2074

1. De ne agro-biodiversity, its components. Describe the center of origin of

different crops.
Answer: Agro-Biodiversity refers to the variety of plant and animal species, as well as the
genetic diversity within these species, that are cultivated and managed by humans for
food, ber, medicinal, and other purposes within agricultural ecosystems. It encompasses
the wide range of crops, livestock, and other organisms that are part of agricultural
systems and play a critical role in sustaining human livelihoods and food security.
Components of Agro-Biodiversity:
• Crops: Agro-biodiversity includes a diverse array of cultivated plants, ranging from staple
crops like rice, wheat, and maize to traditional or indigenous crops that are regionally
important. These crops exhibit various genetic traits, growth habits, and adaptations.
• Livestock: Domesticated animal species used for meat, milk, wool, and labor contribute
to agro-biodiversity. Di erent breeds of cattle, goats, sheep, poultry, and other livestock
possess genetic diversity suited to di erent ecological conditions.
• Traditional Knowledge: Indigenous and local knowledge associated with agricultural
practices, seed saving, and breeding contribute to agro-biodiversity by preserving traditional
ways of farming and managing resources.
• Wild Relatives: Wild plant species related to cultivated crops, known as wild relatives,
hold valuable genetic traits that can be used for crop improvement and breeding e orts.
They contribute to the resilience of cultivated crops.
• Microorganisms: Soil microorganisms, including bene cial bacteria and fungi, play a role
in nutrient cycling, disease suppression, and maintaining soil health, which are vital for
agricultural sustainability.
• Insects and Pollinators: Insects, such as pollinators (e.g., bees, butter ies), contribute to
crop reproduction and genetic diversity by facilitating cross-pollination and ensuring genetic
exchange.
Center of Origin of Di erent Crops:
The concept of the "center of origin" refers to the geographical regions where particular cultivated
crops are believed to have originated and diversi ed over time. These regions are characterized
by the presence of wild relatives of the cultivated crop and represent the genetic diversity
hotspots for those crops. The centers of origin provide a wealth of genetic material that can be
used to develop improved crop varieties with desirable traits. Here are a few examples:
• Rice (Oryza sativa): The center of origin of rice is considered to be the Indo-Malayan
region, which includes parts of India, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam. This region has a
wide diversity of wild rice species that have contributed to the development of cultivated
rice varieties.
• Maize (Zea mays): Maize is believed to have originated in the region encompassing
southern Mexico and Central America. The native teosinte plants in this region are the wild
relatives of maize.
• Potato (Solanum tuberosum): The Andean region of South America, including parts of
Peru and Bolivia, is the center of origin for potatoes. Wild potato species are found in these
areas.
• Wheat (Triticum spp.): The Fertile Crescent region in the Middle East, covering parts of
modern-day Turkey, Iraq, and Iran, is considered the center of origin for several wheat
species. Wild grasses from this region are ancestral to cultivated wheat.
• Banana (Musa spp.): The Southeast Asian region, including parts of Malaysia, Indonesia,
and the Philippines, is considered the center of origin for bananas. Wild banana species are
found in these areas.
Understanding the centers of origin is important for conservation e orts, as these regions hold
genetic diversity crucial for developing climate-resilient crop varieties and ensuring global food
security.
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 2. Brie y discuss the di erent dimensions of agricultural biodiversity.
Answer: Agricultural biodiversity encompasses various dimensions that highlight the diverse
components and interactions within agricultural systems. These dimensions emphasize the
importance of maintaining and utilizing the variety of plant and animal species, genetic traits, and
ecosystem processes that contribute to sustainable food production, resilience, and human well-
being. The di erent dimensions of agricultural biodiversity include:
• Genetic Diversity:
• Refers to the variation in genes within species. It is crucial for developing new crop
varieties and breeds with desired traits, such as disease resistance, tolerance to
environmental stress, and improved nutritional content.
• Genetic diversity helps crops and livestock adapt to changing climatic conditions
and evolving pests and diseases.
• Species Diversity:
• Encompasses the variety of di erent species present within an agricultural system.
It includes crops, livestock, insects, microorganisms, and other organisms.
• Species diversity enhances ecosystem stability and resilience by supporting
complex ecological interactions and nutrient cycling.
• Ecosystem Diversity:
• Describes the range of di erent ecosystems or habitats within an agricultural
landscape. It includes elds, forests, wetlands, and water bodies.
• Ecosystem diversity contributes to various ecosystem services, such as pollination,
soil fertility, pest regulation, and water puri cation.
• Functional Diversity:
• Focuses on the diversity of functions and roles that di erent organisms play within
an agricultural ecosystem.
• Functional diversity enhances ecosystem resilience by ensuring that multiple
ecological processes are maintained even if some species are a ected by
disturbances.
• Temporal Diversity:
• Relates to the presence of di erent species, varieties, or traits that are adapted to
di erent seasons or time periods.
• Temporal diversity supports year-round food availability and extends the growing
season.
• Spatial Diversity:
• Refers to the arrangement of di erent crops, livestock, and habitats across a
landscape.
• Spatial diversity contributes to pest management, soil conservation, and
microclimate regulation.
• Cultural and Knowledge Diversity:
• Involves the traditional knowledge, practices, and cultural signi cance associated
with agricultural biodiversity.
• Cultural diversity contributes to the preservation of traditional farming methods,
local seed systems, and indigenous practices.
• Genetic Resource Diversity:
• Encompasses the range of genetic material stored in gene banks, seed banks, and
living collections.
• Genetic resource diversity supports plant breeding and conservation e orts.
• Intra-Speci c Diversity:
• Focuses on genetic variation within a single species.
• Intra-speci c diversity is essential for developing crop varieties with speci c traits
suited to di erent ecological conditions.
• Inter-Speci c Diversity:
• Relates to the interactions and relationships between di erent species within an
agro-ecosystem.
• Inter-speci c diversity promotes ecological balance, such as pollinator-plant
interactions and predator-prey relationships.
These dimensions collectively emphasize the complex and interconnected nature of agricultural
biodiversity. Recognizing and enhancing these dimensions is crucial for achieving sustainable and
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 resilient agricultural systems that can meet the challenges of a changing climate and growing
global population.

3. Discuss how climate change di er from weather change.

Answer:
Aspect Climate Change Weather Change
Time Scale Long-term (Decades to Centuries) Short-term (Minutes to Weeks)
De nition Long-term alterations in average Short-term variations in
weather patterns and conditions over atmospheric conditions at a
extended periods of time. speci c location and time.
Scope Global or Regional Localized or Regional
Factors Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Solar Temperature, Precipitation,
Involved Radiation, Ocean Circulation, Land Wind, Humidity, Atmospheric
Use Changes, etc. Pressure, etc.
Examples Gradual Increase in Average Daily Temperature Fluctuations,
Temperatures, Sea Level Rise, Glacier Rainstorms, Heatwaves, Cold
Melting. Snaps.
Impact Long-term shifts in ecosystems, sea- Short-term disruptions to daily
level rise, altered precipitation activities, agriculture,
patterns, shifts in plant and animal transportation, and
distributions. infrastructure.
Predictability Predicted through climate models Forecasted through short-term
and trends observed over extended weather predictions based on
periods. current atmospheric conditions.
Adaptation Requires long-term strategies and Short-term preparations for
policies to mitigate and adapt to immediate weather-related
changing conditions. events and conditions.
Mitigation Involves reducing greenhouse gas Focuses on preparing for
emissions, transitioning to renewable speci c weather events, such
energy sources, and sustainable land as storm shelters and ood
use. management.

4. Brie y describe the status of food security in Nepal

Answer: Nepal has made signi cant progress in improving food security, but challenges persist,
particularly in certain regions and among vulnerable populations. Here is a brief overview of the
status of food security in Nepal:
Progress and Achievements:
• Reduction in Hunger: Over the past few decades, Nepal has made considerable progress
in reducing hunger and malnutrition. The prevalence of undernourishment has decreased,
and the country has achieved improvements in key nutrition indicators.
• Agricultural Growth: Nepal's agriculture sector plays a vital role in food security,
employing a signi cant portion of the population and contributing to the country's economy.
E orts have been made to increase agricultural productivity, improve irrigation, and
introduce new technologies.
• Government Initiatives: The Government of Nepal has implemented various programs
and policies aimed at enhancing food security. These include targeted social safety net
programs, school feeding programs, and initiatives to promote commercial agriculture and
market access for smallholders.
Challenges and Concerns:
• Climate Vulnerability: Nepal is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change,
including erratic weather patterns, extreme events, and shifts in precipitation. These factors
can disrupt agricultural production and food availability.
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 • Geographical Constraints: The country's mountainous terrain poses challenges for
agriculture, limiting arable land and accessibility. This can a ect both production and
distribution of food.
• Nutrition and Dietary Diversity: While progress has been made in reducing
undernourishment, issues related to malnutrition and dietary diversity persist, particularly
among women and children. Access to diverse and nutritious foods remains a challenge for
many households.
• Rural-Urban Disparities: Disparities in food security exist between rural and urban areas.
Remote and marginalized communities often face di culties in accessing markets, services,
and diverse food sources.
• Post-Harvest Losses: Post-harvest losses due to inadequate storage facilities,
transportation challenges, and limited processing infrastructure can contribute to food
waste and impact food availability.
• Con ict and Political Instability: Political instability and con icts can disrupt agricultural
activities, hinder food distribution, and impact livelihoods.
• Market Access and Price Fluctuations: Limited access to markets, price uctuations,
and lack of value-added processing can a ect farmers' income and consumers' access to
a ordable and nutritious food.

5. Discuss on e ect of climate change in agriculture in Nepal

Answer: Climate change has signi cant e ects on agriculture in Nepal, impacting various aspects
of crop production, livelihoods, and food security. The country's geographical diversity, with its
mountains, hills, and plains, makes it particularly vulnerable to climate variability and change.
Some of the key e ects of climate change on agriculture in Nepal include:
• Altered Temperature and Growing Seasons:
• Warmer temperatures can lead to changes in the timing of planting, owering, and
harvest, a ecting crop yields and quality.
• Shortened growing seasons due to early warming and late frost can limit the
cultivation of certain crops.
• Erratic Rainfall Patterns:
• Irregular and unpredictable rainfall patterns can lead to droughts and water
scarcity, a ecting crop germination, growth, and overall productivity.
• Intense rainfall events and ash oods can cause soil erosion, landslides, and
damage to crops.
• Glacier Melting and Water Availability:
• Melting glaciers can lead to changes in water availability for irrigation, particularly in
the Himalayan region. Reduced glacier-fed streams impact both summer and winter
water supply.
• Pest and Disease Outbreaks:
• Warmer temperatures and altered humidity levels can create favorable conditions
for the proliferation of pests and diseases, damaging crops and reducing yields.
• Shifts in Agro-Ecological Zones:
• Changing climatic conditions may lead to shifts in the distribution of suitable agro-
ecological zones for certain crops. Farmers might need to adapt by changing their
cropping patterns or adopting new varieties.
• Livestock and Grazing Challenges:
• Changes in temperature and availability of water and forage can a ect livestock
health and productivity, leading to decreased meat and milk production.
• Reduced Food Security and Nutrition:
• Climate-induced crop failures and decreased agricultural productivity can lead to
reduced food availability and increased food prices, impacting food security and
nutrition, especially among vulnerable populations.
• Land Degradation and Soil Erosion:
• Increased intensity of rainfall and more frequent extreme weather events can
contribute to soil erosion, degradation, and loss of fertile topsoil.
• Loss of Biodiversity and Indigenous Knowledge:
• Changing conditions may lead to shifts in the distribution of plant and animal
species, a ecting agro-biodiversity and traditional knowledge of local farming
practices.
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 • Migration and Livelihood Changes:
• Climate-induced impacts on agriculture can lead to rural-to-urban migration as
farmers seek alternative livelihoods, impacting traditional farming communities and
local economies.
To address these challenges, Nepal has been implementing various adaptation strategies,
including:
• Promoting climate-resilient crop varieties and livestock breeds.
• Improving water management and irrigation systems.
• Encouraging agroforestry and soil conservation practices.
• Enhancing weather forecasting and early warning systems.
• Supporting community-based initiatives and knowledge-sharing.
It's important to note that the e ects of climate change in agriculture can vary by region, and local
context-speci c solutions are essential to build resilience and ensure sustainable agricultural
practices.

6. How can we improve water supply and water retention capacity in the water scarcity
zone?
Answer: Improving water supply and water retention capacity in water scarcity zones is crucial for
addressing water shortages and enhancing agricultural resilience. Here are some strategies that
can be employed:
• Rainwater Harvesting:
• Construct rainwater harvesting systems to capture and store rainwater for
agricultural and domestic use.
• Use rooftop catchment systems, surface ponds, and underground storage tanks to
collect rainwater.
• Check Dams and Gabions:
• Build check dams and gabions along riverbanks and streams to slow down water
ow and allow for better in ltration.
• These structures help in reducing erosion, recharging groundwater, and increasing
water availability.
• Terracing and Contour Farming:
• Implement terracing and contour farming techniques to reduce soil erosion and
enhance water retention on slopes.
• These practices help prevent runo and allow water to in ltrate into the soil.
• Watershed Management:
• Implement comprehensive watershed management plans to protect and restore
natural water sources.
• Reforesting and conserving upper catchment areas can increase water in ltration
and groundwater recharge.
• Farm Ponds and Reservoirs:
• Construct small-scale farm ponds and reservoirs to store water for irrigation and
livestock use.
• These structures capture excess runo during the rainy season for use during drier
periods.
• Micro Irrigation:
• Adopt e cient micro-irrigation systems such as drip irrigation and sprinklers to
minimize water wastage.
• These systems directly apply water to the root zone, reducing evaporation and
runo .
• Mulching and Soil Management:
• Apply organic mulch to the soil surface to conserve moisture and reduce
evaporation.
• Enhance soil structure and water-holding capacity through proper soil management
practices.
• Agroforestry and Perennial Crops:
• Integrate trees and perennial crops into farming systems to improve soil structure,
water in ltration, and retention.
• Trees can also contribute to increased humidity and microclimate regulation.
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 • Water-E cient Crops:
• Promote the cultivation of drought-tolerant and water-e cient crop varieties that
require less water for growth.
• Select crops that are well-suited to the local agro-climatic conditions.
• Community Participation and Awareness:
• Involve local communities in water management planning and encourage
responsible water use.
• Raise awareness about water conservation practices through education and
training.
• E ective Water Governance:
• Develop and implement water governance policies that ensure equitable
distribution and sustainable management of water resources.
• Strengthen water user associations and community management of water systems.
• Use of Modern Technologies:
• Employ remote sensing, GIS (Geographic Information Systems), and hydrological
modeling to assess water availability and plan interventions e ectively.
It's important to tailor these strategies to the speci c characteristics and needs of each water
scarcity zone, taking into consideration local hydrology, climate, and socio-economic factors.
Integrated and participatory approaches that involve local communities, government agencies,
NGOs, and experts are key to successfully improving water supply and retention capacity.

7. Discuss in brief about soil biodiversity. What are di erent possible ways to maintain soil
health?
Answer: Soil Biodiversity refers to the wide variety of living organisms that inhabit the soil
environment, including microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, protozoa), macroorganisms (earthworms,
insects), and plant roots. Soil biodiversity plays a crucial role in maintaining soil health and
ecosystem functioning, contributing to nutrient cycling, organic matter decomposition, pest and
disease control, and overall soil fertility.
Ways to Maintain Soil Health and Enhance Soil Biodiversity:
• Crop Rotation and Diversi cation:
• Planting di erent crops in a rotational sequence helps maintain soil fertility and
prevents the buildup of speci c pests and diseases.
• Diverse crop rotations promote a variety of root exudates, which support di erent
soil microorganisms.
• Cover Cropping:
• Planting cover crops between main crop cycles helps prevent soil erosion, adds
organic matter to the soil, and provides habitats for bene cial soil organisms.
• Leguminous cover crops also x nitrogen from the atmosphere, enhancing soil
fertility.
• Reduced Tillage and No-Till Farming:
• Minimizing or eliminating tillage reduces soil disturbance and preserves soil
structure, promoting the habitat of soil organisms.
• No-till systems help increase organic matter content, water retention, and soil
microbial activity.
• Organic Matter Management:
• Adding organic matter through composting, crop residues, and organic
amendments enhances microbial activity and nutrient availability.
• Soil organisms play a key role in breaking down organic matter, releasing nutrients
in forms accessible to plants.
• Integrated Pest Management (IPM):
• Adopting IPM practices reduces the use of synthetic pesticides, which can harm
soil biodiversity.
• Bene cial soil organisms, such as predatory insects and nematodes, contribute to
natural pest control.
• Mulching:
• Applying organic mulch to the soil surface helps retain moisture, regulate soil
temperature, and create a favorable environment for soil organisms.
• Mulch provides a protective cover and supports decomposer organisms.

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 • Agroforestry:
• Integrating trees and shrubs into agricultural systems improves soil structure, adds
organic matter, and provides habitats for diverse soil organisms.
• Tree roots enhance soil stability and microbial diversity.
• Proper Irrigation and Water Management:
• E cient irrigation practices prevent waterlogging and maintain adequate oxygen
levels in the soil, supporting aerobic soil organisms.
• Proper water management prevents soil compaction and erosion.
• Avoid Overgrazing:
• Implementing sustainable grazing practices prevents soil degradation and
compaction by allowing vegetation and root systems to recover.
• Healthy soil supports diverse microbial communities that contribute to nutrient
cycling.
• Minimize Chemical Inputs:
• Reduce the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides to prevent
adverse impacts on soil organisms.
• Organic and agroecological practices prioritize the use of natural inputs that
support soil biodiversity.
• Soil Conservation Practices:
• Implement erosion control measures such as contour bunding, terracing, and grass
strips to prevent soil erosion and loss of topsoil.
• Protecting the physical structure of the soil preserves habitat for soil organisms.
• Education and Awareness:
• Promote awareness among farmers and stakeholders about the importance of soil
biodiversity for sustainable agriculture.
• Encourage the adoption of practices that enhance soil health and support diverse
soil organisms.
Maintaining soil health through these practices not only supports soil biodiversity but also
enhances agricultural productivity, resilience to climate change, and long-term sustainability.

8. What are the possible causes of deforestation and what are the possible solutions to the
problem?
Answer: Causes of Deforestation:
• Agricultural Expansion: Clearing forests for agricultural activities, such as crop cultivation
and livestock grazing, is a major driver of deforestation.
• Logging and Timber Extraction: Unsustainable logging for timber and wood products
contributes to forest degradation and loss.
• Infrastructure Development: Construction of roads, highways, dams, and other
infrastructure projects can lead to deforestation by opening up previously inaccessible
forest areas.
• Mining and Extraction: Mining operations for minerals, oil, and gas can result in large-
scale forest clearance and ecosystem disruption.
• Urbanization: Rapid urban growth leads to the conversion of forested areas into urban
settlements, industrial zones, and commercial centers.
• Slash-and-Burn Agriculture: Traditional farming practices that involve cutting and
burning forests to clear land for cultivation can lead to widespread deforestation.
• Illegal Logging and Land Grabs: Unregulated and illegal activities, including logging, land
grabbing, and conversion for plantations, contribute to deforestation.
• Climate Change: Changing climate conditions, including increased temperatures and
altered precipitation patterns, can stress forests and make them more susceptible to pests,
diseases, and wild res.
•
Solutions to Deforestation:
• Sustainable Forest Management:
• Implement responsible logging practices that prioritize long-term forest health and
regeneration.
• Enforce strict regulations and certi cation schemes for sustainable timber
harvesting.
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 • Reforestation and A orestation:
• Establish tree plantations and restore degraded lands through reforestation and
a orestation programs.
• Plant native tree species that are ecologically suitable for the region.
• Protected Areas and Conservation Reserves:
• Designate and e ectively manage protected areas and conservation reserves to
safeguard critical forest ecosystems.
• Provide legal protection against encroachment and illegal activities.
• Community-Based Forest Management:
• Involve local communities in decision-making and management of forests,
empowering them to protect and sustainably utilize forest resources.
• Land Use Planning:
• Develop comprehensive land use plans that balance conservation with
development goals, ensuring sustainable land management practices.
• Reducing Consumption of Forest Products:
• Promote responsible consumption of wood and paper products, encouraging
recycling and reducing demand for unsustainable logging.
• Alternative Livelihoods:
• Provide communities with alternative income sources, such as eco-tourism,
agroforestry, and non-timber forest products, to reduce dependency on forest
clearance.
• Law Enforcement and Governance:
• Strengthen law enforcement e orts to combat illegal logging, land grabs, and
encroachments on forested areas.
• Improve governance and transparency in land tenure and forest management.
• Education and Awareness:
• Raise public awareness about the importance of forests for biodiversity, climate
regulation, and livelihoods.
• Educate communities about sustainable land use practices and the bene ts of
forest conservation.
• International Cooperation:
• Collaborate with neighboring countries to address transboundary deforestation and
promote regional conservation e orts.
Addressing deforestation requires a holistic and multi-faceted approach that involves
governments, local communities, NGOs, businesses, and international organizations. Sustainable
forest management, conservation e orts, and responsible consumption are key components of
e orts to combat deforestation and promote forest health.

9. Discuss in brief about national agro-biodiversity policy of Nepal.

Answer: Nepal has developed the "National Agro-Biodiversity Policy of Nepal" to address the
conservation and sustainable use of agro-biodiversity within the country. The policy aims to
promote the conservation of diverse crop varieties, livestock breeds, and traditional knowledge
associated with agriculture. Here are some key highlights of the policy:
Objectives:
• Conservation of Agro-Biodiversity: The policy aims to conserve and sustainably manage
the agro-biodiversity of Nepal, including crops, livestock, and associated traditional
knowledge.
• Promotion of Traditional Agriculture: It seeks to promote and support traditional and
indigenous farming practices that contribute to agro-biodiversity conservation.
• Enhancing Resilience: The policy focuses on building the resilience of agricultural
systems to climate change and other challenges through the preservation and use of
diverse genetic resources.
• Sustainable Use and Bene t Sharing: It emphasizes the sustainable use of agro-
biodiversity while ensuring equitable bene t sharing among farmers, communities, and other
stakeholders.
• Research and Development: The policy encourages research, documentation, and the
development of new technologies related to agro-biodiversity conservation and utilization.
Key Strategies:
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 • In Situ Conservation: Promoting the conservation of agro-biodiversity in its natural
environment, including on-farm and community-based conservation e orts.
• Ex Situ Conservation: Establishing gene banks, seed banks, and other facilities to
conserve agro-biodiversity outside its natural habitat.
• Promotion of Traditional Knowledge: Recognizing and promoting indigenous and local
knowledge related to agriculture and agro-biodiversity.
• Capacity Building: Enhancing the capacity of farmers, communities, and relevant
institutions in agro-biodiversity management and conservation.
• Policy Integration: Integrating agro-biodiversity considerations into relevant policies,
plans, and programs related to agriculture, environment, and rural development.
• Public Awareness and Education: Conducting public awareness campaigns and
educational programs to highlight the importance of agro-biodiversity and its conservation.
• Access and Bene t Sharing: Developing mechanisms for equitable sharing of bene ts
arising from the use of agro-biodiversity.
• Research and Innovation: Promoting research and innovation in agro-biodiversity
conservation, sustainable agriculture, and climate resilience.
Implementation and Partnerships:
The policy outlines the roles and responsibilities of various stakeholders, including government
agencies, research institutions, NGOs, communities, and the private sector, in implementing the
strategies and achieving the policy objectives.
Please note that developments in policies can occur over time, and there may have been updates
or changes to the National Agro-Biodiversity Policy of Nepal since my last update in September
2021. For the most current and detailed information, I recommend referring to o cial government
sources or relevant institutions in Nepal.

10. Discuss on di erent organizations involved in agro-biodiversity conservation and their

thematic areas.
Answer: Several organizations play a signi cant role in agro-biodiversity conservation, research,
and promotion across the globe. These organizations work on various thematic areas related to
agricultural biodiversity to address challenges such as genetic erosion, climate change, and food
security. Here are some notable organizations and their thematic areas in the eld of agro-
biodiversity conservation:
• Bioversity International:
• Thematic Areas: Crop diversity, genetic resources, climate change adaptation,
nutrition-sensitive agriculture, gender and biodiversity, policy and governance.
• Bioversity International focuses on research, conservation, and sustainable use of
agricultural biodiversity to improve livelihoods and food systems.
• International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI):
• Thematic Areas: Genetic resources conservation, crop diversity, sustainable
agriculture, participatory plant breeding, capacity building.
• IPGRI (now part of Bioversity International) works to enhance the conservation and
utilization of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture.
• Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO):
• Thematic Areas: Agro-biodiversity, genetic resources, sustainable agriculture,
farmer seed systems, climate change resilience.
• FAO provides technical assistance and policy support to member countries for the
conservation and sustainable use of genetic resources and agro-biodiversity.
• Local Community Organizations and Farmer Groups:
• Thematic Areas: On-farm conservation, traditional knowledge, community seed
banks, participatory plant breeding.
• Local community organizations and farmer groups play a vital role in preserving
traditional agricultural practices, crop varieties, and indigenous knowledge.
• Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR):
• Thematic Areas: Crop improvement, resilience, sustainable intensi cation,
climate-smart agriculture, seed systems.
• CGIAR research centers like the International Center for Agricultural Research in
the Dry Areas (ICARDA) and the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) work on
diverse aspects of agro-biodiversity.

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 • Global Crop Diversity Trust:
• Thematic Areas: Crop conservation, seed banking, crop wild relatives, funding for
genetic resource conservation.
• The Crop Trust supports the long-term conservation of crop diversity by funding
genebanks and facilitating collaboration.
• International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA):
• Thematic Areas: Access and bene t-sharing, farmers' rights, conservation and
sustainable use of plant genetic resources.
• ITPGRFA aims to ensure the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic
resources while recognizing farmers' contributions.
• Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs):
• Thematic Areas: Sustainable agriculture, organic farming, seed sovereignty,
community-based conservation.
• Numerous NGOs work at local, national, and international levels to promote agro-
biodiversity conservation through awareness campaigns, capacity building, and
advocacy.
• National Agricultural Research and Extension Systems (NARES):
• Thematic Areas: Crop improvement, breeding, varietal development, participatory
research.
• National research institutions collaborate on the development and dissemination of
improved crop varieties.
• Government Ministries and Agencies:
• Thematic Areas: Biodiversity conservation, agricultural policies, seed regulations,
climate resilience.
• Government agencies are often responsible for formulating policies and regulations
that support agro-biodiversity conservation and sustainable agriculture.
These organizations, among others, contribute to the conservation, utilization, and sustainable
management of agro-biodiversity to ensure food security, resilience, and the well-being of
communities around the world. Each organization plays a unique role in advancing speci c
aspects of agro-biodiversity conservation and related elds.

Several organizations in Nepal are actively involved in agro-biodiversity conservation, sustainable

agriculture, and related elds. These organizations work on various thematic areas to promote the
conservation and utilization of agricultural biodiversity and contribute to food security and rural
livelihoods. Here are some notable organizations in Nepal and their focus areas:
• National Agriculture Genetic Resources Centre (NAGRC):
• Thematic Areas: Conservation of plant genetic resources, collection and
preservation of local crop varieties, seed banks, genetic diversity assessment.
• Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research, and Development (LI-BIRD):
• Thematic Areas: Community-based agro-biodiversity management, seed banks,
participatory plant breeding, sustainable agriculture, climate resilience.
• Center for Indigenous Peoples' Research and Development (CIPRED):
• Thematic Areas: Indigenous knowledge, traditional seed systems, community-
based conservation, biodiversity documentation.
• Rural Reconstruction Nepal (RRN):
• Thematic Areas: Sustainable agriculture, organic farming, community seed banks,
capacity building for farmers.
• National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC):
• Thematic Areas: Biodiversity conservation, protected areas management,
conservation education, community-based conservation initiatives.
• Center for Agroecology and Development Studies (CADES):
• Thematic Areas: Agroecology, sustainable farming practices, farmer eld schools,
organic agriculture.
• Himalayan Permaculture Centre (HPC):
• Thematic Areas: Permaculture, agroforestry, sustainable land use practices,
training and capacity building.
• Federation of Community Forestry Users, Nepal (FECOFUN):
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 • Thematic Areas: Community forestry, agroforestry, sustainable resource
management, livelihood improvement.
• Local Farmer Organizations and Cooperatives:
• Thematic Areas: On-farm agro-biodiversity conservation, traditional seed
exchange, participatory plant breeding, sustainable farming.
• Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC):
• Thematic Areas: Crop research, breeding, varietal development, pest and disease
management, promotion of improved agricultural practices.
• Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development (MoALD):
• Thematic Areas: Formulation of agricultural policies, regulation of seed systems,
promotion of sustainable agriculture practices.
• Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs):
• Thematic Areas: Various NGOs in Nepal focus on di erent aspects of agro-
biodiversity conservation, organic farming, climate resilience, and community
engagement.
These organizations, along with governmental bodies and community-based groups, collectively
contribute to the conservation and sustainable use of agro-biodiversity in Nepal. Their e orts are
crucial for maintaining agricultural diversity, enhancing food security, and supporting the
livelihoods of rural communities.

11. What are di erent mitigation strategies to climate change?

Answer: Mitigation strategies aim to reduce or prevent the emission of greenhouse gases and
other factors that contribute to climate change. These strategies are essential for limiting global
warming and its adverse impacts. Here are di erent mitigation strategies to address climate
change:
• Transition to Renewable Energy:
• Increase the use of renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydroelectric,
and geothermal power to replace fossil fuels.
• Promote the deployment of clean energy technologies and improve energy
e ciency.
• Energy E ciency:
• Implement energy-e cient practices and technologies in industries, transportation,
buildings, and appliances to reduce energy consumption and emissions.
• A orestation and Reforestation:
• Plant trees and restore forests to capture and sequester carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.
• Enhance carbon sinks and biodiversity through reforestation and sustainable forest
management.
• Sustainable Land Use and Agriculture:
• Adopt sustainable agricultural practices that reduce emissions from livestock,
improve soil health, and minimize deforestation.
• Promote agroforestry, organic farming, and conservation tillage methods.
• Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+):
• Implement initiatives to prevent deforestation and reduce emissions from forest
degradation, providing nancial incentives for forest conservation.
• Enhanced Waste Management:
• Reduce methane emissions from land lls by improving waste management
practices, recycling, and composting.
• Low-Carbon Transportation:
• Promote electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles, public transportation, and non-
motorized modes of transport to reduce emissions from the transportation sector.
• Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS):
• Develop technologies to capture carbon dioxide emissions from industrial
processes and power plants and store them underground.
• Climate-Friendly Buildings and Infrastructure:
• Design and construct energy-e cient and climate-resilient buildings, using
sustainable materials and green construction techniques.
• Carbon Pricing:
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 • Implement carbon pricing mechanisms such as carbon taxes or emissions trading
systems to incentivize emissions reduction and support clean technologies.
• Adoption of Climate-Smart Technologies:
• Embrace technologies that enhance resilience and reduce emissions, such as
smart grids, e cient appliances, and climate-resilient infrastructure.
• Promotion of Circular Economy:
• Encourage circular economy models that minimize waste, promote recycling, and
reduce the environmental impact of production and consumption.
• Research and Innovation:
• Invest in research and development of innovative solutions for clean energy, carbon
removal, and sustainable practices.
• Behavioral Change and Public Awareness:
• Raise awareness and educate the public about the importance of reducing
emissions, promoting sustainable practices, and making environmentally conscious
choices.
• International Cooperation and Agreements:
• Collaborate globally through international agreements like the Paris Agreement to
set emission reduction targets and share best practices.
These mitigation strategies, when implemented collectively, can contribute to the global e ort to
mitigate climate change and create a more sustainable and resilient future.

2075
1. De ne Agricultural biodiversity. What are the di erent dimensions of agricultural
biodiversity?
Answer: Agricultural biodiversity refers to the variety and variability of plants, animals, and
microorganisms that are used directly or indirectly for food and agriculture. This diversity includes
the genetic, species, and ecosystem levels of biological organization and is crucial for the
sustainability and resilience of agricultural systems. It encompasses the wide range of crops,
livestock, and other organisms that contribute to agricultural production and support ecosystem
functions. Agricultural biodiversity is essential for ensuring food security, adapting to changing
environmental conditions, and maintaining the overall health of agricultural ecosystems.
There are three main dimensions of agricultural biodiversity:
• Genetic Diversity: This dimension refers to the variety of genetic material within individual
species of crops, livestock, and other organisms. Genetic diversity is important because it
allows for the adaptation of agricultural species to various environmental conditions and
changing challenges such as pests, diseases, and climate variations. It provides the raw
material for breeders to develop new and improved varieties that are better suited to
speci c conditions or desired traits.
• Species Diversity: Species diversity pertains to the number and variety of di erent
species within an agricultural ecosystem. It involves not only the crops and livestock directly
utilized for food production but also the various plants, animals, and microorganisms that
contribute to ecosystem services like pollination, nutrient cycling, and pest control.
Maintaining a diversity of species helps to enhance the overall stability and resilience of
agricultural systems.
• Ecosystem Diversity: Ecosystem diversity relates to the range of di erent habitats,
landscapes, and ecological interactions that exist within and around agricultural areas.
These ecosystems provide essential services like water puri cation, soil fertility, and climate
regulation. Maintaining ecosystem diversity helps support the health and productivity of
agricultural landscapes and contributes to the overall sustainability of food production.
In summary, agricultural biodiversity encompasses genetic diversity, species diversity, and
ecosystem diversity, all of which are interconnected and essential for the long-term health,
resilience, and sustainability of agricultural systems. Promoting and conserving agricultural
biodiversity is vital for addressing the challenges posed by climate change, increasing global
population, and ensuring the availability of nutritious and diverse food sources.
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 2. Give the brief history of Earth Climate System.
Answer: The Earth's climate system has undergone signi cant changes over millions of years.
Here's a brief overview of its history:
• Early Earth: The planet's climate system was initially shaped by geological and
astronomical factors. During its early history, Earth experienced extreme uctuations in
temperature due to volcanic activity, the composition of the atmosphere, and the positioning
of continents. The development of the rst simple life forms, such as cyanobacteria, also
began to in uence the composition of the atmosphere through processes like
photosynthesis.
• Ice Ages and Warm Periods: Over the past 2.4 billion years, the planet has witnessed
several ice ages (glacial periods) and warm periods (interglacial periods). These shifts in
climate were driven by complex interactions between geological processes, changes in the
Earth's orbit and tilt (Milankovitch cycles), atmospheric composition, and feedback
mechanisms.
• Paleozoic Era (541-252 million years ago): During this era, the planet experienced a
range of climatic conditions, including ice ages and warm periods. The presence of
extensive forests during the Carboniferous period contributed to the formation of coal
deposits as carbon dioxide was sequestered from the atmosphere.
• Mesozoic Era (252-66 million years ago): This era saw the breakup of the supercontinent
Pangaea and the development of more diverse ecosystems. The climate was generally
warmer, with greenhouse gas levels higher than today's. Dinosaurs roamed the Earth, and
sea levels were signi cantly higher.
• Cenozoic Era (66 million years ago - present): This era began with the extinction of the
dinosaurs and the rise of mammals. Around 34 million years ago, Earth transitioned into a
period of signi cant cooling, leading to the growth of ice sheets in Antarctica. The past few
million years have seen the repeated advance and retreat of ice sheets, resulting in several
ice ages.
• Human In uence: The most recent era, the Holocene, began around 11,700 years ago
and represents a relatively stable period of climate that allowed human civilizations to
ourish. However, since the Industrial Revolution (beginning in the late 18th century), human
activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, have signi cantly
increased the levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to rapid global
warming.
• Modern Climate Change: Over the past century, human activities have caused a rapid
and unprecedented increase in global temperatures. This has led to a wide range of
impacts, including melting ice, rising sea levels, more frequent and severe heatwaves,
changes in precipitation patterns, and disruptions to ecosystems.
It's important to note that our understanding of Earth's climate history is continually evolving as
scientists gather more data and re ne their models. The study of past climates helps us better
comprehend the complex interactions that have shaped the Earth's climate system and provides
crucial insights into the potential impacts of ongoing and future climate change.

3. De ne Climate change. Point out brief historical overview over climate change.
Answer: Climate Change De nition:
Climate change refers to long-term alterations in the Earth's average weather patterns and
temperature over an extended period, typically decades to millions of years. It encompasses both
natural variations in climate and changes resulting from human activities, particularly the emission
of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Human-induced climate change, driven primarily by
the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and other industrial processes, has led to global warming
and a range of environmental and societal impacts.
Brief Historical Overview of Climate Change:
• Early Earth: The climate system of the early Earth was in uenced by natural factors such
as volcanic activity, solar radiation variations, and the positioning of continents. The
atmosphere's composition gradually evolved through geological processes and the
emergence of early life forms.
• Medieval Warm Period (900-1300 AD): During this period, temperatures in parts of the
Northern Hemisphere were relatively warmer than the preceding and following centuries. It's
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 believed that changes in solar radiation and ocean circulation patterns contributed to this
warming.
• Little Ice Age (1300-1850 AD): This was a period of cooler temperatures, particularly in
the Northern Hemisphere. It resulted in glacier advances, colder winters, and changes in
agricultural practices. Multiple factors, including volcanic activity and solar variability, likely
played a role.
• Industrial Revolution (18th-19th centuries): The widespread use of coal, followed by
other fossil fuels, marked a signi cant shift in human activities and the emission of
greenhouse gases. This marked the beginning of the rapid increase in atmospheric carbon
dioxide (CO2) concentrations.
• 20th Century: The 20th century witnessed a pronounced increase in industrialization and
fossil fuel use, leading to accelerated emissions of greenhouse gases. This period also saw
the establishment of meteorological networks and the start of systematic climate data
collection.
• Late 20th Century-Present: The latter half of the 20th century saw a rapid rise in global
temperatures, attributed largely to human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. This
warming trend has been accompanied by melting glaciers, rising sea levels, more frequent
and intense heatwaves, altered precipitation patterns, and shifts in ecosystems.
• 21st Century: The impacts of climate change have become more pronounced, with an
increasing focus on understanding the potential consequences and implementing measures
to mitigate and adapt to changing conditions. International e orts, such as the Paris
Agreement, aim to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial
levels.
The historical overview highlights the interaction between natural climate variations and human
activities in shaping the Earth's climate system. The current concern revolves around the rapid
pace of warming driven by human actions, which is leading to signi cant environmental,
economic, and social challenges. Addressing climate change involves reducing greenhouse gas
emissions, transitioning to renewable energy sources, and implementing sustainable practices to
ensure a more stable and resilient future.

4. List out some climate induced disasters and discuss.

Answer: Climate-induced disasters are events that are exacerbated or triggered by changes in
climate patterns, often resulting in signi cant negative impacts on human societies, ecosystems,
and economies. Here are some examples of climate-induced disasters and their e ects:
• Heatwaves:
• Heatwaves are prolonged periods of excessively hot weather that can lead to
health-related issues such as heat stress, dehydration, and heat-related illnesses.
• Vulnerable populations, such as the elderly and those with pre-existing health
conditions, are at higher risk.
• Heatwaves can strain energy and water resources and have economic impacts on
agriculture and labor productivity.
• Droughts:
• Droughts occur when an area experiences abnormally low levels of precipitation
over an extended period, leading to water shortages and decreased soil moisture.
• Agriculture is particularly vulnerable, leading to crop failures, reduced yields, and
livestock losses.
• Water scarcity a ects drinking water supplies, hydropower generation, and
ecosystems.
• Floods:
• Intense rainfall or rapid snowmelt can lead to ooding, causing damage to homes,
infrastructure, and agricultural elds.
• Floods can result in displacement of populations, loss of life, destruction of
property, and contamination of water sources.
• Urban areas with inadequate drainage systems are especially susceptible.
• Hurricanes and Typhoons:
• These are powerful tropical storms that can cause widespread destruction through
high winds, heavy rainfall, storm surges, and ooding.
• Coastal communities are vulnerable to storm surges, which can lead to inundation
and erosion.

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 • The increased intensity of hurricanes due to climate change can exacerbate their
impacts.
• Wild res:
• Hotter and drier conditions can increase the likelihood of wild res, which can
devastate forests, grasslands, and homes.
• Wild res emit large amounts of smoke and particulate matter, leading to air quality
issues and respiratory problems.
• Loss of ecosystems, property damage, and impacts on tourism and recreation are
common consequences.
• Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs):
• Rising temperatures can lead to the rapid melting of glaciers, creating glacial lakes.
If the natural barriers holding back these lakes break, it can result in a sudden and
catastrophic ood downstream.
• These oods can lead to loss of life, infrastructure damage, and disruption of
livelihoods in mountainous regions.
• Sea-Level Rise and Coastal Erosion:
• Rising sea levels, driven by melting ice and the expansion of seawater due to
warming, can lead to coastal erosion and inundation of low-lying areas.
• Coastal communities and ecosystems are at risk, and relocation may become
necessary in some cases.
• Crop Failures and Food Insecurity:
• Changing climate patterns can disrupt growing seasons, reduce crop yields, and
lead to food scarcity.
• Vulnerable populations may su er from malnutrition and hunger, exacerbating
existing social and economic inequalities.
These climate-induced disasters underscore the urgency of addressing climate change and
implementing strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, build resilience, and adapt to
changing conditions. International cooperation, policy measures, and community-level e orts are
essential to mitigate the impacts of these disasters and protect human well-being and the
environment.

5. What are the possible approaches for climate resilient agriculture? Discuss on it.
Climate-resilient agriculture refers to practices and strategies that enable farming systems to
adapt to and withstand the challenges posed by climate change, while ensuring sustainable food
production, livelihoods, and ecosystem health. Here are some key approaches for climate-resilient
agriculture:
• Crop Diversity and Selection:
• Plant a diverse range of crop varieties that have di erent traits, such as drought
tolerance, disease resistance, and heat resilience.
• Utilize traditional and local crop varieties that have adapted to local conditions over
time.
• Invest in breeding programs to develop new crop varieties with enhanced resilience
to changing climate conditions.
• Agroforestry:
• Incorporate trees and shrubs into agricultural landscapes to provide shade,
windbreaks, and additional sources of income.
• Agroforestry systems can improve soil fertility, moisture retention, and biodiversity
while reducing vulnerability to extreme weather events.
• Conservation Agriculture:
• Practice minimal tillage to reduce soil disturbance, erosion, and carbon loss.
• Cover cropping and crop rotation help maintain soil structure, moisture levels, and
nutrient balance, enhancing resilience to climate variability.
• Water Management:
• Implement e cient irrigation techniques such as drip and sprinkler systems to
optimize water use and minimize water stress on crops.
• Develop water storage and management infrastructure to capture and store
rainwater for agricultural use during dry periods.
• Soil Health Enhancement:
• Apply organic matter, compost, and cover crops to improve soil structure, water
retention, and nutrient availability.

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 • Healthy soils are more resilient to extreme weather and contribute to better plant
growth.
• Integrated Pest Management (IPM):
• Implement IPM strategies that rely on biological control, resistant crop varieties,
and cultural practices to manage pests and diseases.
• Reduced chemical use helps protect bene cial insects, soil organisms, and water
quality.
• Climate-Resilient Livestock Systems:
• Select livestock breeds that are well-adapted to local climate conditions and are
heat-tolerant and disease-resistant.
• Provide proper shelter, nutrition, and health care to minimize livestock stress and
losses.
• Weather and Climate Information:
• Use weather forecasts and climate projections to make informed decisions on
planting, irrigation, and other farming activities.
• Early warning systems can help farmers prepare for extreme weather events.
• Crop Insurance and Risk Management:
• Introduce crop insurance and other risk management mechanisms to provide
nancial support to farmers in the event of crop losses due to extreme weather.
• Diversifying income sources, such as through non-farm activities, can also enhance
resilience.
• Capacity Building and Farmer Empowerment:
• Provide training and education to farmers on climate-resilient practices and
technologies.
• Encourage farmer participation and ownership in decision-making processes
related to agricultural development and climate adaptation.
• Ecosystem-Based Approaches:
• Preserve and restore natural ecosystems, such as wetlands and forests, that
provide essential ecosystem services for agriculture.
• Healthy ecosystems contribute to climate regulation, water puri cation, and pest
control.
• Policy and Institutional Support:
• Governments and international organizations can create supportive policies,
incentives, and nancing mechanisms to promote climate-resilient agriculture.
• Extension services and farmer cooperatives can play a vital role in disseminating
knowledge and facilitating the adoption of resilient practices.
Climate-resilient agriculture involves a combination of practices tailored to local conditions and
the speci c challenges posed by climate change. Integrating these approaches can help farmers
build resilience, reduce risks, and ensure sustainable food production in a changing climate.

6. What is Local innovation? How farmer's innovative practices help in conservation

activities?
Answer: Local Innovation refers to the creative and context-speci c solutions developed by
individuals, communities, or groups at the local level to address speci c challenges or needs.
These innovations often emerge from local knowledge, traditional practices, and an understanding
of the local environment and resources. Local innovation is driven by the practical expertise and
experiences of people who are directly a ected by the issues they are trying to solve.
Farmer's Innovative Practices in Conservation Activities:
Farmers play a crucial role in conservation activities through their innovative practices. These
practices are often grounded in their deep understanding of the land, crops, and ecosystems they
work with. Here's how farmer-led innovation contributes to conservation:
• Biodiversity Conservation:
• Farmers often maintain traditional crop varieties and livestock breeds that are well-
adapted to local conditions and have high genetic diversity.
• On-farm seed saving and sharing contribute to the preservation of diverse plant
genetic resources.
• Soil Health and Conservation:
• Farmers may implement agroecological practices such as cover cropping,
mulching, and minimal tillage to improve soil fertility and prevent erosion.
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 • Traditional knowledge of soil management, such as intercropping and crop rotation,
helps maintain soil health and structure.
• Water Management:
• Farmer-led innovations include rainwater harvesting, building check dams, and
constructing small-scale irrigation systems to manage water scarcity and improve
crop yields.
• Local knowledge of indigenous water management systems helps optimize water
use and minimize wastage.
• Pest and Disease Management:
• Farmers develop and share practices like companion planting, trap cropping, and
use of natural predators to control pests and diseases.
• Traditional methods of plant protection, such as herbal extracts and natural
deterrents, contribute to reduced chemical use.
• Agroforestry and Landscape Management:
• Farmers integrate trees and shrubs into their elds, contributing to biodiversity
conservation, carbon sequestration, and enhanced microclimates.
• Traditional knowledge of mixed cropping and agroforestry systems helps maintain
ecosystem balance and prevent soil degradation.
• Cultural and Indigenous Practices:
• Many farmer-led innovations are rooted in cultural and indigenous knowledge
systems that emphasize the importance of sustainable resource use and harmony
with nature.
• Traditional rituals and practices associated with planting and harvesting may
contribute to ecosystem health and resilience.
• Climate Adaptation:
• Farmers may adjust planting calendars, modify crop varieties, and adopt innovative
irrigation methods in response to changing climate patterns.
• Local practices like terracing and contour farming help manage water runo and
prevent soil erosion in hilly or sloped landscapes.
• Livestock Management:
• Traditional herding and grazing practices are often based on a deep understanding
of local ecosystems and contribute to sustainable rangeland management.
• Rotational grazing and mixed livestock-crop systems optimize resource use and
minimize overgrazing.
• Community Collaboration:
• Farmers often collaborate within their communities to share knowledge, exchange
seeds, and collectively manage natural resources.
• Collective action and community-led initiatives enhance conservation e orts on a
broader scale.
Farmer-led innovation is integral to sustainable agriculture and conservation. By building upon
traditional knowledge and adapting to changing circumstances, farmers contribute to the
preservation of biodiversity, ecosystems, and the overall resilience of agricultural systems.
Recognizing and supporting local innovations can help create more e ective and contextually
relevant conservation strategies.

7. How plant variety is protected under intellectual property rights? Explain its pros and
cons in agriculture.
Answer: Plant varieties can be protected under intellectual property rights (IPR) through a
specialized form of protection known as Plant Breeders' Rights (PBR) or Plant Variety Protection
(PVP). These rights grant breeders exclusive control over the commercial use of new plant
varieties they have developed. The aim is to incentivize plant breeding and innovation while
balancing the interests of breeders and the broader agricultural community. Here's an overview of
the pros and cons of plant variety protection in agriculture:
Pros of Plant Variety Protection:
• Incentive for Innovation: By providing legal protection to breeders' investments in
developing new and improved plant varieties, PVP encourages innovation and the
development of more resilient, higher-yielding, and disease-resistant crops.
• Increased Investment: Breeders are more likely to invest time, e ort, and resources in
developing new plant varieties if they have the assurance of exclusive rights to
commercialize and sell those varieties.

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 • Quality Improvement: PVP can lead to the development of higher-quality crops,
bene ting both producers and consumers. Improved varieties may have better taste, longer
shelf life, and enhanced nutritional value.
• Biodiversity Conservation: PVP can incentivize the conservation of traditional and rare
crop varieties that might otherwise be neglected or lost. Breeders may invest in breeding
programs to maintain and adapt these varieties.
• Technology Transfer: PVP can promote the transfer of new agricultural technologies and
knowledge between di erent regions and countries, contributing to global food security.
Cons of Plant Variety Protection:
• Restricted Access: Exclusive rights granted to breeders may limit farmers' ability to save
seeds from protected varieties for subsequent plantings. This can increase costs for
farmers, particularly in developing countries.
• Dependency on Breeders: Farmers' reliance on commercial seed sources for protected
varieties may reduce their control over their own seed supply, leading to increased
vulnerability.
• Biopiracy and Loss of Local Varieties: PVP may encourage the patenting of plant
varieties based on traditional knowledge without bene ting the communities that have
conserved and developed those varieties over generations.
• Restrictions on Research: Breeders may restrict researchers' access to protected
varieties for scienti c study and further improvement, potentially hindering agricultural
research and innovation.
• Higher Seed Prices: The cost of protected varieties can be higher due to the fees
associated with licensing and intellectual property rights, making access di cult for small-
scale farmers.
• Limitations on Crop Diversity: Commercial focus on a few protected varieties can lead to
a reduction in crop diversity as farmers shift away from locally adapted traditional varieties.
• Market Concentration: PVP can contribute to market concentration by favoring large
seed companies with the resources to develop and protect new varieties, potentially
reducing competition and choice for farmers.
Overall, the pros and cons of plant variety protection in agriculture highlight a complex balance
between encouraging innovation and ensuring equitable access to genetic resources for
sustainable food production. It is essential to carefully design and implement plant variety
protection systems that address the needs of both breeders and farmers, promote biodiversity
conservation, and safeguard food security for the global population.

8. What are the di erent approaches applied for climate change adaption and mitigation in
Nepal?
Answer: Nepal, a country highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to its
mountainous terrain and dependence on agriculture, has been implementing various approaches
for both climate change adaptation and mitigation. Here are some of the key approaches applied
in Nepal:
Climate Change Adaptation:
• Community-Based Adaptation (CBA): Nepal has focused on empowering local
communities to develop and implement adaptation strategies tailored to their speci c
needs. This includes projects like building climate-resilient infrastructure, water
management systems, and disaster preparedness plans.
• Ecosystem-Based Adaptation (EbA): Protecting and restoring ecosystems, such as
forests, wetlands, and watersheds, is a critical approach to enhancing resilience. This
involves initiatives like community forestry programs and watershed management to reduce
the impacts of oods and landslides.
• Climate-Resilient Agriculture: Promoting climate-resilient agricultural practices, such as
improved crop varieties, sustainable water management, and agroforestry, helps farmers
adapt to changing climate conditions and maintain food security.
• Early Warning Systems: Strengthening weather forecasting and early warning systems
helps communities prepare for extreme weather events, such as oods, landslides, and
droughts, reducing risks and enhancing resilience.
• Livelihood Diversi cation: Encouraging alternative income sources and livelihoods, such
as eco-tourism, non-farm activities, and value-added agro-processing, helps reduce
vulnerability to climate impacts on agriculture.
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 • Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR): Integrating climate change adaptation with disaster risk
reduction strategies helps enhance community resilience and response mechanisms to
natural disasters.
• Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Building infrastructure that can withstand climate-
related challenges, such as roads, bridges, and housing, is essential to minimizing damage
during extreme weather events.
Climate Change Mitigation:
• Renewable Energy Promotion: Nepal has been focusing on harnessing its abundant
hydropower potential, promoting solar energy, and encouraging the use of clean cooking
technologies to reduce reliance on fossil fuels.
• Improved Forest Management: Sustainable forest management and conservation e orts
contribute to carbon sequestration and mitigate deforestation, which is a signi cant
contributor to greenhouse gas emissions.
• A orestation and Reforestation: Planting trees and restoring degraded lands help
sequester carbon, enhance biodiversity, and improve ecosystem services.
• Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+): Nepal is
involved in REDD+ initiatives that provide incentives for maintaining forest carbon stocks
and reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation.
• Improved Waste Management: Implementing proper waste management practices,
including recycling and composting, reduces methane emissions from land lls.
• Climate-Smart Urban Planning: Designing cities and urban infrastructure to be energy-
e cient, compact, and accessible encourages low-carbon urban development.
• Policy and Institutional Frameworks: Nepal has developed policies, strategies, and
frameworks to mainstream climate change considerations into development plans and
sectoral policies.
These approaches illustrate Nepal's e orts to address the challenges posed by climate change
through a combination of local community involvement, sustainable resource management,
technological innovations, and policy integration. The country's commitment to both adaptation
and mitigation re ects its dedication to building a resilient and sustainable future in the face of a
changing climate.

9. List down the impacts of climate change identi ed by NAPA and discuss on it.
Answer: NAPA (National Adaptation Programme of Action) is a framework developed by the Least
Developed Countries (LDCs) to identify and prioritize the most urgent and immediate needs for
adapting to the impacts of climate change. In the context of Nepal, the NAPA process has
highlighted several impacts of climate change that are particularly signi cant for the country. Here
are some of the key impacts identi ed by Nepal's NAPA, along with a discussion of their
implications:
1. Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) and Glacier Retreat:
• Glacial melt in the Himalayas has led to the formation of potentially dangerous glacial lakes,
which can result in catastrophic outburst oods.
• Glacier retreat not only poses immediate ood risks but also threatens water availability
during dry seasons, impacting agriculture, hydropower, and water supply.
2. Erratic Rainfall and Droughts:
• Changing rainfall patterns have led to erratic and unpredictable precipitation, causing both
intense rainfall events and prolonged dry spells.
• Erratic rainfall and droughts have serious implications for agriculture, water resources, and
food security, as crop yields are a ected and water scarcity becomes more pronounced.
3. Increased Frequency and Intensity of Extreme Events:
• Nepal is susceptible to a range of extreme events, including oods, landslides, and storms,
which are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change.
• These events can cause loss of life, displacement, damage to infrastructure, and disruption
of livelihoods, particularly in vulnerable communities.
4. Land Degradation and Deserti cation:
• Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns contribute to soil erosion, degradation,
and deserti cation, particularly in hilly and mountainous areas.
• Land degradation threatens agricultural productivity and exacerbates water scarcity, further
challenging livelihoods and food security.
5. Loss of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services:
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 • Climate change impacts are causing shifts in ecosystems and altering the distribution of
plant and animal species.
• Loss of biodiversity reduces the availability of ecosystem services, such as pollination,
water regulation, and nutrient cycling, which are critical for agricultural productivity and
ecosystem health.
6. Increased Incidence of Waterborne Diseases:
• Rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns can lead to the proliferation of
waterborne diseases such as cholera and diarrheal diseases.
• Poor sanitation and lack of access to clean water exacerbate health risks, particularly in
rural communities.
7. Glacier Melt and Water Scarcity:
• The melting of glaciers in the Himalayas contributes to an increase in water availability
initially, but over time, reduced glacier melt will lead to water scarcity during the dry season.
• This impacts hydropower generation, agricultural irrigation, and overall water supply, with
implications for energy security and livelihoods.
The impacts identi ed by Nepal's NAPA highlight the urgent need for adaptation strategies that
enhance the resilience of vulnerable communities and ecosystems. These strategies may include
improving early warning systems for oods and landslides, promoting climate-resilient agriculture
and water management practices, restoring degraded landscapes, and strengthening community-
level adaptation and disaster preparedness e orts. Nepal's NAPA underscores the importance of
integrating climate change adaptation into development planning to ensure the country's
sustainable future in the face of a changing climate.

10. Point out economic and social value of agro-biodiversity.

Answer: Agro-biodiversity, which refers to the variety of plant and animal species utilized in
agriculture, provides signi cant economic and social value to societies. Here are some key
aspects of its economic and social importance:
Economic Value:
• Food Security and Nutrition: Agro-biodiversity contributes to a diverse and nutritious
diet, reducing dependency on a few staple crops. A wider range of crops and varieties
ensures a stable food supply, especially during periods of crop failure or price uctuations.
• Crop Resilience and Adaptation: Diverse crop varieties help mitigate the risks of pests,
diseases, and changing environmental conditions. If one crop variety is a ected, others may
still thrive, reducing the vulnerability of agriculture to external shocks.
• Genetic Resources for Crop Improvement: Agro-biodiversity serves as a valuable
genetic pool for developing new and improved crop varieties. These varieties can have traits
such as drought tolerance, disease resistance, and improved nutritional content.
• Livelihoods and Income Generation: Agro-biodiversity supports a wide range of
livelihoods, from smallholder farmers to local seed producers and traders. The cultivation,
management, and exchange of diverse crop varieties contribute to rural incomes.
• Ecosystem Services: Agro-biodiversity plays a crucial role in maintaining ecosystem
services such as pollination, soil fertility, and pest control. These services are essential for
sustainable and productive agriculture.
• Pharmaceuticals and Medicinal Plants: Many agricultural ecosystems contain valuable
medicinal plants and other bioactive compounds that can be used in pharmaceuticals,
traditional medicine, and cosmetic industries.
Social Value:
• Cultural Heritage and Traditional Knowledge: Agro-biodiversity is often intertwined with
cultural traditions, practices, and indigenous knowledge. It re ects the cultural identity of
communities and is an integral part of rituals, festivals, and traditional agricultural systems.
• Community Resilience and Empowerment: Agro-biodiversity provides communities with
the tools to adapt and respond to changing conditions. It enhances local resilience and
empowers communities to manage their own food systems.
• Social Cohesion and Cooperation: The preservation and exchange of diverse crop
varieties often involve cooperation and sharing within and among communities. This fosters
social cohesion and strengthens community bonds.

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 • Biodiversity Conservation: Agro-biodiversity contributes to the conservation of plant
genetic resources and supports the maintenance of diverse ecosystems. It helps conserve
threatened or locally adapted crop varieties.
• Climate Adaptation and Mitigation: Diverse crop varieties can help farmers adapt to
changing climate conditions by o ering a range of options to choose from. Additionally,
certain agro-biodiverse systems, such as agroforestry, contribute to carbon sequestration
and climate mitigation.
• Gender Equity: Women often play a central role in managing agro-biodiversity and seed
systems. Recognizing and valuing women's knowledge and contributions can promote
gender equity and social inclusion.
In summary, agro-biodiversity holds both economic and social value that extends beyond
immediate agricultural production. Its multifaceted bene ts contribute to food security,
livelihoods, culture, resilience, and environmental sustainability, making it a vital resource for
present and future generations.

11. Discuss on "Four Cell Diversity Analysis" and give its use with simple example.
Answer: "Four Cell Diversity Analysis" is a method used in ecology to analyze and quantify the
diversity of species across four di erent categories or cells, often based on a combination of two
ecological traits. This approach provides a more nuanced understanding of diversity patterns
compared to traditional diversity indices.
The four cells are created by combining two traits, each with two possible states (binary traits).
These traits can represent di erent ecological dimensions or characteristics of species. The goal
is to examine how species are distributed across these trait combinations and how the diversity
varies within each cell.
Four Cell Diversity Analysis in Agriculture:
In agriculture, the "Four Cell Diversity Analysis" is a method used to assess and understand the
diversity of crop varieties based on two speci c traits. By categorizing crop varieties into four
cells, each representing a unique combination of traits, this analysis provides insights into the
distribution and abundance of di erent types of crops within an agricultural system.
Example: Crop Diversity Analysis Based on Growth Habit and Nutritional Content:
Suppose researchers are studying crop diversity in a rural farming community. They are interested
in analyzing the diversity of vegetable crops based on two traits: growth habit and nutritional
content.
Growth Habit:
• Climbing (plants that grow vertically and require support)
• Non-Climbing (plants that grow without needing vertical support)
Nutritional Content:
• High Nutrient (crops that are rich in vitamins and minerals)
• Low Nutrient (crops that are relatively lower in vitamins and minerals)
Using these traits, the researchers categorize vegetable crops into the four cells:
• Climbing + High Nutrient: Vegetable crops that grow vertically and are rich in vitamins and
minerals.
• Climbing + Low Nutrient: Vegetable crops that grow vertically and have relatively lower
nutritional content.
• Non-Climbing + High Nutrient: Vegetable crops that do not require vertical support and are
rich in vitamins and minerals.
• Non-Climbing + Low Nutrient: Vegetable crops that do not require vertical support and
have relatively lower nutritional content.
Now, let's say the researchers conduct a survey of vegetable crops grown by local farmers and
record the presence of crop varieties in each of these cells. The resulting data might look like this:
• Climbing + High Nutrient: 5 varieties
• Climbing + Low Nutrient: 3 varieties
• Non-Climbing + High Nutrient: 8 varieties
• Non-Climbing + Low Nutrient: 6 varieties
Using the "Four Cell Diversity Analysis," the researchers calculate diversity indices for each cell
and compare the diversity patterns within and between cells. This analysis provides insights into
how di erent traits in uence crop diversity in the agricultural system.
For example, they might nd that non-climbing crops with high nutrient content are the most
diverse group, indicating a preference for crops that provide both nutritional value and ease of

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 cultivation. This information could guide agricultural extension services to promote the cultivation
of diverse, nutrient-rich crops among local farmers.
In summary, the "Four Cell Diversity Analysis" in agriculture is a structured method to examine
and interpret crop diversity patterns based on speci c traits. It o ers valuable insights for making
informed decisions about crop selection, cultivation practices, and strategies to enhance
agricultural diversity and sustainability.

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1. De ne Biodiversity. Point out different values of biological diversity.
Answer: Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms, ecosystems, and genetic diversity
found on Earth. It encompasses the diversity of species, their genetic variations, and the
ecosystems in which they interact and thrive. Biodiversity is a fundamental component of
the Earth's natural systems and plays a crucial role in maintaining ecological balance,
ecosystem services, and the overall health of the planet.
Di erent Values of Biological Diversity:
• Ecological Value:
• Biodiversity contributes to the stability and resilience of ecosystems, ensuring that
they can withstand and recover from disturbances such as natural disasters or
human activities.
• It supports various ecological processes, including nutrient cycling, pollination, and
decomposition, which are essential for maintaining healthy ecosystems.
• Economic Value:
• Biodiversity provides direct economic bene ts through various industries such as
agriculture, forestry, sheries, and pharmaceuticals.
• Many crops, including fruits, vegetables, and medicinal plants, are derived from
diverse genetic resources that contribute to food security and economic growth.
• Cultural and Aesthetic Value:
• Biodiversity is a source of cultural identity and heritage, often being integral to
indigenous knowledge, traditions, and spirituality.
• Natural landscapes, diverse ecosystems, and wildlife contribute to recreational and
aesthetic enjoyment, tourism, and art.
• Scienti c and Educational Value:
• Biodiversity provides a vast pool of scienti c knowledge for understanding
ecological relationships, evolutionary processes, and adaptation.
• It o ers opportunities for scienti c research and education, advancing our
understanding of life on Earth.
• Genetic Resource Value:
• Genetic diversity within species is a critical resource for crop breeding, disease
resistance, and the development of new agricultural varieties.
• It has potential applications in biotechnology and genetic engineering for improving
crops, medicines, and industrial processes.
• Ecosystem Services:
• Biodiversity underpins essential ecosystem services, such as clean air and water,
climate regulation, soil fertility, and natural pest control.
• These services directly bene t human well-being and contribute to sustainable
development.
• Medicinal and Pharmacological Value:
• Many plant and animal species provide valuable compounds that are used in
traditional medicine and the development of pharmaceutical drugs.
• Biodiversity is a potential source of novel drugs and therapies for various diseases.
• Regulation of Diseases:
• Biodiversity can in uence disease dynamics by regulating vector populations,
diluting disease agents, and maintaining ecological balance.
• Climate Change Mitigation:
• Biodiverse ecosystems, such as forests and wetlands, sequester carbon and
contribute to climate change mitigation by capturing and storing greenhouse gases.
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 • Resilience and Adaptation:
• Biodiversity enhances ecosystem resilience, providing options for adaptation to
changing environmental conditions and uncertain futures.
These values collectively highlight the importance of conserving and managing biodiversity for the
well-being of both humans and the planet. Biodiversity loss can have far-reaching and
interconnected consequences that a ect ecological, economic, social, and cultural aspects of our
world.

2. Discuss in brief on the status of biological diversity. Also discuss on the biodiversity hot
spots.
Answer: Status of Biological Diversity:
The status of biological diversity on Earth is a matter of concern due to ongoing trends of
biodiversity loss and habitat degradation. Human activities, including deforestation, habitat
destruction, pollution, overexploitation of resources, and climate change, have signi cantly
impacted ecosystems and species around the world. Some key points regarding the status of
biological diversity include:
• Species Extinction: The rate of species extinction is currently estimated to be much
higher than the natural background rate. Many species, including plants, animals, and
microorganisms, are at risk of disappearing forever.
• Habitat Loss and Degradation: Destruction and fragmentation of natural habitats, such
as forests, wetlands, and coral reefs, threaten the survival of many species. Urbanization,
agriculture, and infrastructure development contribute to habitat loss.
• Invasive Species: The introduction of non-native species to new habitats can disrupt local
ecosystems and outcompete native species, leading to population declines and extinction.
• Overexploitation: Unsustainable hunting, shing, and harvesting of species for trade,
consumption, and medicinal purposes have driven many species to the brink of extinction.
• Climate Change: Rising temperatures, sea level rise, and altered precipitation patterns
due to climate change are impacting ecosystems and species distribution. Many species
may struggle to adapt to rapidly changing conditions.
• Biodiversity Loss and Ecosystem Services: Biodiversity loss can lead to a decline in
ecosystem services such as pollination, water puri cation, carbon storage, and natural pest
control, a ecting human well-being and livelihoods.
Biodiversity Hotspots:
Biodiversity hotspots are regions that harbor an exceptionally high concentration of species,
many of which are found nowhere else on Earth. These areas are characterized by high levels of
endemism (species unique to that region) and are under signi cant threat from human activities.
Biodiversity hotspots are important conservation priorities due to their rich biological diversity and
vulnerability. Some well-known biodiversity hotspots include:
• Madagascar: This island nation in the Indian Ocean is renowned for its high levels of
species endemism, including lemurs, chameleons, and unique plant species. Habitat loss
and deforestation are major threats to its biodiversity.
• Eastern Himalayas: Stretching across Bhutan, Nepal, India, and parts of China, this
hotspot is home to iconic species such as the Bengal tiger, red panda, and various
rhinoceros species. Deforestation, poaching, and infrastructure development pose
signi cant challenges.
• Andes Mountains: The Andes hotspot runs through South America, housing a vast array
of species, including unique hummingbirds, orchids, and amphibians. Habitat destruction,
mining, and climate change are major threats.
• Atlantic Forest: This hotspot encompasses parts of Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina. It is
home to the golden lion tamarin and a multitude of amphibians, birds, and plants.
Agriculture, urbanization, and logging have led to extensive habitat loss.
• Cape Floristic Region: Located in South Africa, this hotspot is known for its diverse plant
species, many of which are adapted to unique re-prone ecosystems. Urban expansion and
agriculture are impacting its biodiversity.
Conservation e orts in these hotspots are critical to safeguarding unique species and preserving
Earth's biological heritage. Addressing the challenges facing biodiversity, both globally and within
hotspots, requires international cooperation, sustainable land management, protected area
establishment, and e orts to reduce the drivers of biodiversity loss.

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 3. How can we relate agro ecosystem as a complex system? Point of the importance of
biodiversity in agricultural ecosystems.
Answer: Relating Agro Ecosystem as a Complex System:
An agro ecosystem is a dynamic and complex system that involves the interaction of various
living organisms (crops, livestock, pests, bene cial insects, microorganisms) and their non-living
environment (soil, climate, water) within an agricultural setting. Just like other complex systems,
agro ecosystems exhibit characteristics such as emergence, feedback loops, non-linear
interactions, and sensitivity to initial conditions. Here's how an agro ecosystem can be related to a
complex system:
• Emergence: Agro ecosystems display emergent properties, where the interactions of
individual components give rise to collective behaviors that cannot be predicted by looking
at each component in isolation. For example, the emergence of pest outbreaks due to
complex interactions between pests, their natural enemies, and crop plants.
• Feedback Loops: Positive and negative feedback loops are common in agro ecosystems.
For instance, the presence of certain bene cial insects can lead to reduced pest
populations (negative feedback), while the removal of vegetation through herbivory can alter
nutrient cycling and soil health (positive feedback).
• Non-Linear Interactions: Small changes within an agro ecosystem can lead to
disproportionate and non-linear responses. Modifying irrigation practices, for example, may
have unexpected e ects on plant growth, soil moisture, and pest populations.
• Sensitivity to Initial Conditions: Agro ecosystems can be highly sensitive to initial
conditions and external factors. Minor changes in planting dates, for instance, can in uence
the entire cropping cycle and subsequent interactions within the ecosystem.
• Adaptation and Resilience: Agro ecosystems exhibit adaptive and resilient behaviors in
response to disturbances. Farmers often adjust their practices based on weather
conditions, pest outbreaks, and market demands, leading to shifts in the system's
dynamics.
Importance of Biodiversity in Agricultural Ecosystems:
Biodiversity plays a crucial role in maintaining the health, productivity, and sustainability of
agricultural ecosystems. Here's why biodiversity is important:
• Pest Regulation: Biodiversity provides natural pest control by promoting the presence of
predators, parasitoids, and bene cial insects that help keep pest populations in check. This
reduces the need for chemical pesticides.
• Pollination: Biodiversity, particularly diverse insect populations, ensures e ective
pollination of crops, leading to higher yields and better quality fruits and seeds.
• Soil Health and Fertility: Biodiversity contributes to nutrient cycling, organic matter
decomposition, and soil structure improvement, enhancing soil fertility and productivity.
• Resilience to Climate Change: Diverse agro ecosystems are more resilient to extreme
weather events, pests, and diseases, enabling farmers to adapt to changing climatic
conditions.
• Genetic Resources for Adaptation: Biodiversity provides a genetic pool for crop
improvement, allowing breeders to develop new varieties with traits such as drought
tolerance and disease resistance.
• Ecosystem Services: Biodiversity underpins various ecosystem services, including water
puri cation, air quality regulation, and carbon sequestration, which are vital for sustainable
agriculture.
• Genetic Diversity: Maintaining genetic diversity in crops and livestock helps reduce the
risk of crop failures and livestock diseases due to genetic vulnerabilities.
• Cultural and Aesthetic Value: Biodiversity contributes to cultural identity, traditional
knowledge, and aesthetic enjoyment within agricultural communities.
By recognizing agro ecosystems as complex systems and valuing biodiversity within them,
agricultural practices can be designed to work in harmony with natural processes, enhance
resilience, and ensure long-term food security and environmental sustainability.

4. Discuss in brief about history and development of agriculture in four di erent ages.
Answer: The history and development of agriculture can be categorized into four distinct ages,
each marked by signi cant advancements and changes in agricultural practices. These ages
provide insights into the evolution of human societies and their relationship with food production.
• Hunting and Gathering Age (Prehistoric Era):
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 • During this age, early human societies were nomadic and relied on hunting animals,
gathering wild plants, fruits, and nuts for sustenance.
• Agriculture began to emerge as humans started practicing small-scale cultivation
and selective breeding of plants around 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. This marked the
transition from hunting and gathering to more settled agricultural communities.
• Agricultural Revolution (Neolithic Age):
• Around 10,000 BCE, the Neolithic Age brought a signi cant shift as humans began
domesticating plants and animals.
• The cultivation of crops like wheat, barley, rice, and maize allowed people to settle
in one place, leading to the development of permanent settlements, the rise of
agriculture-based economies, and the formation of complex societies.
• The use of simple tools and techniques, such as plows and irrigation, improved
crop yields and productivity.
• Agrarian Age (Ancient to Medieval Times):
• This age saw further advancements in agricultural practices, including the use of
iron tools, improved crop rotation, and more e cient land management techniques.
• The development of agrarian civilizations, such as those in Mesopotamia, Egypt,
China, and the Indus Valley, was closely linked to agricultural productivity.
Innovations like terraced farming, water management, and crop diversi cation
contributed to increased food production.
• The expansion of trade routes facilitated the exchange of agricultural knowledge,
leading to the spread of crops and farming practices across regions.
• Modern Agricultural Revolution (Industrial Age to Present):
• The Industrial Age marked a signi cant shift in agriculture with the introduction of
mechanization, synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and advanced breeding techniques.
• The Green Revolution of the mid-20th century brought high-yielding crop varieties,
increased use of inputs, and modern farming methods, resulting in dramatic
increases in global food production.
• However, the modern agricultural revolution also raised concerns about
environmental sustainability, resource depletion, and the negative impacts of
intensive farming practices.
• Recent developments in agriculture focus on sustainable practices, precision
farming, organic agriculture, and agroecological approaches that seek to balance
productivity with environmental and social considerations.
These four ages illustrate the transformative journey of agriculture from its humble beginnings as a
means of subsistence to its pivotal role in shaping human societies, economies, and cultures.
While agricultural practices have evolved signi cantly over time, the challenges and opportunities
of feeding a growing global population sustain the ongoing innovation and development of
agriculture.

5. Give short account on the role of Vavilov in agro-biodiversity study.

Answer: Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov (1887–1943) was a prominent Russian botanist and geneticist
who made signi cant contributions to the study of agro-biodiversity and plant genetic resources.
His work laid the foundation for modern plant breeding, crop improvement, and the conservation
of genetic diversity. Here's a short account of his role in agro-biodiversity study:
• Collecting Plant Diversity: Vavilov embarked on numerous plant-collecting expeditions
across the world, from remote regions of the Soviet Union to other continents. He and his
colleagues collected and cataloged thousands of plant varieties, wild relatives, and crop
landraces. These collections formed the basis of one of the world's largest and most diverse
seed banks.
• Centers of Origin and Diversity: Vavilov proposed the concept of "centers of origin" and
"centers of diversity," identifying regions where speci c crops were rst domesticated and
regions with a high concentration of genetic diversity for certain crops. This insight was
instrumental in understanding the geographical distribution of agro-biodiversity.
• Crop Evolution and Domestication: Vavilov's studies of the morphological, genetic, and
ecological characteristics of crops and their wild relatives provided insights into the
processes of crop evolution and domestication. He emphasized the importance of
maintaining diverse genetic resources for breeding new and improved crop varieties.
• Theory of Crop Adaptation: Vavilov developed the theory of crop adaptation, which
highlighted the importance of preserving locally adapted landraces and traditional varieties.
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 He recognized that these varieties possessed valuable traits for coping with di erent
environmental conditions and pests.
• Conservation of Genetic Diversity: Vavilov advocated for the conservation of plant
genetic resources through the establishment of gene banks. He founded the Vavilov Institute
of Plant Industry in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg), which became a global center for crop
research and genetic conservation.
• Genetic Erosion Warning: Vavilov warned about the dangers of genetic erosion caused
by the replacement of diverse traditional varieties with a few high-yielding varieties. He
stressed that relying heavily on a narrow genetic base could make crops more vulnerable to
pests, diseases, and changing climatic conditions.
• Legacy and Impact: Vavilov's research and insights have had a lasting impact on the
elds of agriculture, botany, and genetic conservation. His work laid the groundwork for the
development of modern plant breeding techniques, the establishment of genetic resources
conservation programs, and the recognition of the importance of biodiversity in ensuring
food security.
Vavilov's vision and dedication to understanding and conserving plant genetic resources have
contributed signi cantly to the advancement of agro-biodiversity research and the development of
strategies for sustainable agriculture and food production.
6. Enlist di erent types of biological threats with example. Also give short accounts on the role of
climate change towards threats to biodiversity.
Answer: Di erent Types of Biological Threats with Examples:
• Habitat Loss and Degradation:
• Example: Deforestation for agriculture, logging, or urbanization destroys natural
habitats, leading to the decline of species dependent on those ecosystems.
• Invasive Species:
• Example: The introduction of non-native species like the Asian longhorn beetle in
North America can outcompete native species, disrupt ecosystems, and lead to
population declines.
• Pollution:
• Example: Chemical pollutants, such as pesticides and industrial waste, can
contaminate water bodies and soil, harming aquatic life and reducing biodiversity.
• Overexploitation:
• Example: Over shing of marine species, like the blue n tuna, can deplete
populations and disrupt marine ecosystems.
• Climate Change:
• Example: Rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns impact polar
bear populations by reducing sea ice, a ecting their ability to hunt for seals.
• Disease:
• Example: Chytrid fungus has caused amphibian declines worldwide, leading to
population crashes and extinctions.
• Habitat Fragmentation:
• Example: Roads and urban areas can fragment habitats, isolating populations and
limiting their ability to migrate or nd resources.
• Genetic Pollution:
• Example: Crossbreeding between genetically modi ed crops and wild relatives can
alter the genetic makeup of wild populations, potentially leading to loss of genetic
diversity.
Role of Climate Change towards Threats to Biodiversity:
Climate change exacerbates many existing threats to biodiversity and introduces new challenges:
• Habitat Loss: Changing climate conditions can lead to habitat shifts or loss, a ecting
species unable to adapt quickly or migrate to suitable areas.
• Invasive Species: Climate change may create more favorable conditions for invasive
species to establish and thrive in new areas, outcompeting native species.
• Disease Spread: Warmer temperatures can expand the geographic range of disease
vectors, leading to the introduction or increased prevalence of diseases that a ect wildlife
and plants.
• Extreme Weather Events: Increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events,
such as hurricanes and wild res, can directly damage habitats and disrupt ecosystems.
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 •Sea Level Rise: Rising sea levels can result in habitat loss for coastal species and disrupt
nesting sites for marine animals like sea turtles.
• Coral Bleaching: Elevated sea temperatures cause coral bleaching, damaging coral reefs
and a ecting marine biodiversity that relies on these ecosystems.
• Migration and Phenology: Climate change can alter migration patterns and timing of key
events (phenology), a ecting species interactions and food availability.
• Synergistic E ects: Climate change can interact with other threats, such as habitat loss,
to create compounded challenges for species already under stress.
Addressing the combined e ects of climate change and other biological threats requires
integrated conservation strategies that promote habitat preservation, restoration, sustainable
resource management, and global e orts to mitigate climate change through emissions reduction
and adaptation measures.

7. De ne climate change. How can we correlate population growth and carbon emissions
with climate changes?
Answer: Climate Change refers to long-term shifts and alterations in Earth's climatic conditions,
including changes in temperature, precipitation patterns, sea levels, and extreme weather events.
It is primarily driven by the accumulation of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), in the atmosphere due to human activities like the
burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes. These gases trap heat and lead to
global warming, which in turn has far-reaching impacts on ecosystems, weather patterns, sea
levels, and biodiversity.
Correlation between Population Growth and Carbon Emissions with Climate Change:
Population growth and carbon emissions are closely linked to climate change through the
following mechanisms:
• Increased Energy Demand: As the global population grows, there is an increased
demand for energy to power homes, transportation, industries, and agriculture. The majority
of the world's energy comes from fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas), which release signi cant
amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases when burned. Higher population
levels lead to greater energy consumption, resulting in higher carbon emissions.
• Industrialization and Urbanization: Rapid population growth often accompanies
industrialization and urbanization. Industrial processes, manufacturing, and urban
development are associated with substantial carbon emissions, driven by energy
consumption and infrastructure expansion.
• Consumption Patterns: Larger populations often lead to increased consumption of goods
and services, contributing to more production, transportation, and waste generation. Many
of these activities involve processes that release carbon emissions, such as manufacturing,
transportation, and waste disposal.
• Deforestation and Land Use: Expanding populations require more land for agriculture,
housing, and infrastructure. Deforestation to clear land for these purposes releases carbon
stored in trees and reduces the planet's capacity to absorb CO2, contributing to higher
atmospheric carbon levels.
• Agricultural Emissions: Growing populations necessitate increased food production.
Modern agricultural practices, including livestock production and the use of synthetic
fertilizers, generate methane and nitrous oxide emissions – potent greenhouse gases.
• Policy and Technological Factors: The choices societies make in response to population
growth can in uence carbon emissions. Government policies, technological advancements,
and shifts toward renewable energy sources can mitigate the impact of increased population
on carbon emissions.
It's important to note that while population growth is a contributing factor to carbon emissions
and climate change, the impact of each individual's carbon footprint can vary signi cantly based
on consumption patterns, lifestyle, and resource use. Addressing the relationship between
population growth, carbon emissions, and climate change requires a comprehensive approach
that includes sustainable energy production, conservation measures, emission reduction
strategies, and global cooperation to mitigate the impacts of a changing climate.

8. What are di erent six major theme pointed out by NAPA on climate change impact in
Nepal? Also discuss on economic impact of climate change.
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 Answer: The National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) for Climate Change in Nepal
identi es six major thematic areas that highlight the potential impacts of climate change on
various sectors in the country. These thematic areas provide a comprehensive framework for
understanding and addressing the challenges posed by climate change:
• Agriculture and Food Security:
• Climate Change Impact: Changes in temperature, precipitation, and growing
seasons can a ect crop yields, reduce agricultural productivity, and threaten food
security.
• Potential Consequences: Decreased agricultural production, increased vulnerability
to pests and diseases, and reduced livelihood opportunities for farmers.
• Water Resources and Energy:
• Climate Change Impact: Altered precipitation patterns and melting glaciers can
impact water availability for irrigation, hydropower, and domestic use.
• Potential Consequences: Decreased water supply for agriculture and energy
generation, increased competition for water resources, and reduced hydropower
output.
• Ecosystems and Biodiversity:
• Climate Change Impact: Changes in temperature and precipitation can disrupt
ecosystems, a ect biodiversity, and impact species' habitats.
• Potential Consequences: Loss of biodiversity, shifts in species distribution, and
disruptions to ecosystem services such as pollination and natural pest control.
• Health and Sanitation:
• Climate Change Impact: Increased temperatures and changing weather patterns
can in uence the spread of vector-borne diseases and impact public health.
• Potential Consequences: Increased incidences of diseases like malaria and
dengue, reduced access to clean water and sanitation facilities, and heightened
health risks for vulnerable populations.
• Infrastructure, Settlements, and Human Settlements:
• Climate Change Impact: Extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and landslides can
damage infrastructure, settlements, and human habitats.
• Potential Consequences: Increased vulnerability of communities to disasters,
damage to infrastructure, and displacement of populations.
• Climate-Induced Disasters:
• Climate Change Impact: More frequent and intense natural disasters such as
oods, landslides, and droughts can result from changing climate patterns.
• Potential Consequences: Loss of lives and livelihoods, destruction of infrastructure,
and increased economic and social vulnerabilities.
Economic Impact of Climate Change:
Climate change has signi cant economic implications for countries like Nepal:
• Agricultural Productivity: Reduced crop yields and decreased agricultural productivity
can lead to food shortages, impacting food prices and increasing economic instability.
• Hydropower Generation: Changes in water availability and hydropower output can
disrupt energy production, leading to energy shortages and economic losses.
• Tourism: Climate change can a ect tourism-dependent economies through impacts on
natural attractions, such as glaciers and biodiversity, leading to reduced tourist in ow and
revenue.
• Disaster Costs: Increased frequency and severity of climate-related disasters result in
higher disaster management and recovery costs, diverting resources from development
initiatives.
• Healthcare Expenditure: Climate-induced health impacts increase healthcare costs due
to the treatment and prevention of diseases, potentially straining healthcare systems.
• Infrastructure Damage: Climate-related extreme weather events can damage
infrastructure, leading to repair and reconstruction costs that strain public nances.
• Livelihoods: Climate impacts on agriculture, water resources, and ecosystems can a ect
livelihoods, particularly for vulnerable communities dependent on natural resources.
Addressing the economic impact of climate change requires investing in climate-resilient
infrastructure, sustainable agricultural practices, disaster risk reduction, and adaptive measures
across various sectors. It also underscores the importance of global e orts to mitigate climate
change through emissions reduction and international cooperation.
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 9. De ne on-farm conservation. How four cell diversity analysis tools is used for analyzing
the status of agro-biodiversity in village.
Answer: On-Farm Conservation refers to the practice of conserving and maintaining agricultural
biodiversity within its natural environment, which is the farm itself. This approach involves
preserving traditional crop varieties, landraces, and animal breeds that have adapted to local
conditions over generations. On-farm conservation recognizes the importance of farmers'
knowledge, practices, and interactions with their environment in safeguarding genetic diversity
and ensuring food security.
Four Cell Diversity Analysis is a tool used to analyze the status of agro-biodiversity in a village or
agricultural system. It involves categorizing crop varieties or species based on two selected traits
or criteria, creating four cells that represent di erent combinations of these traits. This analysis
provides insights into the distribution and diversity of agro-biodiversity within the studied system.
Here's how it can be used to assess agro-biodiversity in a village:
• Trait Selection: Choose two relevant traits that re ect important characteristics of the
crop varieties or species in the village. For example, traits could be growth habit (climbing
vs. non-climbing) and yield type (high yield vs. low yield).
• Data Collection: Survey the agricultural elds in the village and record the presence of
di erent crop varieties or species based on the selected traits. Compile data on the number
of varieties in each cell of the four-cell grid.
• Categorization: Place each crop variety or species in the appropriate cell of the four-cell
grid based on its trait combination. This categorization results in four cells representing
di erent trait combinations.
• Diversity Analysis: Calculate diversity indices (e.g., species richness, Shannon diversity,
or Simpson's diversity) for each cell. These indices provide quantitative measures of
diversity within each category.
• Interpretation: Analyze the results to understand the distribution and abundance of
di erent crop varieties or species based on the selected traits. Identify trends, patterns, and
potential gaps in agro-biodiversity.
• Implications and Recommendations: Based on the analysis, derive insights into the
status of agro-biodiversity in the village. Consider the implications for food security,
resilience, and adaptation. Develop recommendations for promoting diverse crop cultivation
and conservation strategies.
For example, using the four cell diversity analysis in a village context, you might nd that non-
climbing varieties with high yields are the most diverse group, indicating their importance for local
food production. This analysis can guide e orts to promote the cultivation and conservation of
diverse crop varieties, encourage farmers to maintain traditional practices, and inform policy
decisions aimed at enhancing agro-biodiversity and sustainable agriculture.

10. Write short notes on:

a. CBD
b. farmer's right

Answer: a. CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity):

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international treaty established in 1992 at the
Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Its primary goal is to promote the conservation of
biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of
bene ts arising from the utilization of genetic resources. The CBD recognizes the vital role of
biodiversity in maintaining ecological balance, supporting human well-being, and contributing to
sustainable development. Key features of the CBD include:
• Three Objectives: The CBD has three main objectives: conservation of biodiversity,
sustainable use of biodiversity, and fair and equitable sharing of the bene ts arising from
genetic resources.
• Parties and Implementation: The CBD has been rati ed by nearly all countries, making
them Parties to the Convention. Parties implement the CBD through national strategies,
laws, and policies.
• Access and Bene t-Sharing (ABS): The CBD's Nagoya Protocol, a supplementary
agreement, focuses on access to genetic resources and the fair and equitable sharing of
bene ts arising from their utilization. It aims to ensure that countries and communities
providing genetic resources are compensated for their contributions.
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 • Aichi Biodiversity Targets: The CBD set a series of targets, known as the Aichi Biodiversity
Targets, to guide global biodiversity conservation e orts by 2020. These targets address
various aspects of biodiversity conservation, sustainable use, and bene t-sharing.
• COP Meetings: The CBD holds Conference of the Parties (COP) meetings where Parties
discuss progress, negotiate agreements, and make decisions related to biodiversity
conservation and sustainable use.
b. Farmer's Right:
Farmer's rights refer to the rights of traditional farmers to save, use, exchange, and sell seeds and
other propagating materials of the plant varieties they have developed and cultivated over
generations. These rights recognize the critical role that farmers play in conserving and enhancing
agricultural biodiversity. Key points about farmer's rights include:
• Role of Traditional Knowledge: Farmer's rights acknowledge the importance of traditional
knowledge and practices in agriculture, particularly in maintaining and adapting crops to
local conditions.
• Safeguarding Biodiversity: By allowing farmers to continue saving and using seeds from
their own crops, farmer's rights contribute to the conservation of agricultural biodiversity.
• Genetic Resource Management: Farmer's rights are linked to the broader management of
genetic resources and the promotion of sustainable agriculture.
• Equitable Bene t-Sharing: Recognizing the contribution of farmers to the development of
plant genetic resources, farmer's rights also connect with the principle of fair and equitable
bene t-sharing, as highlighted in agreements like the CBD's Nagoya Protocol.
• Policy and Legal Frameworks: Many countries are working to establish legal frameworks
that recognize and protect farmer's rights, including ensuring their participation in decision-
making processes related to agricultural policies and regulations.
Overall, farmer's rights aim to empower traditional farmers, support local food systems, and
ensure the continued availability of diverse and resilient crop varieties.

11. What are di erent steps for strengthening value chains of agro-biodiversity products?
Also discuss on role of geographical indications of origin and niche markets on agro-
biodiversity conservation.
Answer: Steps for Strengthening Value Chains of Agro-Biodiversity Products:
Strengthening the value chains of agro-biodiversity products involves enhancing the production,
processing, marketing, and distribution of these products while ensuring the conservation of
agricultural biodiversity. Here are the steps to achieve this:
• Assessment and Selection of Products:
• Identify agro-biodiversity products with unique qualities, cultural signi cance, and
market potential.
• Prioritize products that align with local traditions, consumer preferences, and
sustainable production practices.
• Capacity Building:
• Provide training and technical assistance to farmers and producers on sustainable
farming methods, quality standards, and post-harvest handling.
• Enhance knowledge about agro-biodiversity conservation, traditional practices,
and value addition.
• Improving Production Practices:
• Implement eco-friendly and organic farming practices to maintain biodiversity and
soil health.
• Promote crop diversi cation and rotation to enhance resilience against pests and
diseases.
• Value Addition and Processing:
• Develop processing techniques to enhance the quality, shelf-life, and marketability
of agro-biodiversity products.
• Explore ways to add value through packaging, branding, and product
di erentiation.
• Market Access and Linkages:
• Establish partnerships between producers, processors, traders, and retailers to
facilitate market access.
• Develop local and regional networks to connect producers with consumers and
niche markets.
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 • Quality Standards and Certi cation:
• Ensure adherence to quality standards and certi cations to build consumer trust
and access premium markets.
• Promote organic, fair trade, and other certi cations that align with agro-biodiversity
values.
• Market Promotion and Awareness:
• Conduct marketing campaigns, workshops, and events to raise awareness about
agro-biodiversity products and their cultural signi cance.
• Highlight the unique characteristics and bene ts of these products to attract
consumers.
• Policy Support and Enabling Environment:
• Advocate for policies that support agro-biodiversity conservation, sustainable
agriculture, and fair trade.
• Establish regulatory frameworks that recognize and protect traditional knowledge
and intellectual property related to agro-biodiversity.
Role of Geographical Indications of Origin (GIs) and Niche Markets:
• Geographical Indications of Origin (GIs):
• GIs are labels that identify a product's origin and link its quality or reputation to a
speci c geographical location.
• GIs can protect traditional knowledge, preserve cultural heritage, and contribute to
agro-biodiversity conservation by incentivizing producers to maintain unique traits
associated with speci c regions.
• GIs can provide economic bene ts to local communities and encourage
sustainable production practices.
• Niche Markets:
• Niche markets focus on unique and specialized products, often with distinct
attributes, cultural signi cance, or sustainable production methods.
• Agro-biodiversity products can nd a niche market among consumers who value
diversity, authenticity, and cultural heritage.
• Niche markets allow producers to command premium prices, enhancing their
livelihoods and encouraging the conservation of traditional varieties.
By strengthening value chains, utilizing geographical indications, and targeting niche markets,
agro-biodiversity products can gain recognition, economic value, and support for their
conservation, contributing to the overall sustainability of agricultural systems.

2078
1. De ne Biodiversity. Discuss in brief about the possible extinction crisis estimate.
Answer: Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms on Earth, encompassing the diversity of
species, genetic diversity within those species, and the diversity of ecosystems and their
interactions. Biodiversity includes the millions of species of plants, animals, fungi, and
microorganisms, the genetic variation within these species, and the intricate web of interactions
that exist among them.
Possible Extinction Crisis Estimate:
The ongoing loss of biodiversity and the potential for a global extinction crisis are major concerns
in the eld of conservation. While it is di cult to provide precise estimates of future extinctions,
scientists have used various methods to assess the rate of species loss and predict the potential
impacts on ecosystems. Some key points related to the possible extinction crisis estimate
include:
• Background Extinction Rate: The "background" or "normal" rate of extinction is the
natural rate at which species go extinct over long periods of time, typically measured in
extinctions per million species per year.
• Current Extinction Rates: The current rate of species extinction is estimated to be
signi cantly higher than the background extinction rate. Human activities, such as habitat
destruction, pollution, overexploitation, and climate change, have accelerated the loss of
biodiversity.
• Mass Extinction Events: Throughout Earth's history, there have been several mass
extinction events where a large percentage of species disappeared over a relatively short
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 period. The most well-known is the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) extinction event that
wiped out the non-avian dinosaurs.
• Anthropocene Extinction: Some scientists argue that we are currently experiencing a
"sixth mass extinction" or "Anthropocene extinction" due to the rapid and widespread loss
of species caused by human activities. The rate of species loss during this period is
estimated to be tens to hundreds of times higher than the background rate.
• Species Red List: The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) maintains the
Red List of Threatened Species, which assesses the conservation status of various species.
A signi cant proportion of evaluated species are listed as threatened or endangered,
indicating their vulnerability to extinction.
• Estimates of Future Extinctions: Predicting the exact number of future extinctions is
complex and uncertain. Estimates vary widely depending on factors such as habitat loss,
climate change, and conservation e orts. Some estimates suggest that up to one-third of
species could be at risk of extinction by 2070 if current trends continue.
• Implications: The loss of biodiversity has far-reaching ecological, economic, and societal
implications. It can disrupt ecosystem services, a ect food security, and undermine the
stability and resilience of ecosystems.
E orts to address the possible extinction crisis involve conservation actions, habitat protection,
sustainable resource management, and global cooperation to mitigate the drivers of biodiversity
loss. Urgent action is needed to preserve the incredible diversity of life on Earth and ensure the
health and well-being of both ecosystems and human societies.

2. What is di erence between alpha, beta and gamma diversity? Give with examples.
Answer: Certainly, here's a table summarizing the di erentiation between alpha, beta, and gamma
diversity:
Aspect Alpha Diversity Beta Diversity Gamma Diversity
Scale Local scale within a Comparative, between Regional or
speci c habitat or di erent habitats or landscape scale,
ecosystem. locations. encompassing
multiple habitats.
Focus Diversity of species Comparison of species Total diversity of
within a single composition between species across a
community. habitats. larger geographic
region.
Measurement Species richness Turnover and Integration of local
and evenness replacement of alpha diversity and
within a habitat. species between sites. species turnover
(beta).
Ecological Re ects local Indicates species Reveals broad-scale
Processes interactions, turnover due to varying ecological and
competition, conditions. evolutionary
coexistence. patterns.
In uencing Habitat Habitat heterogeneity, Historical events,
Factors characteristics, geographical distance, dispersal limitations,
resource environmental geographical
availability, species gradients. barriers.
interactions.
Example Counting tree Comparing bird Summing reptile
species in a forest species in coastal and species across
patch. grassland habitats. di erent
ecosystems in a
park.
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 This table provides a concise overview of the key distinctions between alpha, beta, and gamma
diversity in terms of their scale, focus, measurement, ecological implications, in uencing factors,
and examples.

3. Discuss in detail about di erent ecosystem services functions with example.

Answer: Ecosystem services are the bene ts that humans derive from natural ecosystems,
ranging from the provision of goods and resources to the regulation of environmental processes
and cultural and aesthetic enjoyment. There are four main categories of ecosystem services, each
with speci c functions and examples:
• Provisioning Services:
• These services involve the direct provision of goods and resources that humans use and
consume.
a. Food: Ecosystems provide a wide variety of food resources, including crops, sh, game
animals, and wild fruits. For example, agricultural elds produce staple crops like rice and
wheat, while oceans yield seafood like sh and shell sh.
b. Water: Ecosystems play a vital role in regulating water availability. Wetlands and forests,
for instance, contribute to water puri cation, groundwater recharge, and the supply of
freshwater for drinking and irrigation.
c. Timber and Fiber: Forests and woodlands supply timber for construction, furniture, and
paper production. Plantations of fast-growing trees can provide ber for various products.
d. Fuel and Energy: Ecosystems contribute to energy resources through the production of
biomass (e.g., rewood), peat, and even biofuels derived from plants.
e. Medicinal Resources: Many plants and organisms in ecosystems contain compounds
with medicinal properties. Traditional medicine often relies on these resources. For instance,
the Madagascar periwinkle plant has yielded drugs used to treat cancer.
• Regulating Services:
• These services involve the regulation and maintenance of essential environmental
processes.
a. Climate Regulation: Forests and oceans absorb and store carbon dioxide, helping to
regulate the global climate by mitigating the impacts of greenhouse gas emissions.
b. Water Regulation: Wetlands and vegetation help regulate water ow, prevent ooding,
and enhance water puri cation by ltering pollutants.
c. Pollination: Insects, birds, and other animals facilitate pollination, which is essential for
the reproduction of many crops and owering plants.
d. Disease Regulation: Natural ecosystems can help regulate disease vectors by
controlling their populations. Bats, for example, consume large numbers of insects that may
carry diseases.
e. Water Puri cation: Wetlands, forests, and riparian areas act as natural lters, removing
pollutants from water and improving water quality.
• Supporting Services:
• These services are essential for the production of other ecosystem services and human
activities.
a. Soil Formation: Ecosystems contribute to the development and maintenance of soil
through processes like weathering and organic matter decomposition.
b. Nutrient Cycling: Organisms in ecosystems help recycle nutrients, such as nitrogen and
phosphorus, maintaining soil fertility and supporting plant growth.
c. Biodiversity: Biodiverse ecosystems provide genetic resources, resilience against
disturbances, and the potential for new medicines and technologies.
d. Primary Production: Plants and algae perform photosynthesis, converting sunlight into
energy and forming the foundation of food chains and ecosystems.
• Cultural Services:
• These services include the non-material bene ts that humans derive from ecosystems.
a. Recreation and Tourism: Natural areas provide opportunities for outdoor activities,
tourism, and relaxation, contributing to physical and mental well-being.
b. Aesthetic and Spiritual Values: Ecosystems have cultural and aesthetic signi cance,
inspiring art, literature, and spiritual practices.
c. Educational and Scienti c Value: Ecosystems serve as natural laboratories, o ering
opportunities for research and education in elds such as ecology and biology.
d. Cultural Heritage: Indigenous and local communities often have deep cultural
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 connections to speci c ecosystems, which hold important historical and spiritual
signi cance.
Ecosystem services play a crucial role in supporting human well-being and economic
development. Recognizing and valuing these services is essential for sustainable resource
management and conservation e orts.

4. Discuss in brief about the history of agriculture.

Answer:
The history and development of agriculture can be categorized into four distinct ages, each
marked by signi cant advancements and changes in agricultural practices. These ages provide
insights into the evolution of human societies and their relationship with food production.
• Hunting and Gathering Age (Prehistoric Era):
• During this age, early human societies were nomadic and relied on hunting animals,
gathering wild plants, fruits, and nuts for sustenance.
• Agriculture began to emerge as humans started practicing small-scale cultivation
and selective breeding of plants around 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. This marked the
transition from hunting and gathering to more settled agricultural communities.
• Agricultural Revolution (Neolithic Age):
• Around 10,000 BCE, the Neolithic Age brought a signi cant shift as humans began
domesticating plants and animals.
• The cultivation of crops like wheat, barley, rice, and maize allowed people to settle
in one place, leading to the development of permanent settlements, the rise of
agriculture-based economies, and the formation of complex societies.
• The use of simple tools and techniques, such as plows and irrigation, improved
crop yields and productivity.
• Agrarian Age (Ancient to Medieval Times):
• This age saw further advancements in agricultural practices, including the use of
iron tools, improved crop rotation, and more e cient land management techniques.
• The development of agrarian civilizations, such as those in Mesopotamia, Egypt,
China, and the Indus Valley, was closely linked to agricultural productivity.
Innovations like terraced farming, water management, and crop diversi cation
contributed to increased food production.
• The expansion of trade routes facilitated the exchange of agricultural knowledge,
leading to the spread of crops and farming practices across regions.
• Modern Agricultural Revolution (Industrial Age to Present):
• The Industrial Age marked a signi cant shift in agriculture with the introduction of
mechanization, synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and advanced breeding techniques.
• The Green Revolution of the mid-20th century brought high-yielding crop varieties,
increased use of inputs, and modern farming methods, resulting in dramatic
increases in global food production.
• However, the modern agricultural revolution also raised concerns about
environmental sustainability, resource depletion, and the negative impacts of
intensive farming practices.
• Recent developments in agriculture focus on sustainable practices, precision
farming, organic agriculture, and agroecological approaches that seek to balance
productivity with environmental and social considerations.
These four ages illustrate the transformative journey of agriculture from its humble beginnings as a
means of subsistence to its pivotal role in shaping human societies, economies, and cultures.
While agricultural practices have evolved signi cantly over time, the challenges and opportunities
of feeding a growing global population sustain the ongoing innovation and development of
agriculture.

5. State di erent center of origin of major crops. What is its signi cance in the study of
agro-biodiversity conservation?
Answer: The concept of "centers of origin" refers to geographic regions where speci c crop
plants are believed to have originated and diversi ed through natural selection and human
cultivation. These centers are of great signi cance in the study of agro-biodiversity conservation
as they provide insights into the genetic diversity and evolutionary history of crops. Here are the
major crops and their respective centers of origin:
• Wheat:
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 • Center of Origin: The Fertile Crescent (encompassing parts of modern-day Iraq,
Turkey, Syria, and Iran).
• Signi cance: Studying the center of origin for wheat helps researchers understand
the genetic diversity of this important cereal crop. It allows for the identi cation and
preservation of wild wheat relatives and landraces, contributing to crop improvement
and adaptation.
• Rice:
• Center of Origin: The Yangtze River basin in China and the Ganges River basin in
India.
• Signi cance: Knowing the centers of origin for rice aids in the conservation of wild
rice species and traditional rice varieties. These resources can be used to develop
new rice varieties that are resilient to changing environmental conditions.
• Maize (Corn):
• Center of Origin: Mesoamerica, including present-day Mexico and Central America.
• Signi cance: The study of maize's center of origin helps preserve the genetic
diversity of wild and traditional maize varieties. This diversity is crucial for breeding
maize with improved traits such as disease resistance and drought tolerance.
• Potato:
• Center of Origin: The Andes Mountains in South America (primarily Peru and
Bolivia).
• Signi cance: Understanding the center of origin for potatoes informs conservation
e orts for wild potato species, which contain genetic traits that can be used to
develop disease-resistant and climate-resilient potato varieties.
• Barley:
• Center of Origin: The Fertile Crescent (similar to wheat's center of origin).
• Signi cance: Barley's center of origin provides insights into its evolution and
genetic diversity. Conserving wild barley relatives and landraces is important for
maintaining a diverse pool of genetic resources for crop improvement.
• Sorghum:
• Center of Origin: Africa, with potential secondary centers in India and Australia.
• Signi cance: Recognizing the center of origin of sorghum aids in preserving genetic
diversity among wild and cultivated sorghum varieties. These resources are essential
for developing sorghum varieties that can thrive in di erent climates and resist pests
and diseases.
The signi cance of identifying and studying the centers of origin in agro-biodiversity conservation
lies in:
• Preserving Genetic Diversity: Centers of origin harbor a wealth of genetic diversity,
including wild relatives and traditional varieties that have evolved and adapted to local
conditions over millennia. Conserving this diversity is crucial for developing crops that can
withstand environmental changes and threats.
• Crop Improvement: The genetic traits found in crops' centers of origin can be used for
breeding more resilient, productive, and adaptable crop varieties.
• Resilience to Climate Change: Understanding the genetic diversity of crops' centers of
origin can aid in selecting and breeding varieties that are better suited to changing climate
conditions.
• Cultural Heritage: The centers of origin are often tied to the cultural heritage of local
communities. Preserving traditional crops and knowledge is important for maintaining
cultural identity and heritage.
In summary, the centers of origin for major crops provide essential information for agro-
biodiversity conservation e orts, sustainable agriculture, and food security.

6. Discuss on brief about biodiversity status on Nepal. What are the initiatives on policy
level for the biodiversity conservation?
Answer: Biodiversity Status in Nepal:
Nepal is renowned for its remarkable biodiversity due to its diverse geography, ranging from the
lowland Terai plains to the towering Himalayan mountains. The country is home to a wide array of
ecosystems, including tropical forests, alpine meadows, wetlands, and high-altitude regions.
However, Nepal's biodiversity faces various challenges, including habitat loss, climate change,
deforestation, overexploitation of resources, and pollution.
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 Despite these challenges, Nepal's biodiversity status includes:
• Rich Flora and Fauna: Nepal is home to numerous plant and animal species, many of
which are endemic or globally signi cant. It boasts over 800 species of birds, over 200
species of mammals, and a vast range of plant diversity.
• Unique Ecosystems: The country's diverse landscapes support various ecosystems,
such as the Terai-Duar Savanna and Grasslands, Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests,
and temperate coniferous forests.
• Endangered Species: Nepal harbors several endangered species, including the Bengal
tiger, greater one-horned rhinoceros, red panda, snow leopard, and various vulture species.
• Cultural Signi cance: Biodiversity is deeply intertwined with Nepal's culture and
traditions, with sacred groves, religious practices, and traditional knowledge closely linked
to the natural world.
Initiatives on Policy Level for Biodiversity Conservation:
Nepal has undertaken various policy-level initiatives to conserve its biodiversity and promote
sustainable resource management:
• National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP): This strategic framework
outlines Nepal's goals and actions for biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. It aims
to integrate biodiversity considerations into various sectors, policies, and programs.
• Protected Area Network: Nepal has established a network of protected areas, including
national parks, wildlife reserves, and conservation areas, covering around 23% of the
country's total land area. These areas provide habitat for diverse species and contribute to
biodiversity conservation.
• Community Forestry Programs: Nepal has implemented successful community-based
forest management programs, where local communities are involved in managing and
conserving forest resources. These initiatives help prevent deforestation and degradation.
• Biodiversity-friendly Policies: Various policies promote sustainable agriculture, forest
management, and natural resource use. These policies encourage practices that minimize
negative impacts on biodiversity.
• Invasive Species Control: Initiatives have been undertaken to control invasive species
that threaten native biodiversity, particularly in sensitive ecosystems like the Chitwan
National Park.
• Climate Change Adaptation: Nepal has integrated biodiversity conservation and climate
change adaptation e orts to address the impacts of changing climatic conditions on
ecosystems and species.
• Research and Monitoring: Biodiversity research, monitoring, and data collection e orts
contribute to informed decision-making and conservation planning.
• International Commitments: Nepal is a signatory to international agreements such as the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC), demonstrating its commitment to global biodiversity
conservation e orts.
These policy-level initiatives re ect Nepal's commitment to safeguarding its rich biodiversity and
ensuring sustainable development for future generations.

7. Give a descriptive use of 4 cell analysis to nd the agro-biodiversity status of a village.

Answer: The 4 Cell Analysis, also known as the "Four Cell Approach," is a systematic method
used to assess the agro-biodiversity status of a speci c area, such as a village. This approach
involves categorizing crops based on their importance to food security and livelihoods, as well as
their degree of threat and potential for conservation. Here's a descriptive use of the 4 Cell
Analysis to nd the agro-biodiversity status of a village:
Step 1: Categorization of Crops
• Main Crops (Cell 1):
• Identify and list the primary crops that are the backbone of the local agricultural system.
These are the staple foods that contribute signi cantly to the village's food security and
livelihoods. Examples may include rice, wheat, maize, or other major cereal crops.
• Secondary Crops (Cell 2):
• List crops that are of lesser importance than the main crops but still contribute to dietary
diversity and income generation. These crops may include vegetables, fruits, pulses, and
minor cereals.
• Neglected and Underutilized Crops (Cell 3):

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 • Identify crops that are traditionally grown but have been neglected over time. These crops
might possess unique traits, local adaptation, or cultural signi cance. Examples could
include indigenous varieties of millets, tubers, or traditional medicinal plants.
• Crops at Risk (Cell 4):
• List crops that are endangered, threatened, or have experienced reduced cultivation due
to various factors such as changes in farming practices, market trends, or environmental
conditions. These crops may include rare landraces, wild relatives, or plants with limited
distribution.
Step 2: Analysis and Interpretation
After categorizing the crops into the four cells, conduct a detailed analysis to interpret the agro-
biodiversity status of the village:
• Food Security and Livelihoods: Evaluate the contribution of main and secondary crops to
the village's food security, income generation, and nutritional diversity.
• Cultural Importance: Consider the cultural signi cance of neglected and underutilized
crops and their role in preserving traditional knowledge and practices.
• Conservation Priorities: Identify crops at risk and assess their importance for biodiversity
conservation. Determine if any endangered crop species require urgent conservation e orts.
• Resilience and Adaptation: Examine the overall diversity of crops cultivated. A higher
diversity may indicate greater resilience to environmental changes and market uctuations.
Step 3: Action and Strategies
Based on the analysis, develop appropriate strategies and actions for agro-biodiversity
conservation and sustainable development:
• Promotion of Neglected Crops: Raise awareness about the nutritional, economic, and
cultural value of neglected crops, encouraging their cultivation and consumption.
• Enhancement of Main Crops: Explore opportunities to improve the productivity and quality
of main crops while maintaining their genetic diversity.
• Biodiversity Conservation: Implement measures to conserve and promote endangered or
threatened crop species, including seed banks, community initiatives, and policy support.
• Diversi cation and Climate Resilience: Encourage diversi cation of crops to enhance
resilience against climate change impacts and market volatility.
In conclusion, the 4 Cell Analysis provides a comprehensive approach to assess the agro-
biodiversity status of a village, enabling informed decision-making and targeted interventions for
agro-biodiversity conservation and sustainable agricultural practices.

8. Describe how conservation policy works is 5 steps.

Answer: Conservation policies play a crucial role in protecting and managing natural resources,
biodiversity, and ecosystems. They provide a framework for sustainable development, ensuring
the long-term well-being of both ecosystems and human societies. Here's a description of how
conservation policy works in ve steps:
Step 1: Problem Identi cation and Goal Setting:
The rst step involves identifying conservation challenges and setting clear goals. This requires a
thorough understanding of the speci c environmental issues, threats, and potential impacts.
Conservationists, scientists, policymakers, and local communities collaborate to de ne objectives
that address ecological, social, and economic concerns. Goals may include preserving
endangered species, maintaining ecosystem services, preventing habitat loss, and promoting
sustainable resource use.
Step 2: Policy Development and Formulation:
During this phase, policymakers and experts work together to design e ective conservation
policies. They consider scienti c research, best practices, stakeholder input, and legal
frameworks. Policy options are evaluated, and strategies are developed to achieve the
established goals. This step involves crafting regulations, guidelines, incentives, and programs
that re ect the principles of conservation, sustainability, and equity.
Step 3: Implementation and Enforcement:
Once conservation policies are formulated, they need to be implemented on the ground. This
involves putting the policies into action through various mechanisms, such as government
agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), community groups, and private sector
initiatives. Adequate resources, funding, and capacity-building e orts are essential to ensure
e ective implementation. Enforcement mechanisms, such as monitoring, compliance checks, and
penalties for violations, are established to ensure policy adherence.
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 Step 4: Monitoring and Evaluation:
Continuous monitoring and evaluation are critical to assess the e ectiveness of conservation
policies. Data is collected to measure progress toward the de ned goals and to identify any
shortcomings or unintended consequences. Regular evaluations help policymakers make
informed decisions about adjusting policies, reallocating resources, and addressing emerging
challenges. Adaptive management allows for exibility in response to changing circumstances
and new insights.
Step 5: Review and Adaptation:
Conservation policies are not static; they must evolve to remain relevant and e ective. Regular
reviews of policy outcomes, feedback from stakeholders, and new scienti c ndings inform
necessary adjustments. If policies are achieving their intended outcomes, they may be re ned and
expanded. If they are falling short, revisions may be made to address de ciencies. This iterative
process ensures that conservation policies remain dynamic and responsive to changing
environmental, social, and economic conditions.
Overall, the functioning of conservation policies involves a cyclical process of identifying
problems, formulating strategies, implementing actions, monitoring progress, and adapting
policies over time. E ective conservation policies require collaboration, commitment, and a
comprehensive understanding of the complex interactions between human activities and the
natural environment.

9. Write short notes on: CBD and ITPGRFA.

Answer: Sure, here are short notes on the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the
International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA):
CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity):
• The CBD is an international treaty adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992
and entered into force in 1993.
• Its primary goal is to conserve biodiversity, ensure the sustainable use of its components,
and ensure the fair and equitable sharing of bene ts arising from genetic resources.
• The CBD has three main objectives: conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of
biodiversity, and fair and equitable sharing of bene ts from the utilization of genetic
resources.
• The CBD encourages the conservation of ecosystems, species, and genetic diversity, and
promotes the integration of biodiversity considerations into national policies and strategies.
• It also addresses issues related to biotechnology, access and bene t-sharing (ABS) of
genetic resources, traditional knowledge, and the protection of traditional practices.
• The Nagoya Protocol, a supplementary agreement to the CBD, speci cally focuses on
access and bene t-sharing of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge.
ITPGRFA (International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture):
• The ITPGRFA, also known as the Seed Treaty, is an international treaty adopted in 2001 and
entered into force in 2004.
• It aims to ensure the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food
and agriculture (PGRFA) and to promote the fair and equitable sharing of bene ts arising
from their use.
• The treaty recognizes the critical importance of PGRFA for food security and agricultural
sustainability.
• It establishes a multilateral system for access and bene t-sharing of a speci ed list of crops
and their genetic material, promoting the exchange of genetic resources while ensuring fair
and equitable bene ts for all.
• The ITPGRFA also supports the conservation and sustainable use of PGRFA through
collaboration among countries and international organizations.
• It provides a framework for conservation e orts, capacity-building, and research to enhance
crop diversity and resilience in the face of challenges such as climate change.
In summary, both the CBD and the ITPGRFA are international agreements that emphasize the
importance of conserving biodiversity and genetic resources for sustainable development and
food security. While the CBD addresses broader biodiversity issues, the ITPGRFA focuses
speci cally on plant genetic resources for food and agriculture.
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 10. De ne term vulnerability. What things need to be considered to establish climate
resilient society?
Answer: Vulnerability refers to the susceptibility or exposure of individuals, communities,
ecosystems, or systems to potential harm, damage, or adverse impacts. It is in uenced by a
combination of factors, including social, economic, environmental, and institutional conditions.
Vulnerability often results from a lack of adaptive capacity to cope with and recover from various
stressors, such as natural disasters, climate change, economic shocks, or social inequalities.
To establish a climate resilient society, several key factors need to be considered:
• Risk Assessment: Conduct comprehensive assessments of current and future risks,
including climate-related hazards such as extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and
temperature changes. Identify vulnerable populations, ecosystems, and critical
infrastructure.
• Adaptive Governance: Establish e ective governance structures and policies that
facilitate informed decision-making, cooperation, and coordination among government
agencies, communities, private sectors, and civil society organizations.
• Community Engagement: Involve local communities, including marginalized groups, in
the planning, implementation, and monitoring of climate resilience initiatives. Ensure their
participation in decision-making processes.
• Diversi ed Livelihoods: Promote economic diversi cation and sustainable livelihood
options to reduce dependency on climate-sensitive sectors. Enhance skills and education to
enable individuals to adapt to changing conditions.
• Infrastructure and Built Environment: Design and build infrastructure that can withstand
climate-related hazards, such as resilient housing, ood-resistant roads, and energy
systems that can function during disruptions.
• Ecosystem-Based Approaches: Protect and restore ecosystems that provide natural
defenses against climate impacts, such as wetlands, mangroves, and forests. Recognize the
value of ecosystem services in building resilience.
• Early Warning Systems: Develop and strengthen early warning systems to provide timely
information about impending disasters or extreme events, enabling communities to take
preventive measures.
• Climate-Resilient Agriculture: Promote climate-smart agricultural practices that enhance
crop and livestock resilience to changing climatic conditions, such as drought-resistant
crops and soil conservation techniques.
• Health and Social Services: Ensure access to reliable healthcare and social services,
especially for vulnerable populations, to address climate-related health risks and ensure
well-being.
• Financial Mechanisms: Establish mechanisms for accessing climate nance, insurance,
and risk-sharing mechanisms to support adaptation and recovery e orts.
• Education and Awareness: Raise public awareness and provide education on climate
change impacts, adaptation strategies, and disaster preparedness to empower individuals
and communities.
• Research and Innovation: Invest in research, technology, and innovation to develop new
solutions, tools, and knowledge for building climate resilience.
• International Cooperation: Collaborate at national, regional, and international levels to
share best practices, resources, and expertise for addressing transboundary climate
challenges.
Establishing a climate resilient society requires a holistic and integrated approach that addresses
various dimensions of vulnerability and builds the capacity of individuals, communities, and
systems to cope with and adapt to changing climate conditions.

11. Discuss on indigenous conservation strategies and innovation to tackle climate

changes.
Answer: Indigenous communities around the world have developed unique conservation
strategies and innovative approaches to tackle climate change based on their traditional
knowledge, practices, and close connection to the land. These strategies often emphasize
sustainability, resilience, and the harmonious coexistence of humans with nature. Here are some
examples of indigenous conservation strategies and innovations to address climate change:
1. Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK):
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 Indigenous communities possess valuable knowledge about local ecosystems, climate patterns,
and natural resources. TEK is passed down through generations and guides sustainable resource
management, including planting and harvesting practices, water management, and re control.
Incorporating TEK into modern conservation e orts can enhance ecosystem resilience and
adaptive capacity.
2. Agroecological Farming:
Many indigenous groups practice agroecological farming methods that promote biodiversity, soil
health, and water conservation. Crop diversi cation, polyculture, intercropping, and the use of
traditional seeds contribute to resilient and sustainable food systems in the face of climate
variability.
3. Forest Management:
Indigenous forest management practices often prioritize maintaining forest health and biodiversity.
Selective logging, rotational farming, and sacred groves are examples of strategies that contribute
to carbon sequestration, prevent deforestation, and protect vital ecosystems.
4. Indigenous Fire Management:
Controlled burning techniques, practiced by indigenous communities for centuries, help prevent
catastrophic wild res, promote plant regeneration, and maintain healthy landscapes. Integrating
indigenous re knowledge into modern re management strategies can reduce the risk of
destructive res.
5. Water Management:
Indigenous communities have developed sophisticated water management systems that balance
water needs for agriculture, human consumption, and ecosystems. Traditional techniques such as
terracing, irrigation, and water storage systems enhance water resilience in changing climatic
conditions.
6. Traditional Seeds and Crop Varieties:
Indigenous farmers often cultivate diverse and locally adapted crop varieties. These traditional
seeds have genetic traits that make them resilient to climate stressors, such as drought, pests,
and diseases. Protecting and promoting the use of traditional seeds contribute to food security
and agro-biodiversity.
7. Traditional Medicine and Herbal Knowledge:
Indigenous medicinal plants and traditional healing practices provide valuable resources for health
and well-being. Utilizing traditional medicine can contribute to community resilience by reducing
reliance on external resources and enhancing local healthcare systems.
8. Cultural and Spiritual Values:
Indigenous cultures often emphasize respect for nature and interdependence between humans
and the environment. Cultural and spiritual values play a role in fostering a strong sense of
stewardship and motivation for sustainable resource management.
9. Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Preparedness:
Indigenous communities have developed strategies to adapt to extreme weather events and
natural disasters. Building elevated homes, creating community-based early warning systems,
and preserving traditional knowledge for disaster preparedness contribute to resilience.
10. Advocacy and Land Rights:
Indigenous communities are often at the forefront of advocating for land rights, protected areas,
and the recognition of their role as custodians of vital ecosystems. Their e orts contribute to the
conservation and restoration of biodiversity and natural habitats.
Incorporating indigenous conservation strategies and innovations into broader climate change
and conservation initiatives not only enhances environmental resilience but also recognizes and
respects the deep knowledge and cultural heritage of indigenous peoples. Collaborative e orts
that combine traditional wisdom with modern scienti c approaches have the potential to create
more e ective and holistic solutions for addressing climate change challenges.

2079
1. De ne agro-biodiversity. What are species richness and species diversity?
Answer: Agro-biodiversity refers to the diversity of plant and animal species cultivated and
managed in agricultural systems, including traditional crops, livestock breeds, and other
organisms associated with farming. It encompasses the variety of genetic resources used for
food, ber, medicinal, and cultural purposes within agricultural landscapes.
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 Species Richness:
Species richness refers to the total number of di erent species present in a particular area or
ecosystem. It is a simple measure that counts the total number of species without considering
their abundance or distribution. For example, if an agricultural eld contains 10 di erent plant
species, the species richness of that eld is 10.
Species Diversity:
Species diversity is a more comprehensive measure that takes into account both the number of
species and their relative abundance. It includes two components: species richness and
evenness. Evenness refers to how evenly the individuals are distributed among the di erent
species. High species diversity occurs when a variety of species are present, and their
abundances are relatively balanced.

In mathematical terms, species diversity can be calculated using indices such as the Shannon-
Wiener Diversity Index or the Simpson Diversity Index. These indices consider the number of
species, the relative abundance of each species, and the distribution pattern. A higher diversity
index value indicates greater species diversity.
For example, consider two agricultural elds:
Field A:
• 5 species of crops
• Species abundance: 100 individuals of species A, 80 individuals of species B, 50 individuals
of species C, 30 individuals of species D, and 10 individuals of species E.
Field B:
• 5 species of crops
• Species abundance: 60 individuals of species A, 60 individuals of species B, 60 individuals
of species C, 60 individuals of species D, and 60 individuals of species E.
Both elds have the same species richness (5 species), but eld B has higher species diversity
due to the even distribution of individuals among the species.
In the context of agro-biodiversity, both species richness and species diversity are important
measures for assessing the health and resilience of agricultural ecosystems. High agro-
biodiversity can contribute to improved ecosystem services, pest and disease resistance, and
adaptation to changing environmental conditions.

2. What do you understand by on farm conservation? What are the advantages and
disadvantags of on farm conservation approaches?
Answer: On-Farm Conservation refers to the practice of conserving and maintaining agricultural
biodiversity, including traditional crop varieties, livestock breeds, and other genetic resources,
within the farm environment. It involves farmers actively managing and preserving a diverse range
of plant and animal species on their own land through traditional and innovative practices.
Advantages of On-Farm Conservation:
• Preservation of Genetic Diversity: On-farm conservation helps maintain a wide range of
genetic resources, including traditional and locally adapted crop varieties and livestock
breeds. This diversity is essential for developing new crop varieties and breeds that are
resilient to changing environmental conditions.
• Cultural and Traditional Value: On-farm conservation respects and preserves indigenous
knowledge, cultural practices, and traditional farming systems. It strengthens the
connection between communities and their agricultural heritage.
• Economic Bene ts: Traditional varieties and breeds may possess unique traits, such as
pest resistance or tolerance to speci c environmental conditions, that can bene t farmers
economically by reducing the need for inputs like pesticides.
• Adaptation to Climate Change: On-farm conservation contributes to climate change
adaptation by maintaining a diverse pool of genetic resources that can be used to develop
crops and breeds better suited to new climate conditions.
• Food Security and Nutrition: A diverse array of crops and livestock can provide a more
stable and varied source of food and nutrition for communities, reducing dependency on a
few staple varieties.
• Reduced Erosion of Genetic Diversity: On-farm conservation helps prevent the loss of
unique genetic resources that may not be conserved in formal gene banks or conservation
programs.
Disadvantages of On-Farm Conservation:

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 • Threats to Genetic Purity: Traditional and locally adapted varieties can crossbreed with
modern varieties, leading to the dilution of unique genetic traits.
• Market Constraints: Modern agricultural markets often prioritize uniformity, high yield,
and consistent quality, which may discourage the cultivation of traditional varieties with
varying characteristics.
• Lack of Resources: Farmers practicing on-farm conservation may lack access to
technical support, resources, and funding needed to e ectively manage and conserve
genetic resources.
• Inadequate Knowledge Transfer: Traditional knowledge and practices may not always be
fully transferred to younger generations, leading to a loss of valuable conservation methods.
• Vulnerability to External Factors: On-farm conservation may be vulnerable to external
threats such as pest outbreaks, diseases, and extreme weather events that can impact the
diversity being conserved.
• Limited Scale: On-farm conservation e orts may be limited to the capacities and interests
of individual farmers, potentially resulting in uneven conservation coverage.
In summary, on-farm conservation plays a vital role in maintaining agricultural biodiversity and
supporting sustainable farming systems. While it o ers numerous advantages, challenges related
to genetic purity, market dynamics, resource availability, and vulnerability need to be carefully
managed to ensure the e ectiveness of on-farm conservation approaches.

3. De ne genetic biodiversity. Show the levels and types of diversity within agriculural
genetic resources.
Answer: Genetic Biodiversity, also known as genetic diversity, refers to the variety of genes
within a species and the variation in heritable traits present in the individuals of that species. It is a
fundamental component of biodiversity and plays a crucial role in the adaptability, resilience, and
evolutionary potential of populations and ecosystems. In the context of agricultural genetic
resources, genetic biodiversity refers to the diversity of genetic material found within crops,
livestock, and other cultivated species used for food and agriculture.
Levels of Genetic Diversity:
• Within-Species Diversity:
• Intraspeci c Diversity: Variability within a single species. For example, di erent
varieties or landraces of a crop species.
• Between-Species Diversity:
• Interspeci c Diversity: Diversity between di erent species within the same genus.
For example, di erent species of wheat or rice.
Types of Genetic Diversity within Agricultural Genetic Resources:
• Crop Genetic Diversity:
• Varietal Diversity: Di erences in traits and characteristics among di erent varieties
of the same crop species.
• Landrace Diversity: Variability within traditional, locally adapted crop varieties.
• Wild Relatives: Genetic diversity found in wild species closely related to cultivated
crops. Wild relatives often contain valuable traits for breeding.
• Livestock Genetic Diversity:
• Breed Diversity: Di erences among di erent breeds of the same livestock species,
such as cattle, sheep, or poultry.
• Local Breeds: Breeds adapted to speci c geographic areas and often possessing
unique traits.
• Microbial Diversity:
• Microbial Genetic Diversity: Variability in microorganisms that play important roles
in agriculture, such as bene cial soil bacteria, mycorrhizal fungi, and microorganisms
involved in nitrogen xation.
• Fish and Aquatic Genetic Diversity:
• Aquatic Species Diversity: Genetic variability among di erent sh and aquatic
species used in aquaculture and sheries.
• Forest Genetic Diversity:
• Tree Genetic Diversity: Variation within tree species used for timber, non-timber
forest products, and ecosystem services.
• Genetic Diversity in Underutilized Species:
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 • Neglected and Underutilized Species: Genetic diversity within lesser-known or
underutilized crops that have valuable attributes for food security and adaptation.
• Genetic Diversity in Indigenous and Local Knowledge Systems:
• Indigenous Knowledge: Genetic diversity preserved through traditional farming
practices, local knowledge, and seed exchange.
• Molecular Diversity:
• Genetic Markers: Variation at the molecular level, such as DNA markers, used for
assessing and tracking genetic diversity.
Maintaining and conserving genetic biodiversity within agricultural genetic resources is essential
for ensuring food security, adapting to changing climates, and sustaining agricultural productivity.
It provides the raw material for crop improvement, disease resistance, and the development of
new varieties that can thrive under di erent conditions.

4. What do you think are the threats of agro-biodiversity in Nepal? Discuss with some
examples.
Answer: Agro-biodiversity in Nepal is facing a range of threats that impact the variety of crops,
livestock breeds, and traditional knowledge present in agricultural systems. These threats arise
from various factors, including changes in agricultural practices, economic shifts, environmental
pressures, and global trends. Here are some key threats to agro-biodiversity in Nepal, along with
examples:
• Monoculture and Commercialization:
• The shift towards monoculture and the promotion of high-yielding modern varieties can
lead to the neglect of traditional crops and indigenous varieties. For instance, the
widespread adoption of a few high-yielding rice varieties may lead to the abandonment of
local rice varieties that have unique taste, nutritional value, and resilience to local pests and
climate conditions.
• Loss of Traditional Knowledge:
• As younger generations migrate to urban areas and modern agricultural practices gain
prominence, traditional farming knowledge and practices are at risk of being lost.
Indigenous knowledge about seed saving, crop rotation, and agroforestry may not be
passed down, a ecting the diversity and sustainability of farming systems.
• Climate Change:
• Changing climate patterns, including altered precipitation and temperature regimes, can
a ect the suitability of certain crops and livestock breeds in speci c regions. Traditional
varieties that are well adapted to local conditions may become less viable, leading to
reduced agro-biodiversity. For instance, rising temperatures could a ect the growth and
productivity of traditional high-altitude crops like barley.
• Market Forces and Globalization:
• Global market demands often prioritize a few high-value and marketable crops, leading
farmers to focus on these crops and neglect others. This can result in the abandonment of
diverse traditional crops that are not as economically rewarding. For example, farmers might
shift from cultivating a variety of traditional vegetables to growing cash crops for export.
• Invasive Species and Pests:
• The introduction of invasive plant species, pests, and diseases can threaten native crops
and livestock breeds. These invasive species can outcompete native varieties or introduce
new diseases. For instance, the spread of a particular pest could lead to reduced cultivation
of traditional maize varieties that are susceptible to that pest.
• Land Use Changes and Urbanization:
• Urbanization and expanding infrastructure can lead to the conversion of agricultural land
into built-up areas. This encroachment reduces the available land for traditional farming,
which can lead to the loss of diverse crop varieties and associated practices.
• Land Degradation and Soil Erosion:
• Unsustainable farming practices, deforestation, and overgrazing can contribute to soil
erosion and land degradation. This can lead to the loss of soil fertility and the abandonment
of marginal lands, a ecting the cultivation of traditional crops and traditional agroforestry
practices.
• Lack of Policy Support:
• The absence of policies that promote the conservation and sustainable use of agro-
biodiversity can hinder e orts to maintain traditional crops and livestock breeds. Without
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 proper policy incentives, farmers may be less motivated to continue cultivating diverse
varieties.
Addressing these threats requires a combination of strategies, including promoting traditional
knowledge, supporting diverse farming practices, enhancing market opportunities for traditional
products, and implementing climate-resilient agriculture techniques. Sustainable agro-biodiversity
conservation e orts in Nepal can contribute to food security, cultural preservation, and overall
ecosystem resilience.

5. How does community seed bank (CSB) helps in agro biodiversity conservation. Discuss
the status of CBS in Nepal.
Answer: Community Seed Banks (CSBs) play a signi cant role in agro-biodiversity conservation
by preserving and promoting the diversity of traditional crop varieties. CSBs are community-
managed repositories that collect, store, and distribute locally adapted seeds. They contribute to
maintaining agricultural resilience, food security, and cultural heritage by addressing several key
aspects:
• Preservation of Traditional Varieties: CSBs collect and store a wide range of traditional
crop varieties that may not be commercially viable or readily available in mainstream
markets. By safeguarding these seeds, CSBs prevent their loss due to changing agricultural
practices and modernization.
• Climate Resilience: Traditional crop varieties often possess traits that make them well-
suited to local climatic conditions. CSBs ensure the availability of seeds that are adapted to
varying temperature, precipitation, and soil conditions, helping farmers cope with climate
change impacts.
• Genetic Diversity: CSBs contribute to maintaining genetic diversity by conserving
di erent landraces, local varieties, and heirloom seeds. This diversity is essential for future
breeding programs, enabling the development of new varieties with improved traits such as
pest resistance, drought tolerance, and nutritional value.
• Cultural and Social Value: CSBs promote the continuation of traditional farming
practices, indigenous knowledge, and cultural heritage. They empower local communities to
take ownership of their agricultural biodiversity and maintain their identity.
• Community Empowerment: CSBs engage local farmers in seed collection, storage, and
management, fostering a sense of ownership and responsibility for agro-biodiversity
conservation. This empowerment strengthens community resilience and self-reliance.
• Local Seed Exchange and Distribution: CSBs facilitate the exchange of seeds among
farmers, enabling access to a diverse range of crops. This contributes to maintaining agro-
biodiversity at the local level and reducing dependence on external sources for seeds.

Status of Community Seed Banks in Nepal:

Nepal has made signi cant strides in promoting community seed banks as a tool for agro-
biodiversity conservation. The country's diverse agro-climatic zones and rich cultural heritage
have provided a conducive environment for the establishment and growth of CSBs. Some key
points about the status of CSBs in Nepal include:
• Government Support: The Government of Nepal recognizes the importance of CSBs and
has included provisions for their establishment and promotion in national agricultural
policies.
• Community Initiatives: Many CSBs in Nepal are initiated and managed by local
communities, farmers' groups, and non-governmental organizations. These grassroots
e orts re ect the strong connection between agro-biodiversity conservation and community
empowerment.
• Biodiversity Hotspots: Nepal's CSBs focus on conserving traditional crop varieties
speci c to di erent ecological and cultural regions. These include varieties of rice, millets,
maize, legumes, vegetables, and medicinal plants.
• Conservation E orts: CSBs contribute to the conservation of threatened and neglected
crop varieties. For example, CSBs have played a crucial role in preserving traditional rice
varieties that are well-adapted to high-altitude regions and diverse agro-ecosystems.
• Seed Exchange and Training: CSBs facilitate seed exchange events, workshops, and
training programs to raise awareness about the importance of agro-biodiversity and
traditional seeds. They promote knowledge-sharing among farmers and encourage the use
of diverse crops.
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 • Challenges: Despite their positive impact, CSBs in Nepal face challenges such as limited
nancial resources, technical support, and policy recognition. Ensuring sustainable funding,
strengthening institutional support, and integrating CSBs into broader agricultural
development plans are ongoing priorities.
In conclusion, community seed banks in Nepal play a crucial role in conserving agro-biodiversity,
preserving traditional knowledge, and enhancing community resilience. These grassroots
initiatives contribute to food security, climate adaptation, and the sustainable development of
Nepal's diverse agricultural systems.

6. De ne climate change. What threats and e ects are visible due to climate change in
agricultural sector in Nepal? Write with some examples and evidences.
Answer: Climate change refers to long-term shifts and alterations in Earth's climate patterns,
including changes in temperature, precipitation, wind patterns, and other environmental factors. It
is primarily driven by human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and
industrial processes, which release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, leading to global
warming and resulting climate impacts.
In the agricultural sector in Nepal, climate change poses signi cant threats and e ects, which are
becoming increasingly evident. Some of these threats and e ects, along with examples and
evidence, include:
• -Changing Rainfall Patterns:
• Threat: Altered and unpredictable rainfall patterns can lead to water scarcity or excess,
a ecting crop growth and irrigation.
• E ect: Erratic monsoon rains have been observed, impacting rice cultivation, a staple
crop. Droughts and irregular rainfall can lead to decreased crop yields and reduced food
production.
• Evidence: The National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) for Nepal highlights
increased drought frequency and reduced rainfall in some regions.
• - Glacial Melt and Water Availability:
• Threat: Melting glaciers and reduced snowfall can disrupt water availability in rivers and
streams that feed agricultural systems.
• E ect: Reduced water availability a ects irrigation, hydropower generation, and livestock
rearing, leading to decreased agricultural productivity.
• Evidence: Glacial retreat in the Himalayas has been documented, impacting the ow of
major rivers like the Ganges and Indus, which originate in the region.
• -Temperature Extremes:
• Threat: Rising temperatures can lead to heat stress and heatwaves, a ecting crop growth
and livestock health.
• E ect: Crop failures and reduced yields are observed due to heat stress on plants.
Livestock face heat-related health issues, impacting meat and dairy production.
• Evidence: Increasing frequency of heatwaves has been reported in Nepal, a ecting crop
phenology and quality.
• -Pests and Diseases:
• Threat: Warmer temperatures and altered climate conditions can create favorable
environments for pests and diseases to thrive.
• E ect: Crop pests and diseases, such as the potato tuber moth and wheat rust, become
more prevalent, leading to reduced crop yields and quality.
• Evidence: Outbreaks of pests and diseases in various crops have been attributed to
changing climate conditions in Nepal.
• -Landslides and Erosion:
• Threat: Increased rainfall intensity and extreme weather events can trigger landslides and
soil erosion.
• E ect: Agricultural land loss due to landslides and erosion a ects crop productivity and
livelihoods.
• Evidence: Landslides have become more frequent and severe, damaging farmlands and
infrastructure in hilly and mountainous regions.
• -Shifts in Planting and Harvesting Seasons:
• Threat: Altered climate patterns can disrupt traditional planting and harvesting schedules.
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 • E ect: Shifts in seasonal timing a ect crop growth, owering, and fruiting, leading to
reduced yields and crop losses.
• Evidence: Changes in owering and fruiting patterns of fruit trees have been reported due
to shifting temperature and precipitation patterns.
These examples highlight the tangible threats and e ects of climate change on Nepal's
agricultural sector. The changing climate conditions are disrupting traditional agricultural
practices, challenging food security, and posing risks to rural livelihoods. Addressing these
challenges requires targeted adaptation strategies, such as introducing climate-resilient crop
varieties, enhancing water management, and promoting sustainable land use practices.

7. What do you understand by intellectual property right? What kind of local innovations are
you aware of in agro-biodiversity conservation in Nepal?
Answer: Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) refer to legal rights that are granted to individuals or
entities for their creations or inventions, providing them with exclusive control and rights to use,
distribute, and pro t from their intellectual or creative endeavors. These rights encourage
innovation, protect the rights of creators, and incentivize the development of new ideas,
technologies, and artistic expressions.
There are several types of intellectual property rights, including:
• Copyright: Protects original literary, artistic, and musical works.
• Patents: Grants exclusive rights to inventors for new and useful inventions or processes.
• Trademarks: Protects symbols, names, and signs used to identify goods or services.
• Trade Secrets: Protects con dential business information and processes.
• Industrial Designs: Protects the visual design of objects.
• Geographical Indications: Identi es products as originating from a speci c geographical
location, often linked to their quality, reputation, or characteristics.
In the context of agro-biodiversity conservation in Nepal, there have been various local
innovations aimed at preserving traditional knowledge, agricultural practices, and biodiversity.
Some examples of local innovations in agro-biodiversity conservation in Nepal include:
• Community Seed Banks: Local communities have established community seed banks to
collect, conserve, and distribute traditional crop varieties. These seed banks play a crucial
role in preserving agro-biodiversity and ensuring the availability of diverse seeds for future
generations.
• Terrace Farming and Agroforestry: Traditional farming practices such as terrace farming
and agroforestry help prevent soil erosion, enhance soil fertility, and promote the cultivation
of a variety of crops, contributing to agro-biodiversity conservation.
• Traditional Water Management Systems: Local communities have developed intricate
water management systems, such as ponds, canals, and irrigation channels, to e ciently
manage water resources for agricultural purposes, especially in hilly and mountainous
regions.
• Herbal and Medicinal Gardens: Many households and communities maintain herbal and
medicinal gardens where they cultivate a variety of indigenous plants with medicinal
properties. These gardens promote the conservation of valuable plant species and
traditional knowledge.
• Local Livestock Breeds Conservation: Farmers in Nepal have been involved in
conserving and breeding local livestock breeds, such as certain breeds of cattle, goats, and
poultry, which are adapted to local environments and have unique genetic traits.
• Agro-Biodiversity Fairs and Festivals: Various fairs and festivals celebrate agro-
biodiversity, where farmers showcase traditional crops, seeds, and products. These events
raise awareness and promote the importance of conserving local agricultural diversity.
• Traditional Crop Varieties and Crop Rotation: Farmers continue to cultivate and
exchange traditional crop varieties and practice crop rotation to maintain soil health and
diversify their food sources.
• Cultural Practices and Indigenous Knowledge: Cultural practices, rituals, and
indigenous knowledge related to agricultural activities contribute to the conservation of
agro-biodiversity by promoting sustainable resource management.
These local innovations showcase the creativity and ingenuity of Nepali communities in preserving
agro-biodiversity and traditional agricultural practices. They highlight the importance of
recognizing and protecting intellectual property rights at the local level to support sustainable and
culturally sensitive conservation e orts.

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 8. Write short notes on:
a. Red Zone :
b. Agricultural Genetic Resources
Answer:
a. Red Zone:
The term "Red Zone" is often used to describe areas that are particularly vulnerable or highly
susceptible to various risks, including natural disasters, environmental degradation, or speci c
challenges such as the impacts of climate change. The concept of the "Red Zone" serves as a
warning and highlights the urgent need for attention, mitigation, and adaptive strategies.
In the context of climate change and environmental management, a "Red Zone" might refer to
regions or ecosystems that are at high risk of experiencing severe impacts due to changing
climatic conditions. For example, areas prone to frequent ooding, coastal erosion, or landslides
may be designated as "Red Zones" to signify their heightened vulnerability and the need for
immediate action to protect lives, livelihoods, and ecosystems.
The term can also be used metaphorically to represent critical areas that require focused e orts or
interventions, such as in conservation or development projects. Identifying and addressing "Red
Zones" is crucial for e ective planning, risk reduction, and the allocation of resources to mitigate
the potential negative impacts.
b. Agricultural Genetic Resources:
Agricultural Genetic Resources (AGR) encompass the diverse range of plant and animal genetic
material that is used in agriculture for food and agricultural production. These resources include
traditional crop varieties, landraces, wild relatives of cultivated plants, and locally adapted
livestock breeds. Agricultural genetic resources are vital components of global food security and
contribute to the resilience and sustainability of agricultural systems.
Key points about Agricultural Genetic Resources include:
• Genetic Diversity: AGR provide genetic diversity that is essential for developing new crop
varieties and livestock breeds with improved traits such as disease resistance, tolerance to
environmental stress, and nutritional quality.
• Climate Adaptation: Certain crop varieties and livestock breeds within AGR may possess
traits that make them well-suited to speci c climate conditions, helping farmers adapt to
changing environmental factors.
• Cultural Heritage: AGR often have cultural and traditional signi cance, re ecting the
agricultural practices, culinary traditions, and local knowledge of di erent communities.
• Conservation E orts: The conservation and sustainable use of agricultural genetic
resources are essential to prevent the loss of valuable genetic traits and ensure the long-
term availability of diverse genetic material.
• Biodiversity Hotspots: Many regions, including Nepal, are biodiversity hotspots with rich
agricultural genetic resources. These resources are critical for ensuring food security and
adapting to environmental changes.
• Access and Bene t Sharing: The equitable sharing of bene ts arising from the use of
agricultural genetic resources is a key consideration, especially to support the rights and
livelihoods of local communities that have conserved and developed these resources over
generations.
• International Agreements: Global initiatives and agreements, such as the International
Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) and the Convention
on Biological Diversity (CBD), aim to promote the conservation and sustainable use of
agricultural genetic resources.
In summary, agricultural genetic resources are a fundamental component of agricultural systems,
playing a crucial role in food security, adaptation to changing climates, and the preservation of
cultural heritage. Their conservation and sustainable use are vital for ensuring resilient and
productive agricultural systems.

9. Enlist some policies in line with agro-biodiversity conservation in Nepal. Highlight the
objectives of agro-biodiversity policy 2007.
Answer: In Nepal, several policies and initiatives have been developed in line with agro-
biodiversity conservation to promote sustainable agricultural practices, protect traditional
knowledge, and ensure the preservation of diverse crop varieties and livestock breeds. One
signi cant policy is the National Agro-Biodiversity Policy 2007, which outlines the objectives

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 and strategies for agro-biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. Here are some key policies
and their objectives:
• -National Agro-Biodiversity Policy 2007:
• Objective: The main objective of this policy is to conserve and sustainably use
agro-biodiversity to enhance food security, livelihoods, and sustainable
development. It aims to promote the conservation of traditional crop varieties and
livestock breeds, support community-based initiatives, and integrate agro-
biodiversity into national development plans.
• Strategies: The policy focuses on the conservation of genetic resources, the
promotion of traditional knowledge and practices, capacity-building of farmers and
stakeholders, and the establishment of community seed banks. It emphasizes the
importance of research, education, and awareness-raising activities to ensure the
sustainable management of agro-biodiversity.
• -Agriculture Development Strategy (ADS) 2015:
• Objective: ADS aims to enhance agricultural productivity, increase income, and
improve livelihoods of smallholder farmers through sustainable and diversi ed
agricultural practices.
• Agro-Biodiversity Focus: ADS recognizes the importance of agro-biodiversity in
achieving food security and resilience. It promotes the conservation and use of
traditional crops, local seeds, and indigenous knowledge.
• -Seed Act 2061 (2004):
• Objective: The Seed Act aims to regulate the quality, production, distribution, and
sale of seeds to ensure the availability of quality seeds for farmers.
• Agro-Biodiversity Focus: The Act encourages the conservation and use of local
seeds and traditional crop varieties. It allows for the registration of local varieties and
promotes the establishment of community seed banks.
• -Local Self-Governance Act 1999:
• Objective: This Act empowers local governments to manage their own resources
and promote sustainable development at the local level.
• Agro-Biodiversity Focus: Local governments play a vital role in agro-biodiversity
conservation through community-based initiatives, such as the establishment and
management of community seed banks and the promotion of traditional agricultural
practices.
• -Climate Change Policy 2011:
• Objective: The Climate Change Policy aims to address the impacts of climate
change, including those on agriculture and biodiversity, and promote climate
resilience.
• Agro-Biodiversity Focus: The policy recognizes the importance of conserving
agro-biodiversity for enhancing adaptive capacity and reducing vulnerability to
climate change impacts.
These policies, among others, demonstrate Nepal's commitment to agro-biodiversity
conservation and sustainable agricultural practices. The National Agro-Biodiversity Policy 2007, in
particular, outlines a comprehensive framework for integrating agro-biodiversity considerations
into national development strategies, supporting community-based initiatives, and safeguarding
traditional knowledge and practices.

10. Discuss the achievements on agro-biodiversity conservation in Nepal in short.

Answer: Nepal has made signi cant achievements in agro-biodiversity conservation, driven by
both government initiatives and community-led e orts. Some of the key achievements include:
• Community Seed Banks: The establishment and successful operation of community seed
banks across the country have contributed to the conservation of diverse traditional crop
varieties. These seed banks serve as repositories for local seeds and play a vital role in
preserving agro-biodiversity.
• Crop Diversity Fairs and Festivals: Various fairs and festivals celebrate agro-biodiversity,
providing platforms for farmers to showcase and exchange traditional crop varieties. These
events raise awareness about the importance of conserving and using diverse crops.
• Traditional Knowledge Revival: E orts have been made to document and revive
traditional knowledge related to seed saving, crop rotation, and organic farming practices.

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 This has helped in maintaining agro-biodiversity and promoting sustainable agricultural
techniques.
• Policy Framework: Nepal's National Agro-Biodiversity Policy (2007) provides a
comprehensive framework for agro-biodiversity conservation, integrating it into national
development plans and emphasizing community-based initiatives.
• Climate-Resilient Varieties: Research and development have led to the identi cation and
promotion of climate-resilient crop varieties that are better adapted to changing
environmental conditions, enhancing farmers' resilience.
• Local Livestock Breed Conservation: E orts have been made to conserve and promote
local livestock breeds that are well-adapted to speci c ecological conditions, contributing to
genetic diversity in livestock.
• Institutional Collaboration: Collaboration between government agencies, NGOs,
research institutions, and local communities has facilitated the exchange of knowledge,
resources, and technical expertise for agro-biodiversity conservation.
• Capacity Building: Training programs, workshops, and awareness campaigns have been
conducted to enhance the capacity of farmers and local communities in agro-biodiversity
conservation and sustainable agricultural practices.
• Biodiversity Education: Integration of agro-biodiversity conservation into school curricula
and educational programs has raised awareness among future generations about the
importance of preserving agricultural diversity.
• Indigenous Seed Networks: Indigenous seed networks have been established to
facilitate the exchange of seeds, knowledge, and experiences among farmers, contributing
to the conservation and sharing of agro-biodiversity.
These achievements re ect Nepal's commitment to preserving its rich agro-biodiversity heritage,
ensuring food security, and enhancing community resilience in the face of environmental
challenges. Despite these successes, ongoing e orts are needed to address emerging threats,
enhance policy implementation, and promote sustainable agricultural practices to ensure the
continued conservation of agro-biodiversity.

11. As an agricultural graduate, how would you contribute in agro ecosystem resilience in
your country? Discuss with some strategies and example.
Answer: As an agricultural graduate, you can play a crucial role in contributing to agro-ecosystem
resilience in your country through a combination of knowledge, skills, and practical strategies.
Here are some ways you can make a meaningful impact:
• Promotion of Climate-Resilient Practices:
• Educate Farmers: Organize training sessions and workshops to educate farmers
about climate-resilient agricultural practices such as crop diversi cation,
conservation tillage, agroforestry, and water-e cient irrigation.
• Example: Introduce farmers to drought-tolerant crop varieties that can withstand
water scarcity and provide stable yields even in challenging climatic conditions.
• Agro-Biodiversity Conservation:
• Establish Seed Banks: Collaborate with local communities to establish and manage
community seed banks, preserving traditional crop varieties and ensuring their
availability for future generations.
• Example: Work with farmers to collect, store, and exchange seeds of indigenous
crops that have adapted to local agro-climatic conditions.
• Soil Health Improvement:
• Implement Soil Management Techniques: Advocate for soil conservation practices
like cover cropping, crop rotation, and organic farming to enhance soil fertility,
prevent erosion, and promote sustainable land use.
• Example: Demonstrate the bene ts of incorporating leguminous cover crops to
improve soil nitrogen content and overall soil health.
• Integrated Pest Management (IPM):
• Introduce IPM Strategies: Teach farmers how to implement IPM approaches,
combining biological, cultural, and chemical control methods to manage pests and
diseases sustainably.
• Example: Encourage the release of bene cial insects like ladybugs to control aphid
populations in crops without relying heavily on chemical pesticides.
• Water Resource Management:

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 • E cient Irrigation Practices: Train farmers in e cient irrigation techniques such as
drip irrigation and rainwater harvesting to optimize water use and reduce water
wastage.
• Example: Help farmers design and install drip irrigation systems in vegetable elds
to ensure precise water delivery and minimize water runo .
• Participatory Research and Extension:
• Collaborate with Research Institutions: Engage in participatory research projects
that address local agro-ecosystem challenges and provide evidence-based
solutions.
• Example: Conduct trials to assess the performance of di erent crop varieties under
changing climate conditions and share the results with farmers through extension
services.
• Community Engagement and Empowerment:
• Farmer Field Schools: Establish Farmer Field Schools where farmers can learn from
each other's experiences, share best practices, and collectively address agro-
ecosystem issues.
• Example: Facilitate regular gatherings where farmers discuss their challenges and
successes in implementing climate-resilient practices.
• Policy Advocacy and Awareness:
• Advocate for Sustainable Policies: Engage with policymakers and advocate for the
incorporation of climate-resilient and agro-ecosystem-friendly policies in national
agricultural strategies.
• Example: Participate in policy dialogues and provide expert input to ensure that
government policies support agro-ecosystem resilience.
By actively implementing these strategies and collaborating with local communities, fellow
professionals, and stakeholders, you can contribute to building agro-ecosystem resilience,
enhancing food security, and promoting sustainable agricultural practices in your country. Your
e orts can lead to improved livelihoods for farmers, strengthened ecological balance, and a more
resilient agricultural sector in the face of climate change and other challenges.
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