COMPLEX INTEGRATION

Definition:
1. Simple closed curve:
A curve is said to be simple closed curve, if it does not intersect.
2. Contour:
A continuous curve made of finite number of arcs is called Contour.

3. Region:
A region is a connected set of points. It may be interior or it may be
both interior and boundary points.
(i) Open region:
A region which contains only interior points is called open region.

(ii) Closed region:

A region which contains interior as well as boundary points is called
closed region.
4. Connected Region:
A connected region is one in which any two points can be connected
by a curve which lies entirely in the region.

(a) (c)
(b)

Here (a) and (b) are connected.

5. Simply connected region:

A region R is said to be simple connected region if any closed
curve C in R can be shrunk to a point without leaving R.
Example:

R R

C C

simple connected Not simple connected

6. Multiply connected region:
A region R which is not a simply connected region is called multiply
connected region.

Note:
1. It has some or more holes.
2. A multiply connected region can be converted to simply connected
region by introducing a cross cut as shown in the diagram:

C1 C3

C2

Cauchy’s integral theorem or Cauchy’s fundamental theorem:

If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic and its derivative 𝑓′(𝑧) is continuous at all points on and
inside a simple closed curve C, then ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0.

Cauchy’s integral formula:

If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C that encloses a
simply connected region R and if ‘a’ is any point in R,
1 𝑓(𝑧)
then 𝑓(𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝐶 𝑧−𝑎 𝑑𝑧, where C is described in the anticlockwise sense.
Cauchy’s integral formulas for the Derivatives of an Analytic
Function:
1 𝑓(𝑧)
By Cauchy’s integral formula, we have 𝑓(𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝐶 𝑧−𝑎 𝑑𝑧 ---------- (1)

Differentiating partially both sides of (1) with respect to ‘a’ and

performing the differentiation within the integration symbol in the R.H.S,
we get
1! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓′(𝑎) = ∮ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎)2

Proceeding further, we get

2! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓′′(𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)3 𝑑𝑧 etc.

𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑎) = ∮ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛+1

Problems:
1) Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑒 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 where C is |𝑧| = 1.

Solution:
Given 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧
𝑓 ′(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 (exist) with in the circle |𝑧| = 1.
Hence 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on |𝑧| = 1.
Thus, by Cauchy integral theorem, ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0.

⇒ ∫𝐶 𝑒 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0.

2) Evaluate ∫𝐶(𝑧 − 2)𝑛 𝑑𝑧where C is the circle whose centre is 2 and

radius 4.
Solution:
Given |𝑧 − 2| = 4 and 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧 − 2)𝑛 .
Now, 𝑓 ′(𝑧) = 𝑛(𝑧 − 2)𝑛−1 [ n is finite]

𝑓 ′(𝑧) exist inside and on the circle |𝑧 − 2| = 4.

∴ 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic with in |𝑧 − 2| = 4.

By Cauchy integral theorem, ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0.

∴ ∫𝐶(𝑧 − 2)𝑛 𝑑𝑧 = 0.
 𝑑𝑧
3) Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑧+4 where C is |𝑧| = 1.

Solution:
1
Given |𝑧| = 1 and 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧+4.
−𝟏
∴ 𝒇 ′(𝒛) = (𝒛+𝟒)𝟐 exist inside and on |𝑧| = 1.

𝑑𝑧
∴By Cauchy integral theorem, ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0 ⇒ ∫𝐶 𝑧+4 = 0.

Another Method:
𝑑𝑧 𝑓(𝑧)
Given ∫𝐶 𝑧+4 and it is of the form ∮𝐶 𝑧−𝑎 𝑑𝑧.

Here the point z = -4 lies outside the region |𝑧| = 1

[closed curve – unit circle]

i.e. put z = -4 in the region |𝑧| = 1.
⇒ |−4| = 4 > 1 (lies outside the region)
𝑑𝑧
Hence by Cauchy integral formula, ∫𝐶 𝑧+4=0.

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 +𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2
4) Use Cauchy’s integral formula to evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧, where
(𝑧−2)(𝑧−3)

C is the circle |𝑧| = 4.

Solution:
1 1 1
Consider = (𝑧−3) − (𝑧−2)
(𝑧−2)(𝑧−3)

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 +𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 +𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2

∴Given integral = ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 − ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧
𝑧−3 𝑧−2
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧)
= ∫𝐶 𝑧−3 𝑑𝑧 − ∫𝐶 𝑧−2 𝑑𝑧, say ---------------- (1)

Here 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2 is analytic on and inside C.

The point z = 2 and z = 3 lie inside C
∴ By Cauchy’s integral formula, from (1), we get
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 +𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2
∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2 )𝑧=3 − 2𝜋𝑖(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2 )𝑧=2
(𝑧−2)(𝑧−3)

= 2𝜋𝑖(𝑠𝑖𝑛9𝜋 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠9𝜋) − 2𝜋𝑖(𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜋 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜋)

= −2𝜋𝑖 − 2𝜋𝑖 = −4𝜋𝑖
 y

O 2 3 X

7𝑧−1
5) Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑧 2−3𝑧−4 𝑑𝑧, where C is the ellipse 𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 = 4, using

Cauchy’s integral formula.

Solution:
7𝑧−1
Given ∫𝐶 𝑧 2−3𝑧−4 𝑑𝑧.
7𝑧−1
This can be written as ∫𝐶 (𝑧−4)(𝑧+1) 𝑑𝑧

Of the two points z = 4 and z=-1 the point z = -1 only lies inside C.
Re-writing the given integral, we have
7𝑧−1
7𝑧−1 ( ) 𝑓(𝑧)
∫𝐶 𝑧 2−3𝑧−4 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 𝑧−4
𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 𝑧+1 𝑑𝑧 ----------- (1)
(𝑧+1)

7𝑧−1
Here 𝑓(𝑧) = is analytic inside C and the point z = -1 lies inside C.
𝑧−4

By Cauchy’s integral formula, from (1),

7𝑧−1 −8 16
∫𝐶 𝑧 2−3𝑧−4 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(−1) = 2𝜋𝑖 (−5) = 5
𝜋𝑖

Y
C

-1 O x
 𝑧𝑑𝑧 1
6) Evaluate ∫𝐶 (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)2, where C is the circle |𝑧 − 2| = 2, using

Cauchy’s integral formula.

Solution:

is the circle with centre at z = 2 and radius equal to ½. From

1
|𝑧 − 2| =
2

the figure the point z = 2 lies inside the circle.

𝑧
( ) 𝑓(𝑧)
The given integral can be re-written as ∫𝐶 𝑧−1
(𝑧−2)2
𝑑𝑧 ≡ ∫𝐶 (𝑧−2)2 𝑑𝑧.
𝑧
Here 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧−1is analytic on and inside C and the point z = 2

lies inside C.
𝑧 2𝜋𝑖
By Cauchy’s integral formula, ∫𝐶 (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)2 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓′(2)
1!

𝑑 𝑧
= 2𝜋𝑖 {𝑑𝑧 (𝑧−1)}
𝑧=2
−1
= 2𝜋𝑖 {(𝑧−1)2 } = −2𝜋𝑖
𝑧=2

O
X

𝑧+1
7) Use Cauchy’s integral formula to evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑧 3−2𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧, where C is

the circle |𝑧 − 2 − 𝑖| = 2.
Solution:
|𝑧 − 2 − 𝑖| = 2is the circle whose centre is the point 𝑧 = 2 + 𝑖 and

radius is 2. From the figure, the point z = 2

lies inside the circle.
The given integral can be re-written as
 𝑧+1
( 2) 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑧
∫𝐶 𝑧−2 𝑑𝑧 ≡ ∫𝐶 𝑧−2 𝑑𝑧.
𝑧+1
Here 𝑓(𝑧) = is analytic on and inside C and the point z = 2 lies
𝑧2

inside C.
By Cauchy’s integral formula,

𝑧+1 𝑧+1 3
∫𝐶 𝑧 3−2𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(2) = 2𝜋𝑖 ( 𝑧 2 ) = 2 𝜋𝑖
𝑧=2

(2+i)
2

2 X
O

𝑑𝑧
8) Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑧−2, where C is in |𝑧 − 2| = 4.

Solution:
𝑑𝑧 𝑓(𝑧)
Given ∫𝐶 𝑧−2 and it is of the form ∮𝐶 𝑧−𝑎 𝑑𝑧.

Here the point z = 2 lies inside the circle |𝑧 − 2| = 4.

1 𝑓(𝑧)
∴ By Cauchy’s integral formula, 𝑓(𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝐶 𝑧−𝑎 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑧
Thus from the given integration ∫𝐶 𝑧−2, f(z) = 1, z = a = 2.
𝑑𝑧
∴ ∫𝐶 𝑧−2 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑓(2) = 2𝜋𝑖(1)

∫𝐶 𝑧−2
𝑑𝑧
= 2𝜋𝑖.
 𝑒𝑧
9) Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑧+1 𝑑𝑧 where C is |𝑧 + (1/2)| = 1.

Solution:
𝑒𝑧 𝑓(𝑧)
Given ∫𝐶 𝑧+1 𝑑𝑧 and is of the form ∮𝐶 𝑧−𝑎 𝑑𝑧

Here the point z = -1 lies inside the circle |𝑧 + (1/2)| = 1.

1 𝑓(𝑧)
∴ By Cauchy’s integral formula, 𝑓(𝑎) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝐶 𝑧−𝑎 𝑑𝑧
𝑒𝑧
∫𝐶 𝑧+1 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑒 𝑧 )
2𝜋𝑖
= 2𝜋𝑖(𝑒 −1 ) =
𝑒
𝑒𝑧 2𝜋𝑖
∴ ∫𝐶 𝑧+1 𝑑𝑧 = .
𝑒

𝑧𝑒 𝑧
10) Evaluate ∫𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)3 𝑑𝑧, where z = a lie inside the closed curve C, using

Cauchy’s integral formula.

Solution:
𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
By Cauchy’s integral formula for derivative, ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑎)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)𝑛+1

Here 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧𝑒 𝑧 and n+1 = 3 ⇒n = 2.

2! 𝑧𝑒 𝑧
Hence ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓′′(𝑎) -------------- (1)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)3

Also 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧𝑒 𝑧 ⇒ 𝑓′(𝑧) = 𝑧𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑧

𝑓′′(𝑧) = 𝑧𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑧𝑒 𝑧 + 2𝑒 𝑧
2! 𝑧𝑒 𝑧
∴ (1) ⇒ 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)3 𝑑𝑧 = [𝑧𝑒 𝑧 + 2𝑒 𝑧 ]

𝑧𝑒 𝑧
⇒ ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜋𝑖[𝑎𝑒 𝑎 + 2𝑒 𝑎 ] = 𝜋𝑖𝑒 𝑎 (𝑎 + 2).
(𝑧−𝑎)3

𝑧 2 +1
11) Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑧 2−1 𝑑𝑧, where C is the circle

(i) |𝑧 − 1| = 1 (ii) |𝑧 + 1| = 1 (iii) |𝑧 − 𝑖| = 1

Solution:
(i) Given region is |𝑧 − 1| = 1

Here the points z = 1 lies inside the region and z = -1 lies outside the
region.
 𝑧 2 +1
Thus for z = 1, we have 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧+1
𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
∴ By Cauchy’s integral formula, ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑎)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)𝑛+1

(𝑧 2 +1/𝑧+1)
∴ ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑎)2𝜋𝑖
𝑧−1
𝑧2 + 1 𝑧2 + 1
⇒∫ 2
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 ( ) = 2𝜋𝑖
𝐶𝑧 −1 𝑧 + 1 𝑧=1

(ii) Given region |𝑧 + 1| = 1

Here the points z = 1 lies outside the region and z = -1 lies inside the
region.
𝑧 2 +1
Consider 𝑓(𝑧) = ( 𝑧−1 )
1! 𝑓(𝑧)
At z = -1, by Cauchy’s integral formula, ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑎)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)

𝑧 2 +1/𝑧−1 𝑧 2 +1
∫𝐶 𝑧+1
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 ( 𝑧−1 ) = 2𝜋𝑖(−1) = −2𝜋𝑖
𝑧=−1

(iii) Given region is |𝑧 − 𝑖| = 1

If 𝑧 = 1 ⇒ |1 − 𝑖| = 1 ⇒ √2 > 1

If 𝑧 = −1 ⇒ |−1 − 𝑖| = 1 ⇒ √2 > 1
Thus for both the points z = 1, -1 lies outside the region. Hence by
Cauchy’s integral theorem, ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0.
𝑧 2 +1
∴ ⇒ ∫𝐶 𝑧 2−1 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑧+4
12) Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑧 2+2𝑧+5 𝑑𝑧 where |𝑧 + 1 + 𝑖| = 2.

Solution:
We have the points as 𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 5 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = −1 ± 2𝑖.
If 𝑧 = −1 + 2𝑖 then in the region |𝑧 + 1 + 𝑖| = 2
⇒ |−1 + 2𝑖 + 1 + 𝑖| = 2
⇒ |3𝑖| = 2
⇒9>4
Hence 𝑧 = −1 + 2𝑖 lies outside the region.
If 𝑧 = −1 − 2𝑖 then in the region |𝑧 + 1 + 𝑖| = 2
⇒ |−1 − 2𝑖 + 1 + 𝑖| = 2
 ⇒ |−𝑖| = 2
⇒1<4
Hence 𝑧 = −1 − 2𝑖 lies inside the region.
𝑧+4
We have 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧+1−2𝑖.

Thus for the point 𝑧 = −1 − 2𝑖,

1 𝑓(𝑧)
By Cauchy’s integral formula, ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑎)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)

∫𝐶 𝑧+4/𝑧+1−2𝑖
𝑧+1+2𝑖
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 [
𝑧+4
]
𝑧+1−2𝑖 𝑧=−1−2𝑖
−1 − 2𝑖 + 4
= 2𝜋𝑖 [ ]
−1 − 2𝑖 + 1 − 2𝑖
3 − 2𝑖
= 2𝜋𝑖 [ ]
−4𝑖
−𝜋(3 − 2𝑖)
=
2
𝑑𝑧 𝜋
13) Prove that ∫𝐶 (𝑧 2+4)2 = 16 where C is |𝑧 − 𝑖| = 2.

Solution:
The points are (𝑧 2 + 4)2 = 0
⇒ 𝑧 2 + 4 = 0, 𝑧 2 + 4 = 0 of order 2

Hence 𝑧 = ±2𝑖 is of order 2.

Given |𝑧 − 𝑖| = 2
If z = 2i then |2𝑖 − 𝑖| = 2 ⇒ 1 < 4
If z = -2i then |−2𝑖 − 𝑖| = |−3𝑖| = 2 ⇒ 9 > 4
Hence z = 2i (order 2) lies inside the region.

We have 𝑓(𝑧) = 1⁄(𝑧 + 2𝑖)2.

−2
Thus 𝑓′(𝑧) = −2(𝑧 + 2𝑖)−3 = (𝑧+2𝑖)3

By Cauchy’s integral formula,

𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑎)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)𝑛+1

1/(𝑧+2𝑖)2 2𝜋𝑖
∴ ∫𝐶 = 𝑓′(𝑎)
(𝑧−2𝑖)2 1!
−2
= 2𝜋𝑖 [ ]
(𝑧 + 2𝑖)3 𝑧=2𝑖
−4𝜋𝑖 𝜋
= =
−64𝑖 16
 3𝑧 2 +7𝑧+1
14) If 𝑓(𝑎) = ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧,where C is the circle |𝑧| = 2, find the values
𝑧−𝑎

of 𝑓(3), 𝑓′(1 − 𝑖)𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑓′′(1 − 𝑖).

Solution: By Cauchy’s integral formula,

1 𝑓(𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑎) ------------- (1)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎

1! 𝑓(𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) ------------ (2)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)2

2! 𝑓(𝑧)
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) ----------- (3)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)3

3𝑧 2 +7𝑧+1 1 2𝜋𝑖(3𝑧 2 +7𝑧+1)

Given 𝑓(𝑎) = ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 ⇒ 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 ------- (4)
𝑧−𝑎 𝑧−𝑎

−(3𝑧 2 +7𝑧+1)(−1) 1 (3𝑧 2 +7𝑧+1)

𝑓′(𝑎) = ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 ⇒ 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 2𝜋𝑖 𝑑𝑧 ------- (5)
(𝑧−𝑎)2 (𝑧−𝑎)2

−2(3𝑧 2 +7𝑧+1)(−1) 2! (3𝑧 2 +7𝑧+1)

𝑓′′(𝑎) = ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 ⇒ 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 2𝜋𝑖 𝑑𝑧 ------ (6)
(𝑧−𝑎)3 (𝑧−𝑎)3

Comparing (1), (4)

we get 𝑓(𝑧) = 2𝜋𝑖(3𝑧 2 + 7𝑧 + 1). But the point z = 3 lies outside the
region |𝑧| = 2 . Hence 𝑓(3) = 0 by Cauchy’s integral formula.
Comparing (2), (5)
we get 𝑓′(𝑧) = 2𝜋𝑖(6𝑧 + 7)
∴ 𝑓′(1 − 𝑖) = 2𝜋𝑖[6(1 − 𝑖) + 7]
= 2𝜋𝑖[6 − 6𝑖 + 7]
= 2𝜋𝑖[13 − 6𝑖]
Comparing (3), (6)
we get 𝑓′′(𝑧) = 2𝜋𝑖(6)
∴ 𝑓′′(1 − 𝑖) = 2𝜋𝑖[6] = 12𝜋𝑖
Practice Problems:
7𝑧+12
1) Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑧 2+𝑧−2 𝑑𝑧 where C is |𝑧 − 2| = 2.
𝟑𝟖𝝅𝒊
Ans: 𝟑

2) Evaluate∫𝑪 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒛𝒅𝒛, where C is boundary of rectangle with vertices at

2 ± 𝑖, −2 ± 𝑖 .
Ans: 0
3) Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧, where C is boundary of square with vertices

−1 − 𝑖, 1 − 𝑖, 1 + 𝑖, −1 + 𝑖 .
Ans: 0
𝑑𝑧
4) Evaluate ∫𝐶 (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)(𝑧−3), where C is |𝑧| = 4.

Ans: 0

SERIES EXPANSIONS OF FUNCTIONS OF COMPLEX VARIABLE

POWER SERIES:
A series of the form ∑∞ 𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎) = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 (𝑧 − 𝑎) + 𝑐2 (𝑧 − 𝑎) +. . . . . is called
𝑛 2

a power series of (𝑧 − 𝑎), where z is a complex variable, the constants

𝑐0 , 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , . . .. are called the coefficients and the constant ‘a’ is called the
centre of the series.
Power series play an important role in complex analysis, since they
represent analytic functions and conversely every analytic function has a
power series representation, called Taylor series that are similar to Taylor
series in real calculus.
Analytic functions can also be represented by another type of
series, called Laurent’s series, which consist of positive and negative
integral powers of the independent variable.
TAYLOR’S SERIES:
If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic at all points inside a circle C0 with centre at ‘z=a’
and radius r, then at each point z inside C0,
(𝑧−𝑎) (𝑧−𝑎)2 (𝑧−𝑎)3
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓′(𝑎) + 𝑓′′(𝑎) + 𝑓′′′(𝑎)+. . . . ∞ ---- (1)
1! 2! 3!

(1) is called the Taylor’s series of 𝑓(𝑧) about z = a.

Put a = 0 in the Taylor’s series, we get

𝑓′(0) 𝑓′′(0) 2 𝑓′′′(0) 3
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑧+ 𝑧 + 𝑧 +. . . . ∞ -------- (2)
1! 2! 3!

(2) is called the Maclaurin’s series of 𝑓(𝑧).

Note:
1. Taylor’s series is the positive powers of the (z-a).
2. The following results are useful for the positive series expansion:
(i) (1 − 𝑧)−1 = 1 + 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 3 +. . . . 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛|𝑧| < 1
(ii) (1 + 𝑧)−1 = 1 − 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 3 +. . . . 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛|𝑧| < 1
(iii) (1 + 𝑧)−2 = 1 − 2𝑧 + 3𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 3 + 5𝑧 4 −. . . . 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛|𝑧| < 1
(iv) (1 + 𝑧)−3 = 1 − 3𝑧 + 6𝑧 2 − 9𝑧 3 + 12𝑧 4 −. . . . 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛|𝑧| < 1
𝑧 𝑧2 𝑧3
(v) 𝑒 −𝑧 = 1 − 1! + − +. . . . . 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛|𝑧| < ∞(𝑜𝑟)|𝑧| > 0
2! 3!

Problems:
1) Expand 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 in a Taylor series about 𝑧 = 𝜋/4.
Solution:
Given 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 and 𝑧 = 𝑎 = 𝜋/4.

∴Taylor’s series of 𝑓(𝑧) at z = a is

(𝑧−𝑎) (𝑧−𝑎)2 (𝑧−𝑎)3
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓 ′(𝑎) + 𝑓 ′′(𝑎) + 𝑓 ′′′(𝑎)+. . . . ∞ ----- (1)
1! 2! 3!

Given 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝜋⁄4) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋/4 = 1⁄

√2
𝑓′(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 ⇒ 𝑓′(𝑎) = 𝑓′(𝜋⁄4) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋⁄4 = 1/√2

𝑓′′(𝑧) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 ⇒ 𝑓′′(𝑎) = 𝑓′′(𝜋⁄4) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋⁄4 = −1⁄

√2
 𝑓′′′(𝑧) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 ⇒ 𝑓′′′(𝑎) = 𝑓′′′(𝜋⁄4) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋⁄4 = −1⁄
√2
1 (𝑧−𝜋⁄4)2 (𝑧−𝜋⁄4)3
∴ (1) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑧) = + (𝑧 − 𝜋⁄4) (1⁄ ) + (−1⁄ ) + (−1⁄ ) +. . ..
√2 √2 2! √2 3! √2
1 (𝑧−𝜋⁄4)2 (𝑧−𝜋⁄4)3
𝑓(𝑧) = [1 + (𝑧 − 𝜋⁄4) − − +. . . . . . . ].
√2 2 6

2) Expand 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 + 𝑧) on a Taylor series in |𝑧| < 1.

Solution:
Given region is |𝑧| < 1.

i.e. it is a circle with centre 0 and radius 1.

Hence z = a = 0
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 + 𝑧) ⇒ 𝑓(0) = 0
1
𝑓′(𝑧) = ⇒ 𝑓′(0) = 1
1+𝑧
−1
𝑓′′(𝑧) = ⇒ 𝑓′′(0) = −1
(1 + 𝑧)2
2
𝑓′′′(𝑧) = ⇒ 𝑓′′′(0) = 2
(1 + 𝑧)3
Hence Taylor’s series is
𝑧 𝑧2
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(0) + 1! 𝑓′(0) + 2!
𝑓′′(0)+. . . . . ..

𝑧 𝑧2 𝑧3
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 + 𝑧) = 0 + 1! (1) + (−1) + (2)+. . . . . .
2! 3!
2 3
𝑧 𝑧
=𝑧− + +
2 3
3) Expand 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 in Taylor’s series about z =0.

Solution:
𝑧 𝑧2
We have 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(0) + 1! 𝑓′(0) + 𝑓′′(0)+. . . . . ..
2!

Here 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 ⇒ 𝑓(0) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 1

𝑓′(𝑧) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 ⇒ 𝑓′(0) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛0 = 0
𝑓′′(𝑧) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 ⇒ 𝑓′′(0) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = −1
𝑓′′′(𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 ⇒ 𝑓′′′(0) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛0 = 0
𝑧 𝑧2 𝑧3
Hence 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 = 1 + 1! (0) + (−1) + (0)+. . . . . .
2! 3!
𝑧2
=1+0− +. . . ..
2!
 𝑧2
i.e. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 = 1 − +. . . . ..
2!

𝑧 2 −1
4) Expand 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧+2)(𝑧+3)as Taylor’s series in |𝑧| < 2.

Solution:
𝑧 2 −1
Given 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧+2)(𝑧+3) and |𝑧| < 2 ⇒circle with centre 0 and

radius <2.
𝑧 2 −1 𝐴 𝐵
By partial fraction, 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧+2)(𝑧+3) = 1 + 𝑧+2 + 𝑧+3

𝑧 2 −1 (𝑧+2)(𝑧+3)+𝐴(𝑧+3)+𝐵(𝑧+2)
=
(𝑧+2)(𝑧+3) (𝑧+2)(𝑧+3)

When 𝑧 = −2 ⇒ 𝐴 = 3
When 𝑧 = −3 ⇒ 𝐵 = −8
𝑧 2 −1 3 8
Hence 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧+2)(𝑧+3) = 1 + 𝑧+2 − 𝑧+3

|𝑧| |𝑧|
Given circle is |𝑧| < 2 ⇒ < 1 & 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 <1
2 3
3 8 3 8
Hence 1 + 𝑧+2 − 𝑧+3 = 1 + 2(1+𝑧/2) − 3(1+𝑧/3)

3 8
= 1 + 2 (1 + 𝑧⁄2)−1 − 3 (1 + 𝑧⁄3)−1

3 𝑧 𝑧2 𝑧3
= 1 + 2 [1 − 2 + − + ⋯….]
4 8

8 𝑧 𝑧2 𝑧3
[1 − 3 + − 27 +. . . . . . . ].
3 9
𝑧+1
5) Expand 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−3)(𝑧−4) on a Taylor’s series about the point z = 2.

Solution:
𝑧+1
Given 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−3)(𝑧−4) and 𝑧 = 2 ⇒ 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 < 1.

𝑧+1 𝐴 𝐵
Now 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−3)(𝑧−4) = 𝑧−3 + 𝑧−4

⇒ 𝑧 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑧 − 4) + 𝐵(𝑧 − 3)
𝑧=4⇒𝐵=5
𝑧 = 3 ⇒ −𝐴 = 4 ⇒ 𝐴 = −4
−4 5
Hence 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧−3 + 𝑧−4
 𝑧+1 −4 5
= 𝑧−2+2−3 + 𝑧−2+2−4
(𝑧−3)(𝑧−4)

−4 5
= −1+(𝑧−2) + −2+(𝑧−2)

−4 5
= −1(1−(𝑧−2)) + (𝑧−2)
−2(1− )
2

5 𝑧−2 −1
= 4[1 − (𝑧 − 2)]−1 − 2 [1 − ( )]
2

= 4{1 + (𝑧 − 2) + (𝑧 − 2)2 + ⋯ … }
5 𝑧−2 𝑧−2 2
− 2 {1 + ( )+( ) +. . . . . . . }.
2 2

Practice Problems:
Expand the following functions in Taylor’s series:
1. 𝑒 2𝑧 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑧 = 2𝑖
𝟐(𝒛−𝟐𝒊) 𝟐𝟐 (𝒛−𝟐𝒊)𝟐 𝟐𝟑 (𝒛−𝟐𝒊)𝟑
Ans: 𝒆𝟐𝒛 = 𝒆𝟒𝒊 [𝟏 + + + +. . . . . . ]
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟑!

2. cos 𝑧 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑧 = −𝜋⁄2

(𝒛+𝝅⁄𝟐) (𝒛+𝝅⁄𝟐)𝟑 (𝒛+𝝅⁄𝟐)𝟓 (𝒛+𝝅⁄𝟐)𝟕

Ans: 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒛 = − + − +. . . . ..
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟓! 𝟕!
𝑧+3
3. 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 2
(𝑧−1)(𝑧−4)

𝟒 𝟕 𝟏
Ans: ∑∞
𝒏=𝟎[𝟑 (−𝟏)
𝒏+𝟏
− 𝟔 . 𝟐𝒏 ](𝒛 − 𝟐)𝒏

Laurent’s Expansion:
If C1 and C2 are two concentric circles with centre at z = a and
radius r1 and r2 (r1 < r2) and if f(z) is analytic on C1 and C2 and
throughout annular region R between them
then at each point z in R,
𝑏
𝑓(𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛 ∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎) + ∑𝑛=1 (𝑧−𝑎)𝑛

1 𝑓(𝑧)
where 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)𝑛+1 𝑑𝑧, 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, . . . ..
 1 𝑓(𝑧)
and 𝑏𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)−𝑛+1 𝑑𝑧, 𝑛 = 1,2,3,4, . . ..

Note:
1. Laurent’s series expansion has both positive and negative powers
of z-a.
2. In the problems we use binomial theorem to find 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛 of Laurent’s
series.
3. The part ∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎) is called the regular (or) analytic part and
𝑛

∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)
−𝑛
is called the principal part of f(z).

Problems:
𝑒 2𝑧
1) Find the Laurent’s series expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−1)3 about z = 1.

Solution:
𝑒 2𝑧
Given 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−1)3

To expand Laurent’s series of f(z) about z = 1,

put 𝑧 − 1 = 𝑢 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 1
𝑒 2(𝑢+1) 𝑒 2𝑢 .𝑒 2
∴ 𝑓(𝑧) = =
𝑢3 𝑢3

𝑒2 2𝑢 (2𝑢)2
= 𝑢3 [1 + + +. . . . . ]
1! 2!

𝑧 𝑧2
{∵ 𝑒 𝑧 = 1 + + +. . . . . . . } 𝑓𝑜𝑟|𝑧| < ∞(𝑜𝑟)|𝑧| > 0
1! 2!

Replace 𝑢 = 𝑧 − 1.
𝑒2 2(𝑧−1) 4(𝑧−1)2 8(𝑧−1)3
= (𝑧−1)3 [1 + + + .....]
1! 2! 3!

1 2 2 4 2
= 𝑒 2 [(𝑧−1)3 + (𝑧−1)2 + (𝑧−1) + 3 + 3 (𝑧 − 1)+. . . . . ].

1
2) Expand 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)in Laurent’s series valid for

(𝑖)|𝑧| < 1 (𝑖𝑖)1 < |𝑧| < 2 (𝑖𝑖𝑖)|𝑧| > 2 (𝑖𝑣)0 < |𝑧 − 1| < 1

Solution:
1 𝐴 𝐵
Given 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2) = 𝑧−1 + 𝑧−2
⇒ 𝐴(𝑧 − 2) + 𝐵(𝑧 − 1) = 1
𝐼𝑓𝑧 = 2 ⇒ 𝐵 = 1
𝐼𝑓𝑧 = 1 ⇒ 𝐴 = −1
−1 1
Hence 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧−1 + 𝑧−2 --------- (1)

(i) 𝐹𝑜𝑟|𝑧| < 1,

−1 1
From (1), 𝑓(𝑧) = −(1−𝑧) + −2(1−𝑧/2)

𝑓(𝑧) = (1 − 𝑧)−1 − (1/2)(1 − 𝑧/2)−1

1 𝑧 𝑧2 𝑧3
= (1 + 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 3 +. . . . . ) − 2 (1 + 2 + + +. . . . . . )
4 8

(ii) 𝐹𝑜𝑟1 < |𝑧| < 2,

we have 1 < |𝑧|&|𝑧| < 2
1 |𝑧|
⇒ |𝑧| < 1& <1
2

−1 1
Hence 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧−1 + 𝑧−2
−1 1 1
⇒ 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧(1−1/𝑧) + 2 . (𝑧/2−1)

−1 1
= (1 − 1/𝑧)−1 − 2 (1 − 𝑧/2)−1
𝑧

−1 1 1 1 1 𝑧 𝑧2 𝑧3
= (1 + 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 3 +. . . . . . ) − 2 (1 + 2 + + +. . . . . . )
𝑧 4 8

(iii) 𝐹𝑜𝑟|𝑧| > 2,

2 1
we have 2 < |𝑧| ⇒ |𝑧| < 1𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑧| < 1
−1 1
Hence 𝑓(𝑧) = +
𝑧−1 𝑧−2
1 1 1
⇒ 𝑓(𝑧) = 1−𝑧 + 𝑧 . (1−2/𝑧)

−1 1 −1 1 −1
= (1 − 𝑧) + 𝑧 (1 − 2⁄𝑧)
𝑧

1 1 1 1 2 4 8
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓(𝑧) = (1 + 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 3 +. . . . . ) + 𝑧 (1 + 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 3 +. . . . . ).

(iv) Given 0 < |𝑧 − 1| < 1

𝑖. 𝑒. 0 < |𝑧 − 1|&|𝑧 − 1| < 1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑧 − 1 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑢 + 1
𝑖. 𝑒. 0 < |𝑢|&|𝑢| < 1
 −1 1 −1 1
Hence 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧−1 + 𝑧−2 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑢 + 1) = 𝑢+1−1 + 𝑢+1−2
−1 1 −1 1
= + 𝑢−1 = + −(1−𝑢)
𝑢 𝑢

−1
= − (1 + 𝑢 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢3 +. . . . . )
𝑢
−1
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧−1 − [1 + (𝑧 − 1) + (𝑧 − 1)2 + (𝑧 − 1)3 +. . . . ] .

(𝑧−2)(𝑧+2)
3) Expand 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧+1)(𝑧+4) in Laurent’s series valid in

(i) 1 < |𝑧| < 4 and (ii) |𝑧| > 4

Solution:
𝑧 2 −4
Given function is 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧+1)(𝑧+4)

𝐴 𝐵 𝑧 2 −4
By partial fraction, 𝑓(𝑧) = 1 + 𝑧+1 + 𝑧+4 = (𝑧+1)(𝑧+4)

⇒ (𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 + 4) + 𝐴(𝑧 + 4) + 𝐵(𝑧 + 1) = 𝑧 2 − 4

If 𝑧 = −4 ⇒ −3𝐵 = 12 ⇒ 𝐵 = −4
If 𝑧 = −1 ⇒ 3𝐴 = −3 ⇒ 𝐴 = −1
1 4
∴ 𝑓(𝑧) = 1 − 𝑧+1 − 𝑧+4

(i) For 1 < |𝑧| < 4

i.e. 1 < |𝑧|&|𝑧| < 4
1 |𝑧|
⇒ |𝑧| < 1& <1
4

1 4
Hence 𝑓(𝑧) = 1 − 𝑧+1 − 𝑧+4
1 1 1 1
⇒ 𝑓(𝑧) = 1 − . − 4. .
𝑧 1+1/𝑧 4 1+𝑧/4

1
= 1 − 𝑧 . (1 + 1/𝑧)−1 − (1 + 𝑧/4)−1

1 1 1 1 𝑧 𝑧2
= 1 − 𝑧 [1 − 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 3 +. . . . . ] − [1 − 4 + 16 −. . . . . ]

(ii) |𝑧| > 4

⇒ 4 < |𝑧|
4 1
⇒ |𝑧| < 1 ⇒ |𝑧| < 1
1 4
𝑓(𝑧) = 1 − 𝑧+1 − 𝑧+4
 1 1 4 1
⇒ 𝑓(𝑧) = 1 − 𝑧 . (1+1/𝑧) − 𝑧 . 1+4/𝑧

1 4
= 1 − 𝑧 . (1 + 1/𝑧)−1 − 𝑧 . (1 + 4/𝑧)−1
1 1 1 1 4 4 16
= 1 − 𝑧 . (1 − 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 3 +. . . . . ) − 𝑧 . (1 − 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 −. . . . . . ).

𝑧
4) Expand the function in Laurent’s series about |𝑧 + 2| < 1.
(𝑧+1)(𝑧+2)

Solution:
𝑧
Given 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧+1)(𝑧+2)

𝑧 𝐴 𝐵
By partial fraction, = 𝑧+1 + 𝑧+2
(𝑧+1)(𝑧+2)

⇒ 𝐴(𝑧 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑧 + 1) = 𝑧
𝐼𝑓𝑧 = −2 ⇒ −𝐵 = −2 ⇒ 𝐵 = 2
𝐼𝑓𝑧 = −1 ⇒ 𝐴 = −1
𝑧 −1 2
∴ 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧+1)(𝑧+2) = (𝑧+1) + 𝑧+2

∴ 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑧 + 2 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑢 − 2
−1 2
Hence ∴ 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧+1) + 𝑧+2

−1 2
⇒ 𝑓(𝑢 − 2) = 𝑢−1 + 𝑢
2
= (1 − 𝑢)−1 + 𝑢
2
= 𝑢 + (1 + 𝑢 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢3 +. . . . . . )
2
∴ 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧+2 + [1 + (𝑧 + 2) + (𝑧 + 2)2 +. . . . . ] .

Practice Problems:
1
1) Find the Laurent’s series of 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧(1−𝑧)valid in the region

(i) |𝑧 + 1| < 1 (ii) 1 < |𝑧 + 1| < 2 (iii) |𝑧 + 1| > 2

𝟏
Ans: (i) ∑∞
𝒏=𝟎 (−𝟏 + 𝟐𝒏+𝟏 ) (𝒛 + 𝟏)
𝒏
for |𝑧 + 1| < 1
1 1
(ii) ∑∞ ∞
𝑛=0 (𝑧+1)𝑛+1 + ∑𝑛=0 2𝑛+1 (𝑧 + 1)
𝑛
for 1 < |𝑧 + 1| < 2

1
(iii) ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0(1 − 2 ) (𝑧+1)𝑛+1 for |𝑧 + 1| > 2
 ZERO OF AN ANALYTIC FUNCTION AND SINGULARITIES
Definition:
Zero of an Analytic Function:
An analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) in a region R is zero at a point z = a in R,
then ‘a’ is called a zero of 𝑓(𝑧).
𝐼𝑓 𝑓(𝑎) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) ≠ 0 then z = a is called a simple zero.

𝐼𝑓 𝑓(𝑎) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓′(𝑎) = 0 & 𝑓′ ′(𝑎) = 0. . . . . . . . 𝑓 (𝑛−1) (𝑎) = 0 & 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑎) ≠ 0,
then z = a is called a zero of order ‘n’.
Example:
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑧) = 0
⇒ 𝑧 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 = 0
⇒ 𝑧 2 = 0 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 = 0
⇒ 𝑧 = 0 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑧 = 𝑛𝜋 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . . ..
Here z = 0 is of order 3.
𝑧 = 𝑛𝜋 is of order 1.
Singular points:
A point z = a at which a function 𝑓(𝑧) is not analytic is known as
singular point or singularity of 𝑓(𝑧).
Example:
1
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧+2, for not analytic.

𝑧 + 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = −2 is the singular point.

Isolated Singular point:
The point z= a is called an isolated singularity of 𝑓(𝑧), if there is no
other singular point in its neighbourhood.
Example:
1
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧(𝑧−2) is not analytic at z = 0, z = 2.

Thus z = 0, z = 2 are isolated singularity.

Types of singularities:
Let z = a be an isolated singularity of 𝑓(𝑧), then 𝑓(𝑧) has a Laurent’s
expansion
∞ ∞
𝑛
𝑏𝑛
𝑓(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎) + ∑
(𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛=1

Here ∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎) is called the regular (or) analytic part and
𝑛

∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)
−𝑛
is called the principal part of f(z).
1. Poles:
If the principal part of 𝑓(𝑧) at z = a consist of finite number of
terms, say m, then z = a is said to be a pole of order m. Thus if z = a is a
pole of order m, then 𝑓(𝑧) will have the expansion of the form
∞
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏𝑚
𝑓(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 + + 2
+. . . . . . . +
(𝑧 − 𝑎) (𝑧 − 𝑎) (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚
𝑛=0

A pole of order 1 is called a simple pole.

2. Essential singularity:
If the principal part of 𝑓(𝑧) at z = a contains an infinite number of
terms, then z = a is called an essential singularity of 𝑓(𝑧).
Example:
2
1/𝑧 (1⁄𝑧)
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 1/𝑧
=1+ + +. . . . .. is an infinite series of negative powers of
1! 2!
(z-0) & hence z = 0 is an essential singularity.
3. Removable singularity:
If there is no principal part of 𝑓(𝑧) about z = a (i.e. bn=0), z = a is
called removable singularity of 𝑓(𝑧).
Example:
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒛 𝟏 𝒛 𝟑 𝒛𝟓
𝒇(𝒛) = = (𝒛 − + −. . . . . . . )
𝒛 𝒛 𝟑! 𝟓!
𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟒 𝒛𝟔
= 𝟏 − 𝟑! + 𝟓! − 𝟕! +. . . . . ..

𝑓(𝑧) has only positive powers of z.

{i.e. no negative power of z ) no principal part.
∴z = 0 is a removable singularity.
4. Residues:
If z = a is an isolated singular point of 𝑓(𝑧). Then by Laurent’s series
𝑏𝑛
of 𝑓(𝑧) about z = a is 𝑓(𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎) + ∑𝑛=1 (𝑧−𝑎)𝑛 .
𝑛 ∞

1
Here the coefficient b1 of in the Laurent’s series of 𝑓(𝑧) is called
𝑧−𝑎
residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at z = a.
1 𝑓(𝑧)
We know that 𝑏𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)−𝑛+1 𝑑𝑧

Put n = 1.
1 𝑓(𝑧)
Residue at z = a = b1 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧−𝑎)0

1
𝑏1 = ∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 ⇒ ∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑏1 )
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝐶

i.e. ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧)𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎)

Evaluation of Residue:
1. If 𝑓(𝑧) has a simple pole at z = a, then
𝑅𝑒𝑠[𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=𝑎 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚( 𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑓(𝑧)
𝑧→𝑎

2. If z = a is a pole of order ‘n’ at z = a then

1 𝑑𝑛−1
[𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=𝑎 𝑜𝑓(𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑛) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 [(𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 𝑓(𝑧)]
𝑧→𝑎 (𝑛−1)! 𝑑𝑧 𝑛−1

𝑃(𝑧)
3. If 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑄(𝑧) is a rational function of z, and if z = a is a simple pole of

𝑃(𝑧) 𝑃(𝑎)
𝑓(𝑧) then [𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=𝑎 = [𝑄′(𝑧)] = 𝑄′(𝑎).
𝑧=𝑎

5. Cauchy’s Residue Theorem:

If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic at all points inside and on a simple closed curve
‘C’, except for a finite number of isolated singularities inside ‘C’ then

∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × ∑ 𝑅
𝐶
= 2𝜋𝑖[𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 ′𝐶′]
Problems:
1) Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑧𝑑𝑧 where ‘C’ is the circle |𝑧| = 2.

Solution:
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 𝑃(𝑧)
Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 = 𝑄(𝑧)

𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
For pole, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = ± 2 , ± ,± , . . . . ..
2 2

Here the poles are of order 1.

Given region is |𝑧| = 2.
𝜋 𝜋
Put 𝑧 = ⇒ |2 | = 1.57 < 2
2

𝜋 𝜋
𝑧 = − 2 ⇒ |− 2 | = 1.57 < 2
3𝜋 3𝜋
𝑧= ⇒ | 2 | = 4.71 > 2
2
𝜋 𝜋
Here 𝑧 = 2 , − 2 lie inside |𝑧| = 2.

By Cauchy’s Residue Theorem, ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × ∑ 𝑅

𝑃(𝑧)
𝑅1 = [𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=𝜋/2 = [𝑄′(𝑧)]
𝑧=𝜋/2

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
= [−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧] = −1
𝑧=𝜋/2

𝑃(𝑧)
𝑅2 = [𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧 = −𝜋/2 = [𝑄′(𝑧)]
𝑧 = −𝜋/2

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧
= [−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧] = −1
𝑧 = −𝜋/2

∴ ∫𝐶 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑧𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖[𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ] = −4𝜋𝑖 .

𝜋 𝜋
2) Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑧𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑧𝑑𝑧 where ‘C’ is the circle |𝑧 − 2 | = 2 .

Solution:
𝑧 𝑃(𝑧)
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 = 𝑄(𝑧)

𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
For pole, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = ± 2 , ± ,± , . . . . ..
2 2

Here the poles are of order 1.

𝜋 𝜋
Given region is |𝑧 − 2 | = 2
 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Put 𝑧 = ⇒ |2 − 2 | = 0 <
2 2

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑧 = − 2 ⇒ |− 2 − 2 | = |−𝜋| = |𝜋| > 2

𝜋 𝜋
∴ 𝑧 = 𝜋/2 lies inside the circle |𝑧 − 2 | = 2 .

By Cauchy Residue Theorem, ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × ∑ 𝑅

𝑃(𝑧) 𝑧
∴ 𝑅 = [𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=𝜋/2 [𝑄′(𝑧)] = (−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧)
𝑧=𝜋/2 𝑧=𝜋/2

𝜋/2 −𝜋
= = .
−1 2

∴ ∫𝐶 𝑧𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(−𝜋/2) = −𝜋 2 𝑖 .

𝑑𝑧
3) Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 where C is the circle |𝑧| = 4.

Solution:
1 𝑃(𝑧)
Here 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 = 𝑄(𝑧)

For pole, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = 0, ±𝜋, ±2𝜋, ±3𝜋, . . . . . . .. are poles of order 1.

Given region is |𝑧| = 4
When 𝑧 = 0, |0| < 4
𝑧 = 𝜋, |𝜋| < 4
𝑧 = −𝜋, |−𝜋| < 4
𝑧 = 2𝜋, |2𝜋| = 6.28 > 4
∴ 𝑧 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝜋, 𝑧 = −𝜋 lies inside |𝑧| = 4.
By Cauchy Residue Theorem, ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × ∑ 𝑅
𝑃(𝑧) 1 1
𝑅1 = [𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=0 = [𝑄′(𝑧)] = [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑧] =1=1
𝑧=0 𝑧=0

𝑃(𝑧) 1
𝑅2 = [𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=𝜋 = [𝑄′(𝑧)] = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 = −1
𝑧=𝜋
1
𝑅3 = [𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=−𝜋 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(−𝜋) = −1

𝑑𝑧
∴ ∫𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(−1) = −2𝜋𝑖 .
4) Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑧 2 𝑒 1/𝑧 𝑑𝑧 where |𝑧| = 1.

Solution:
𝑧2
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 𝑒 1/𝑧 = 𝑒 −1/𝑧

For poles, 𝑒 −1/𝑧 = 0 ⇒ −1/𝑧 = −∞ ⇒ 𝑧 = 0

∴ 𝑧 = 0 is a pole of order 1.
Given region is |𝑧| = 1.
Put 𝑧 = 0, |0| < 1
∴ 𝑧 = 0 lie inside the circle |𝑧| = 1.
By Cauchy Residue Theorem, ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × ∑ 𝑅 = 2𝜋𝑖𝑏1
1
where 𝑏1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑓 𝑧−0

1/𝑧 (1/𝑧)2 (1/𝑧)3

𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 𝑒 1/𝑧 = 𝑧 2 [1 + + + +. . . . . . . ]
1! 2! 3!
𝑧 1 1 1
= 𝑧 2 + 1 + 2 + 6 . 𝑧 +. . . . ..

𝑏1 = 1/6
1 𝜋𝑖
∴ ∫𝐶 𝑧 2 𝑒 1/𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × 6 = .
3

4−3𝑧
5) Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑧(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2) 𝑑𝑧 where C is |𝑧| = 3/2 using Cauchy Residue

Theorem.
Solution:
4−3𝑧
Given 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)

For Pole, 𝑧(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2) = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = 0, 𝑧 = 1, 𝑧 = 2 are poles of order 1.

Given region is |𝑧| = 3/2.
Put 𝑧 = 0, |0| < 3/2 lies inside the region.
𝑧 = 1, |1| < 3/2 lies inside the region.
and 𝑧 = 2, |2| > 3/2 lies outside the region.
∴By Cauchy Residue Theorem, ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × ∑ 𝑅.
 4−3𝑧
For z = 0, 𝑅1 = [𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=0 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚( 𝑧 − 0) 𝑧(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)
𝑧→0
4
=2=2
4−3𝑧
For z = 1, 𝑅2 = [𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=1 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚( 𝑧 − 1) 𝑧(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)
𝑧→1
1
= −1 = −1.
4−3𝑧
∴ ∫𝐶 𝑧(𝑧−1)(𝑧−2) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(2 − 1) = 2𝜋𝑖 .

𝑑𝑧
6) Evaluate ∫𝐶 (𝑧 2+4)2 where C is |𝑧 − 𝑖| = 2 using Cauchy Residue

Theorem.
Solution:
𝑑𝑧
Given 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧 2+4)2

For poles, (𝑧 2 + 4)(𝑧 2 + 4) = 0

⇒ 𝑧 2 = −4 ⇒ 𝑧 = ±2𝑖 are poles of order 2.
∴By Cauchy Residue Theorem, ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × ∑ 𝑅.

Here 𝑧 = 2𝑖 ⇒ |2𝑖 − 𝑖| = 2 ⇒ |𝑖| = 2 ⇒ 1 < 2

𝑧 = −2𝑖 ⇒ |−2𝑖 − 𝑖| = 2 ⇒ |−3𝑖| = 2 ⇒ 9 > 2
Hence for 𝑧 = 2𝑖,
𝑑 1
⇒ [𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=2𝑖𝑜𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟2 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑑𝑧 [(𝑧 − 2𝑖)2 . (𝑧+2𝑖)2 .(𝑧−2𝑖)2 ]
𝑧→2𝑖

−2 −2 −1 1
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 [(𝑧+2𝑖)3 ] = (4𝑖)3 = 32.𝑖 3 = 32𝑖
𝑧→2𝑖

𝑑𝑧 1 𝜋
∴ ∫𝐶 (𝑧 2+4)2 = 2𝜋𝑖 [32𝑖] = 16 .

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 +𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2
7) Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑑𝑧 around |𝑧| = 3 using Cauchy Residue
(𝑧−1)2 (𝑧−2)

Theorem.
Solution:
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 +𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2
𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−1)2 (𝑧−2)

For pole, z = 1 is a pole of order 2.

 z = 2 is a pole of order 1.
Given region is |𝑧| = 3
For 𝑧 = 1 ⇒ 1 < 3
For 𝑧 = 2 ⇒ 2 < 3
∴By Cauchy Residue Theorem, ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × ∑ 𝑅.

for z = 1,
⇒ 𝑅1 = [𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=1 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 2

1 𝑑2−1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 +𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2

= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (2−1)! 𝑑𝑧 2−1 [(𝑧 − 1)2 . ]
𝑧→1 (𝑧−1)2 .(𝑧−2)

(𝑧−2){2𝜋𝑧𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2 −(2𝜋𝑧)(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 }−{𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 +𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2 }

= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 [ ]
𝑧→1 (𝑧−2)2

(−𝟏){(𝟐𝝅)(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝅)−(𝟐𝝅)(𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝅)}−{𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝅+𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝅}
= (−𝟏)𝟐

𝟐𝝅+𝟏
= = (𝟐𝝅 + 𝟏)
𝟏

for z = 2,
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 +𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2
⇒ 𝑅2 = [𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=2 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 [(𝑧 − 2). ]
𝑧→2 (𝑧−1)2 .(𝑧−2)

= 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜋 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜋 = 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑧 2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑧 2
∴ ∫𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(2𝜋 + 1 + 1)
𝐶 𝐶 (𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2)

= 4𝜋𝑖(𝜋 + 1).

Practice problems:
Evaluate the following integrals using Cauchy’s Residue Theorem.
(𝑧+1)
1) ∫𝐶 𝑧 2+2𝑧+4 𝑑𝑧 where C is |𝑧 + 1 + 𝑖| = 2 . Ans: 𝝅𝒊
(𝟏𝟐𝒛−𝟕)
2) ∫𝑪 (𝒛−𝟏)𝟐 (𝟐𝒛+𝟑) 𝒅𝒛 where C is |𝑧 + 𝑖| = √3. Ans: 𝟒𝝅𝒊

𝒅𝒛 𝝅
3) ∫𝑪 (𝒛𝟐 +𝟗)𝟑 , where C is |𝑧 − 𝑖| = 3. Ans: 𝟔𝟒𝟖