
extensive excavations in 1942 (Fig. 4 : R). This mound was with a splendid display of his then enormous prestige and
probably built as a memorial or for public ceremonies on the fame.
22

The Danish geometrical fortresses of the Trelleborg type These large fortresses were undoubtedly built in order to
(OLSEN, ROESDAHL, SCHMIDT, 1977 ; ROESDAHL, 1986) are of a fulfil very concrete purposes, and these and their actual
slightly later date than the Jelling monuments. According to function has been much discussed. This is not the place to go into
dendrochronology (two of them are now dated by this detail, but built in ca. 980, they cannot have been planned as
method) they were built very close to the year 980, near the winterbarraks or training camps for the vikings who raided
end of the reign of HARALD BLUETOOTH if we follow the and finally conquered England in the year 1013. Their main
traditional dating of his death, about 986, which seems purpose was rather to keep the ageing King HARALD in
reasonable. And they lasted for only a very short time ; they were control of the country after a series of military, political and
never repaired. economic disasters in the 970s.
The four fortresses : Trelleborg, Nonnebakken, Fyrkat and The ramparts of the fortresses were built of earth and turf,
Aggersborg were spread over the country. They differed in size timber-framed and timber-faced ; the streets were timbered,
and various details : the largest, Aggersborg, is 240 metres in and so were the houses. This was all in harmony with Danish
diameter while Fyrkat and Nonnebakken span 120 metres and building tradition. But the idea of royal fortresses was new in
Trelleborg 134, but they were all built according to the same Scandinavia (as far as is known) ; the regular lay-out of the
rigid over-all plan (Figs. 6 and 7) : circular ramparts with gates fortresses was new, and with their strong ramparts and large
at the four points of the compass ; the inner area divided into houses they were clearly meant to frighten and impress. They
four by streets connecting the gates ; large bow-sided houses were a grand (probably too grand) display of royal power and
arranged in quadrangles. aspirations.

Aggersborg

Fyrkat

Trelleborg
Fig. 6 1 Plan
Scale : 4000.of three
(Drawing
of the: Holger
geometrical
Schmidt).
fortresses. Of the fourth, Nonnebakken, very little is known. The cemeteries of Fyrkat and Trelleborg are also seen.
:
Les Mondes Normands (VIIP-XIP s.) 23

These large, strict and very prestigious fortresses must

have been pretty unpractical. The prestige elements were too
clearly emphasized. No wonder they were not used long and
the type, it seems, was never repeated. And if the fortresses,
as it seems, were built in order to keep King HARALD in
control of the country, they came to serve no such purpose.
For he was soon overthrown in a revolt led by his son SVEIN
FORKBEARD and died.
Finally, the bridge at Ravning Enge, a wide river valley
south of Jelling, will be discussed. The bridge was about
700 metres long, 6 metres wide and built of an enormous
number of heavy oak piles and oak timbers, being
constructed of sets of four upright and two sloping posts
(Fig. 9), (a small section of it has recently been
reconstructed). Dendrochronology has dated the bridge to
ca. 980, so it is contemporary with the geometric fortresses.
This is the earliest known bridge in Denmark and, as far as I
know, in the whole of Scandinavia. It is also the largest from
the Scandinavian Viking Age (ramskou, 1980 ; roesdahl, 1982
45-50).

:
Its size suggests that a very powerful and rich person with
strong display ambitions ordered it built. We think it is yet
another monument of King HARALD. But why build a
Fig. 7 Trelleborg seen from the east. (Airial photo Hans Stiesdal, The bridge and such a large one ? The basic reason is probably
National Museum). written on a number of rune stones erected by men or
:

women throughout Scandinavia, and probably all from after

the Conversion of the various areas. It seems from them
One of the 28 1/2 metres long Fyrkat houses has recently and from the excavated Viking Age bridges that bridge-
been reconstructed at Fyrkat in full scale. This elegant house building (or the construction of causeways) was a favoured
with curved long walls and a curved roof ridge (Fig. 8), and activity of newly converted Scandinavians : a good and
with an 18 metres long hall, was eminently suited for grand memorable achievement, which eased communication in
hospitality and large feasts. It is the house type of a chieftain. society and added greatly to the reputation and honour —
But such houses — and there were 48 of them at Aggersborg — also in relation to God — of both the bridge-builder and the
were much less suited as smithies or stables or for other daily person to be commemorated by this deed (jansson, 1962:
uses in a fortress. 85-91).

Fig. 8 Full-scale reconstruction of a Fyrhat house, by the architect Holger Schmidt. (Photo : Erling Simonsen, 1986, Ducan Foto, Hobro).
:
24

Fig. 10: Jarlabanke's causeway ("bridge") at Tâby, Uppland, from an

18th century sketch. The causeway is now mostly destroyed. (After H.
Hildebrand Sveriges Medeltid 1, 2nd éd., Stockholm 1983).

Fig. 9 : Remains of a post from the Ravning Enge Bridge, with a sketch
reconstruction of a section of the bridge. (Photo : Else Asmussen,
Holbaek Museum ; drawing : after Roesdahl 1982).

The most famous of these bridge-inscriptions is at Tâby Fig. 11 One of Jarlabanke's rune stones, still at Tàby. (Photo H. Faith-
Ell 1934, Antikvarisk-Topografiska Arkivet, Stockholm).
:

in Uppland, Sweden, where a man named JARLABANKE

had a causeway (Figs. 10-11) built in the second half of the
11th century, with two rune stones at either end, four in all, The Danish monuments discussed are unique : they are
carrying almost identical inscriptions. It reads4 : " larger and finer or totally different from anything seen before
JARLABANKE had these stones raised in memory of himself, in Scandinavia, and all were built within ca. 25 years probably
while he still lived. And he built this bridge for his soul. by the same man, King HARALD BLUETOOTH. They must
And alone he owned the whole of Tàby. God help his have been built in order to respond to very particular political
soul ". And the northernmost rune stone in Sweden (in or cultural situations : to display, support or strengthen his
Frôsôn, Jâmtland) speaks of both bridge-building and the prestige, honour, reputation, fame.
Conversion of a region. It is from the middle or the second This explosion of unique monuments probably also
half of the Hlh century and saids5 : " Ôstman, Gudfast's son, reflects that King HARALD made attempts to introduce new
had this stone raised and this bridge made, and he had concepts of royal power and prerogatives. But he must have
Jâmtland christianised. Àsbjôrn made the bridge. Tryn and failed in the end, being overthrown in a rebellion, and during
Sten cut these runes ". the time of his son and successor SVEIN FORKBEARD no
At Ravning in Denmark the bridge was on a scale great monument is known to have been built in Denmark.
befitting a King. It adorned the approach to the King's Jelling But he conquered England !
from the south. And also : it eased land traffic to and from Smaller mounds, smaller stone-settings, more modest
the border area enormously. rune stones and bridges, functional forts and large timbered
Les Mondes Normands (VHF-XIP s.) 25

halls were, however, well known in Scandinavia, and a instance the Isle of Man or Orkney. Elsewhere Viking leaders
monument like JARLABANKE's causeway with all its four rune soon gave in to the locally well-known and appreciated
stones was understood and appreciated. In eastern Sweden means to display power and reputation, as in Normandy ; or
particularly they loved rune stones (jansson, 1962). their demands caused the development of new monument
But we can hardly expect to find many Scandinavian type types like the hog-back grave stones in northern England
Viking monuments in the lands of Western Europe where (BAILEY, 1980).
Vikings raided or settled. Monuments are for display, to add
and maintain prestige and reputation and to illustrate
prosperity. But the typically Scandinavian character of the Viking 1. Translation after JANSSON, 1962 : 41.
types means that they would not have been appreciated or 2. Translation after FOOTE, WILSON, 1970 : 432.
admired elsewhere (probably even disliked) except in 3. Translation after MOLTKE, 1985 206-7.
4. Translation after JANSSON, 1962 86.

: : :
societies which became almost entirely Scandinavianized as for 5. Translation after JANSSON, 1962 102.

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(German summary). Fell, York.
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Bailey R.N. — Viking Age Sculpture in Northern England, London. Moltke E. — Runes and their Origin. Denmark and Elsewhere,
CHRISTENSEN, KROGH 1987 Kobenhavn (no date).
Christensen K., Krogh K.J. — Jelling-hojene dateret. Kristendom- OLSEN 1960
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Arbejdsmark 1987: 223-31 (English summary). OLSEN 1966
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Copenhagen 1932 ; German ed. : Kultur und Religion der
:

Arbejdsmark 1980 25-32.

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:

JANSSON 1962 Roesdahl E. — Viking Age Denmark, London.

Jansson S.B.F. — The Runes of Sweden, Stockholm. ROESDAHL 1986
KROGH 1983 Roesdahl E. — The Danish geometrical Viking Fortresses and their
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Light of Recent Archaeological Excavations. A Preliminary Conference, R.A. Brown ed., Woodbridge : 208-26.
Report, Ada Archaeologica vol. 53, 1982: 183-216. ROESDAHL 1987
LIDÉN, HOLMQVIST, OLSEN 1969 Roesdahl E. — Vikingernes verden, Kobenhavn.
Lidén H.E. — From Pagan Sanctuary to Christian Church. The STAMS0 MUNCH, JOHANSEN, LARSSEN 1987
Excavation of Maere Church in Trondelag ; Holmqvist W., Stamso Munch G., Johansen O.S., Larssen I. — Borg in Lofoten. A
Comments ; Olsen O., Comments. Norwegian Archaeological chieftain's farm in arctic Norway, Proceedings of the Tenth Viking
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: