Class: X

Subject : History
Topic: The First War of Independence 1857

The Revolt of 1857 —the First War of Independence!

Brief introduction

By the first half of the 19th century, the East India Company had
brought major portions of India under its control.

One hundred years after the Battle of Plassey, anger against the
unjust and oppressive British Government took the form of a revolt
that shook the very foundations of British rule in India.

While British historians called it the Sepoy Mutiny, Indian historians

named it the Revolt of 1857 or the First War of Indian
Independence. The Revolt of 1857 had been preceded by a series of
disturbances in different parts of the country from the late
eighteenth century onwards.
The Sanyasi Rebellion in North Bengal and the Chunar rebellion in
Bihar and Bengal broke out in the late eighteenth century. There
were several peasant uprisings in the mid- nineteenth century, the
most important of which were those by the Moplah peasants of the
Malabar and the Faraizi movement by Muslim peasants in Bengal.
The first half of the nineteenth century also witnessed a number of
tribal revolts. In this context, mention may be made of the rebellions
of the Bhils of Madhya Pradesh, the Santhals of Bihar and the Gonds
and Khonds of Orissa. However, all these disturbances were
localized. Although serious and, in some cases, long drawn, these
did not pose any serious threat to the existence of the British
Empire.

The Revolt of 1857:

The first expression of organised resistance was the Revolt of 1857.
It began as a revolt of the sepoys of the Company’s army but
eventually secured the participation of the masses. Its causes lay
deeply embedded in the grievances that all sections of Indian
society nurtured against the British rule.
Causes of the Revolt:

I Political Causes:
Lord Dalhousie was the Governor-General of India till 1848-
1856.
Under him the British followed an expansionist policy in India.
a. Lord Dalhousie’s Policy of the Doctrine of Lapse was the
significant cause . As per the Doctrine of Lapse, heirs adopted
without the consent of the company, could inherit only the
private property of the deceased ruler and not his territory,
which would come under the company’s rule. They made the
British administration very unpopular and the rulers of the
different states as bitter enemies of the British. Satara, Jhansi,
Nagpur and Sambalpur were annexed owing to the Doctrine of
Lapse.
b. The British refused to grant pension to Nana Sahib, as he was
the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II.. He was also asked to
move out from his headquater at Poona.
c. All the Indian states had either been annexed or had entered
into alliances with the company in 1856. The British had
become the supreme power and the Indian princes were
reduced to puppets.
d. In 1849, Lord Dalhousie announced that the successors of
Bahadur Shah Zafar would not be permitted to use the Red
Fort as their palace. They were required to shift to a place
near the Qutab Minar.
e. After 7 years, in 1856, Lord Canning announced that after the
death of Bahadur Shah Zafar, his successors would not be
allowed to use the imperial titles with their names ans would
be known as mere princes. This decision of the British hurt the
feelings of the Muslims, consequently Bahadhur Shah began
plotting against them.
f. Awadh was annexed on charges of mis-governance and
misrule in 1856.

II Economic Causes:
 The economic policy of the British adversely affected every
section of the Indian society. The British exploited the
economic resources of India to their advantage and drained
her wealth by crippling the Indian trade and industry.
Under the British, India turned into a colonial economy to
serve the British capitalist interests.
 Indian resources were unabashedly exported to London to
promote British industries. Consequently, the country was
reduced to poverty as traditional handicrafts and
 industries were ruined. Many people were rendered jobless
and there was overcrowding in the agrarian sector.
 Further the high revenue demand crippled the agrarian
sector. Both the peasants and the zamindars were pushed by
the British to produce more to appropriate the maximum
revenue. The various revenue settlements were designed to
benefit the government and displayed total disregard for the
cultivators.
 In case of failure to pay the stipulated amount the lands of the
zamindar were taken away by the government. A large
number of zamindars were thus dispossessed of their lands
and estates as part of this policy. These grievances left the
Indian people dissatisfied of the British eventually turned out
to be bitter enemies of the British.
 People moved to cities to find employment, which was very
difficult to get. Peasants were forced to pay tax in cash, which
pushed them into the hands of the moneylenders, as tax was
collected even during the famines.
 Indigo, tea, jute , cotton and opium were cash crops, which
the British wanted the Indians to grow. If the peasants planted
anything else, their crops were destroyed and cattle were
carried off as punishment.

III Social and Religious Causes:

 Racial discrimination was the prime factor. Indians suffered
badly in the hands of the Europeans. There was visible racial
exploitation wherein Indians were not allowed to mix with
the Europeans. There was discrimination that was also carried
out at the public places. This generated gross discontentment
against the domination of the whites in India. This racial
arrogance of the British hurt the Indian masses most and they
began to regard the Englishmen as their worst enemies.The
attempt to bring about social reforms in India by the British
was not liked by the general public.

 The British were also circumspect about interfering in the

religious and cultural affairs of Indians. And that if there
was to be any interference in their religious and cultural
affairs, then that would generate widespread revolts against
 the British rule and the newly established British rule would be
uprooted very easily.
 Until 1800, the British were thus not keen to interfere in
the social and religious affairs of Indians. But, in the
beginning of the 19th Century, when some entrepreneurial
Indians came forward, the British began to support their
bid of social reforms by the methods of legislation.
 What hurt the Indian soldiers most was the prohibition to wear
caste and religious marks while serving that amounted to
interference in their personal affairs by the British.
 Indians began to doubt the objectives of the British since the
advent of the legislations. Some glaring examples of this
period are the 1813 Charter Act which conservative Indians
viewed as an imposition of Christianity over them. Therefore,
they sharply reacted.
 At the same time, when some of the social legislations were
passed, like, the abolition of Sati, 1829 was passed
by Lord William Bentinck (which was implemented across
all presidencies across British India), Prohibition of human
sacrifice, and abolition of child marriage, widow remarriage,
etc. were all understood by Indians as a bid to impose
Christianity over them.
 The introduction of English education, the propagation of
the work of the Christian missionaries and the changing of the
Hindu law of property with a view to facilitate the conversion
of Hindus to Christianity alarmed many orthodox Indians. They
feared that these practices would upset the social and
religious order of the traditional Indian society.
 The orthodox Indians felt humiliated to note that in the
railway compartments brahmins and people from the
backward classes were made to sit side by side.

IV Military Causes:
 Dissatisfaction was widespread among the military rank and
file under the British. There was great inequality in
treatment between the Indian and the British counterparts in
terms of salary and other benefits.
 There was also a disparity in numbers between the Indian
and European troops as the latter numbered far less than the
Indians. Majority of the Indian soldiers were sent to Crimea,
China and Iran to fight wars of the English.
  The Indian soldiers were considered inferior and were ill-
treated by high officers. The high ranks in the army were
exclusively reserved for the Englishmen and the Indians were
deliberately excluded from responsible positions.
 The Indian military was already largely discriminated against
in terms of salaries, pensions, promotions. Indians were
subjugated in the military while their European counterparts
faced no such discrimination.
 During the time of Lord Canning, two important laws were
passed: Both these acts were passed in 1856, i.e. on the eve
of revolt.

a. - General Service Enlistment Act: This act meant

that if Indian military personnel were posted abroad,
they wouldn’t be entitled to get extra allowances. Thus
this act was a jolt to the prospects to the Indian military
personnel serving under the East India Company.
b. Religious Disabilities Act: For Indian soldiers, the
belief was that if they crossed the ocean, they would
lose their religion. They would thus be socially
ostracized. Thus, Hindu soldiers skipped appointments
that involved serving in a foreign land. But, after the
passing of the “Religious Disabilities Act”, they would
have to compulsorily take the appointment, otherwise,
they would lose their job. At the same time, the use of
religious symbols in the military were also
restricted.Thus, there was a high degree of
discontentment among the Indians with the passing of
these acts.

V The Immediate cause of the revolt was the introduction of

the new Enfield rifle and the greased cartridge. In loading the
rifle the sepoy before inserting the cartridge had to bite off its top. It
was believed that the grease was made out of the fats of cows
and pigs. This was objectionable to the Hindus and Muslims
alike.

 This rumour sparked off fire of discontent against the British in

the form of the revolt. The first sign of unrest appeared in
1857 at Barrack-pore in Bengal. A sepoy, Mangal Pandey on
29th March 1857, killed senior officers on parade and started
the revolt.
  Finally Mangal Pandey was overpowered and he was hanged.
He was the first rebel who was hanged in the revolt of 1857.
This sparked a collective uprising in the form of the revolt of
1857.
 After the event of Barrackpore, on 10th May, 1857 General
Bakht Khan who was posted in Meerut, along with the
contingent of troops from Meerut and Bareily, marched to
Delhi, and then the context of the revolt was set, when he
declared Bahadur Shah Zafar as the leader of the revolt.
 So, 10th May, 1857, was regarded as the beginning of the
revolt. After initial reluctance, Bahadur Shah Zafar, agreed to
become the leader of the revolt. General Bakht Khan raised
Bahadur Shah Zafar as the leader of the revolt as the people
of India still accepted Mughal suzerainty over India, and it was
symbolic for him to lead this revolt.
 After 10th May, 1857, the revolt spread to different parts of
India from Delhi, i.e. Jhansi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareily, Awadh,
Assam, Bihar, etc. Thus various parts of Northern India were
under the grip of the revolt. Thus from 1857-1858, the British
were on a war-footing to suppress the revolt. The revolt was
suppressed by 1858.

Course and Spread of the Revolt: ( Read through though not

part of the Syllabus)

The revolt spread to Berhampur in Bengal. On 24th April 1857 about

ninety men of the Native Cavalry stationed at Meerut refused to
accept the greased cartridges. Eighty-five of them were dismissed
and sentenced to ten years imprisonment. On 10 th May the revolt
started at Meerut and the mutineers after killing some of their
officials marched towards Delhi.
Delhi:
On 12th May Delhi was seized and Bahadur Shah II was proclaimed
the emperor of India. The real command was in the hands of Bakht
Khan who had led the revolt at Bareilly and brought the troops to
Delhi.
Kanpur:
Here the revolt was led by Nana Saheb who declared himself the
Peshwa and governor of Bahadur Shah. Tantya Tope did most of the
fighting. Rebels defeated General Windham outside Kanpur.

Lucknow:
The revolt was led by Hazrat Mahal, the Begum of Awadh. She had
proclaimed her young son Brijis Kadiras the Nawab of Awadh against
the wishes of the British. Henry Lawrence, the British resident was
killed at Lucknow.

Jhansi.
After some initial vacillations, Rani Laxmi Bai assumed the
leadership of the mutiny. After being defeated at Jhansi, she
captured Gwalior with the help of Tantya Tope and Afghan guards.

Bareily:
Khan Bahadur Khan proclaimed himself as the Nawab and led the
revolt there. The other centres of the revolt were Benaras,
Allahabad, Gwalior, Nasirabad in Rajputana, Indore, Aligarh and
Kota. At all these places the sepoys killed the senior officers and
other Europeans on whom they could lay their hands, in many cases
not even sparing women and children. They also released prisoners
from jail, plundered the treasury and burnt land records at many
pieces.

However the superior British forces soon suppressed the revolt.

Bahadur Shah II proved to be a weak leader. Delhi was recaptured
on 20th September 1857 by John Nicholson. Bahadur Shah was
arrested and deported to Rangoon where he died in 1862. The
rebels were defeated by General Havelock in Kanpur. Nana Saheb
after being defeated refused to surrender and escaped to Nepal. At
Jhansi Hugh Rose suppressed the revolt and Rani Laxmi Bai died on
the battle field. Benaras, Bareilly and Gwalior were also recaptured
by British officers.

Effect / Consequences of the Revolt:

(a) Policy Changes with respect to the native princes

 The Queen’s Proclamation of November 1858 announced the
policy of the British government to be followed from now on in
India. It announced that the policy of territorial extension
was to be abandoned.
 The native rulers were assured of the safety of their
territory, rights and honour if they cooperated with British.
  The right of a ruler to adopt a child in the absence of a
natural heir was accepted.
 The government regarded the native rulers as the bulwark
against the masses and henceforth followed a policy of
protecting this reactionary segment of the Indian society.

(b) Administrative Changes:

 An Act for the Better Government of India of 1858 was
passed .under which on August 1858 Queen Victoria was
proclaimed as the Queen Empress of India and the
administration of India was transferred from the East India
Company to the British Crown.
 India was to be administered by the Secretary of State and
his fifteen-member council through the Viceroy.
 The Governor-general became the viceroy and the
representative of the Crown in India.
 While authority over India had previously been wielded by the
Directors of the Company and the Board of Control,
now this power was to be exercised by a Secretary of State
for India aided by a Council.
 The Secretary of State was a member of the British Cabinet
and as such was responsible to Parliament. Thus the ultimate
power over India remained with British Parliament.
 By 1869, the Council was completely subordinated to the
Secretary of State. Most of the members of the Indian
Council were retired British-Indian officials.
 The Imperial Legislative Council possessed no real powers
and should not be seen as a sort of elementary or weak
parliament.
 The Imperial Legislative Council had no control over the
budget.
 No bill passed by Legislative Council could become an Act
until it was approved by the Governor-General.

(c) Reorganization of the Army:

The Indian army was carefully re-organised after 1858, most of
all to
prevent the recurrence of another revolt.
 The domination of the army by its European branch was
carefully guaranteed. The proportion of Europeans to Indians
in the army was raised. The army was re-organized to
strengthen British control over the country and avert any
 further rebellions in future. The number of British soldiers was
increased.
 The European troops were kept in key geographical and
military positions. The crucial branches of artillery, tanks and
armored corps were put exclusively in European hands.
 All the higher posts and key positions were filled up by the
British.
The Indians were strictly excluded from the higher posts. No
Indian could rise higher than the rank of a subedar.
 The organization of the Indian section of the army was based
on the policy of ‘divide and rule’ so as to prevent its chance of
uniting again in an anti-British uprising.
 A new section of army like Punjabis, Gurkhas and Pathans
were recruited in large numbers.

(d) Promises made to the people:

 The Queen promised not to interfere in the religious matters
of the people of India.
 She promised equal treatment of all subjects,Indians and
Europeans.All appointment to be made on the basis of
education ,ability and integrity.
 Official pardon was granted to people except those who were
found guilty of murder.
 It promised that both material and moral advancement of the
people will be the main concern of the government.

(e) Communal and Racial Bitterness: Policy of divide and

rule
 The revolt of 1857 created a big gap between the different
religious communities especially the Hindus and the Muslims
as each blamed the other for its failure.
 The Indians, however, developed a deep racial bitterness
towards the English and opposed the inferior status granted to
them.
 A policy of divide and rule was actively pursued to keep the
Hindus and Muslims divided.

(f) End of Peshwaship and the Mughal Rule

 The war also ended the Peshwaship and the Mughal rule. As
Nana Sahib, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II, who had
taken part in the war could not be traced, the office of the
Peshwa was abolished.
 Similarly, the title of Mughal Emperor was also abolished with
the death of Bahadur Shah II in 1862.
(g) Growth of Nationalism
The origination of nationalism is one of the most distinguishing
features of the second half of the 19th century. It originated from
the concepts of nationalism and right of self-determination initiated
by the French revolution, the socio-religious reform movements in
India, as an off shoot of modernization introduced by the British in
India, and as a reaction of the Indians to the British colonial policies.