Transport Systems in Plants

The transport system in plants is simpler than that in animals. One of the reasons for this is the fact that plants are
less active than animals and therefore do not generate large quantities of harmful metabolic waste products. Any
waste produced can be stored in older parts where it will eventually be discarded (e.g. in leaf and bark fall).
Alternatively, waste gases can easily diffuse from the air into the leaves.
In higher plants, transport is carried out by the vascular tissue in the roots, stems and leaves which consist of
xylem and phloem. The xylem and phloem are arranged in groups called vascular bundles. The arrangement is
slightly different in the roots, stems and leaves.

Xylem
These are very narrow, hollow capillary-like tubes that carry water and mineral salts upward in the plant from the
roots (in root hairs) to the leaves in a unidirectional motion. They develop from cylindrical cells arranged end to
end, in which the cytoplasm dies and the cell walls between adjoining cells breaks down leaving a dead empty
tube. Their cell walls contain a hard substance called lignin. This makes the cell walls impermeable and
waterproof. It also provides structural support by making the xylem vessels extremely strong and preventing them
from collapsing.

Diagram Showing the Transverse and Longitudinal Sections Through a Xylem Vessel

Table Showing How the Structure of the Xylem Vessel is Suited to its Function

Feature How Feature Arises How Feature Assists Function

Long Each vessel consists of a column of Allows water too travel the entire
cells joined end to end length of the plant
Hollow Cells are dead as the cytoplasm and Allows room for the flow of water
nucleus have disappeared
Continuous Tubes End walls of cells forming a vessel Allows unbroken column of water
have broken down completely to move from the bottom to the top
of the plant
Narrow Each vessel is made of a single Allows water to climb by the
column of cells process of capillarity
Waterproof This is due to lignin beig deposited Prevents leakage of water as it
in the cell walls travels through the vessels
Bordered Pits The sidewalls of the vessels have Allows lateral movement of water
areas without lignin
 Water Movement up the Xylem

Water evaporates from the mesophyll cells into air spaces in the leaf. If the air surrounding the leaf has less water
vapour than the air in the intercellular spaces, water vapour will leave the leaf through stomata. This process is
called transpiration and will continue as long as the stomata are open and the air outside is not too humid.
Although this loss of water can cool the plant, it is essential that the plant does not lose too much water. Therefore
water must be continuously supplied to the leaves. The xylem ensures that this happens.

Water evaporating from the leaves creates a suction pressure which draws water up through the plant. This is
known as the transpiration pull. Water passed from the soil by osmosis into the root hair and then on to the xylem
vessels. Water moves through the xylem vessels from the root to the stem to the leaf. This water is required for
the process of photosynthesis. Additionally, it keeps the cells turgid which supports the plant. Inside the leaves,
water is drawn out of the xylem vessels to replace the water lost during transpiration.

Forces Causing Movement of Water up the Xylem

Plants do not have a pump to push water along its path. Instead a combination of physical forces act to push or
pull the water through the plant. These forces include:
1. Osmosis: Water enters the root by osmosis because the concentration of water in the soil is greater than
the concentration of water in the cell sap of the root hair. Water that has entered the root then moves into
the xylem vessels of the root.

2. Root Pressure: This refers to the forces that draws water up to the xylem vessels by osmosis and active
transport. They are produced by the continuous movement of water through the root hair cells. This pushes
water up the xylem. Water already in the root and stem (or trunk) is pushed onwards by water entering
behind it.

3. Capillarity: This is also known as capillary action. This refers to the way that water ‘climbs’ up very
narrow tubes. In plants this is made possible by the narrowness of xylem vessels. Two forces play a role
here:

 Adhesion: This is the force of attraction between water molecules and the walls of the xylem.
 Cohesion: This is the force of attraction between one water molecule and another.

Together these two forces cause the water molecules to form a long unbroken column moving up the
xylem vessel.

4. Transpiration pull: This is produced by the evaporation of water from the leaves (i.e. transpiration). It
pulls water up the xylem. Water leaving the leaf creates a partial vacuum or area of reduced pressure at
the top of xylem vessels in the stem/trunk. The water pressure at the base of the stem/trunk is higher. This
draws water up and therefore aids the other forces in pushing water upwards.

5. Osmosis: Water entering the leaf increases the concentration of water in the mesophyll cells nearest the
xylem vessels. Water then moves by osmosis from this cell to the next and so on.
 Table Showing the Factors The Affect the Rate of Transpiration
External Environmental Factor Effect on the Rate of Transpiration Explanation for the Effect
Temperature The higher the temperature the higher Water molecules in the leaf have more
the rate of transpiration kinetic energy.
Water evaporates faster when the
kinetic energy of its molecules is high.
Light Intensity The higher the light intensity the Light causes the stomata to open.
higher the transpiration rate (until Wider stomata can allow faster
optimum is reached) diffusion of water vapour out of the
leaf.
Humidity The lower the humidity the higher the The air around the leaf contains less
rate of transpiration water vapour.
Therefore, there is a higher
concentration of water inside the leaf
than outside the leaf.
This causes water to diffuse faster.
Wind Speed The higher the wind speed the higher Water which leaves the leaf is taken up
the rate of transpiration by the air outside.
At high wind speed, this moist air is
quickly moved away and replaced by
drier air.

Water Conservation
Where water is plentiful and temperatures are moderate, plants have wide, thin leaves with lots of surface area
for maximum photosynthesis. Plants adapted to drought conditons, however, exhibit a number of structural
features that prevent water loss, helping them to survive hot, dry conditions. Plants that have adapted by altering
their physical structure are called xerophytes. Xerophytes possess some or all of these adaptations to prevent
excessive water loss:

Decreased Number of Stomata: The presence of fewer stomata decreases the transpiration as the stomata are
the main areas where water is lost.

More Stomata on the Lesser Exposed Surface of the Leaf: For most plants there are more stomata on the lower
epidermis than the upper epidermis because this area has reduced exposure to sunlight.

Sunken Stomata: The stomata are sunken in pits. This lengthens the diffusion path by trapping still, moist air
above the stomata which creates a local humidity and decreases the exposure to air currents (e.g. marram grass,
pine, holly).

Rolled Leaves: Stomata on the inside of rolled leaves creates a local humidity and also decreases the exposure to
air currents (e.g. marram grass).

Reduced Leaf Area: Leaves can be reduced to spines to reduce the surface area and thus the rate of transpiration
(e.g. pine).

Absence of Leaves: This limits water loss to stems which have fewer areas for transpiration to occur (e.g. cacti).

Presence of Hairs: The presence of a layer of protective hairs on the leaf (pubescence) traps moist air in the hair
layer, increasing the length of the diffusion path and thus reducing transpiration (e.g. marram grass). If the hairs
are also reflective they can also function in reducing the plant’s temperature by several degrees.
Longer Roots: Plants in arid conditions grow extremely long roots allowing them to acquire moisture at or near
the water table.

Shallow but Extensive Root System: This allows for efficient absorption of water over a wide area when the
upper layers of the soil are moistened by rain.

Thicker Cuticle: Waxy layers can give a sheen or dull, grayish or bluish cast to leaf surface. Xerophytes generally
have a thick waxy cuticle on their leaves which makes them more waterproof and impermeable to water.

Leaf Shape: Some plants hold water in by the way their leaves are shaped with cupped or funnel-shaped foliage
designed to hold water with their leaves. Some of these plants include certain African aloes (Aloe vanbalenii),
the perennial pitcher herb (Sarracenia oreophila) and the nasturtium.

Succulent Leaves and Stems: The cactus family’s ability to lose water parsimoniously makes an excellent
example of how plants conserve water. Known as succulents, all members of the cactus family store water in
either their roots, leaves or stems.

Phloem
This is a complex vascular tissue made up of bundles of sieve tubes which are long narrow tubes formed from the
perforation of the cross walls between adjacent cells of columns of elongated cells. These tubes have perforated
sieve-like plates along their length. The phloem transports soluble food materials made in photosynthesis (such
as sucrose that is then used to make amino acids) from source tissues (e.g. photosynthetic leaf cells) to sink tissues
(e.g. non-photosynthetic root cells or developing flowers) in the phloem sap in a process called translocation. This
is done in a bidirectional motion. Each cell, called a sieve tube element, contains living cytoplasm but no nucleus
and has a companion cell next to it that contains a nucleus and numerous mitochondria. It is thought that these
cells carry out the normal cell processes for both cells and that they supply the energy for transporting the food
materials.

Diagram Showing the Transverse and Longitudinal Sections Through a Phloem Tube

Table Showing How the Structure of the Phloem Tube is Suited to its Function

Feature How Feature Assists Function

Presence of Sieve Plates This allows for the flow of dissolved food materials from one cell
to another
Absence of a Nucleus Less obstruction to the movement of food through the cells
Presence of a Companion Cell Provides phloem with some of its requirements (e.g. proteins)
since they have no nucleus to make their own
Provides the energy required for active transport
 Food Storage
What is Food Storage?
Food storage is the process by which substances which organisms can use (food) are kept in the organism for use
later. All organisms require organic substances for their living processes. Green plants make organic compounds
from raw materials that are inorganic. Animals are supplied with organic compounds in the form of food.

The Role of Food Storage in Plants and Animals

Food is stored for the following reasons:
√ Survival when food is scarce or unavailable.
√ Organisms can survive unfavourable periods of time without making or taking in food.
√ For use during rapid growth when conditions become favourable.
√ To perform reproductive functions ensuring dispersal and development of a growing embyro. Storage
takes place in seeds, fruits and in animals in eggs.
√ For special functions such as the production of sexual or vegetative structures.
√ Stored products in plants and animals make useful food for man and other organisms (e.g. cassava, yam,
potato, onion).

Storage Products and Sites of Storage

Storage in Plants: Storage in plants occurs in the vegetative organs (roots, stems and leaves) and reproductive
structures (fruits and seeds). Temporary storage of starch occurs during the day in leaf cells as the products of
photosynthesis accumulate.

• Storage in leaves: All plants store food temporarily in their leaves. Most store starch. Onions chives
(escallion) store sugar. Some plants develop underground storage organs of swollen leaves which are
called bulbs. Storage leaves grow from a flattened stem and are enclosed by dry, scaly outer leaves. The
stem bears adventitious roots. Tiny lateral buds are found in the axils of some of the storage leaves.

• Storage in fruits and seeds: Seeds provide food for young developing embryos for early growth. Young
plants are unable to make their own food until they form green leaves and are able to photosynthesize.
Food reserves in fruits are important for attracting animals which disperse their seeds. Fruits and seeds
contain varying amounts of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals and water.

• Storage in roots: Food produced by the leaves in the growing season passes downward and is stored in
roots. These can be distinguished from stem tubers because they lack buds and scale leaves. There are 2
types of vegetative root storage:
1. Root tubers (e.g. sweet potato, cassava)
2. Tap root (e.g. carrot, radish turnip, beetroot)

Storage in Animals: Storage in animals occurs mainly in the liver and muscles but it is also stored in fat deposits
and eggs.