ME 372 Heat Transfer and Metrology Lab

HEAT TRANSFER LAB MANUAL

Name:
Roll No:
Batch:

Expt. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Marks
Obt.
Max.
Marks

Expt. No. 7 8 9 10 11 12
Marks
Obt.
Max.
Marks

Department of Mechanical Engineering

I.I.T. Bombay

2025
 Important Instructions
1. The laboratory classes begin sharply at 2:00 pm. and end at 5:00 pm.
COMING LATE (after 5 minutes) TO CLASS IS NOT ACCEPTABLE.
Students who come late will be given zero marks for that experiment.
2. Without the laboratory manual, students are not allowed to perform the
experiments since this has your submission sheet. No submission of files or
notebooks is required.
3. Please wear appropriate dress (full pants and shirts/T-shirts are allowed –but not
half pants or shorts) because of safety purposes.
4. We have shared the videos and manual beforehand. Please make sure that you have
read the manual, watched the video and understood what all it takes to conduct the
experiment independently without any assistance of TA (Teaching Assistant).
Please note that no explanation of the conduction of the experiment would be
given by TA. If a given student takes help from TA, appropriate marks would be
deducted for that respective experiment.
5. Conclusions are to be well-thought about and they should be such that the theory
taught in the course is connected to the experimental results.
6. No quiz or viva on daily basis.
7. Manual is to be written at home and submitted next week.
8. End semester will be having practical exam and viva.
9. Breakup- 75% is on daily basis.
10. End-semester - 25% - 15% is experiment and 10% is viva.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Important Instructions............................................................................................................................... i
1: EMISSIVITY MEASUREMENT APPARATUS ................................................................................. 1
2: HEAT TRANSFER IN NATURAL CONVECTION ........................................................................... 6
3: PIN FIN APPARATUS ..................................................................................................................... 13
4: THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATING POWDER........................................................... 21
4: THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATING POWDER (New Setup) ...................................... 27
5: PARALLEL/ COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER ................................................................... 33
5: PARALLEL/ COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER (New Setup) .............................................. 40
6: CRITICAL RADIUS OF INSULATING MATERIAL ...................................................................... 49
6: CRITICAL RADIUS OF INSULATING MATERIAL (New Setup) .................................................. 55
7: HEAT TRANSFER IN FORCED CONVECTION ............................................................................ 64
8: UNSTEADY STATE HEAT TRANSFER APPARATUS ................................................................. 69
8: UNSTEADY STATE HEAT TRANSFER APPARATUS (New Setup) ............................................. 75
9: CRITICAL HEAT FLUX APPARATUS ........................................................................................... 84
9: CRITICAL HEAT FLUX APPARATUS (New Setup) ..................................................................... 92
10: CONDENSATION IN DROP & FILM FORMS (New Setup) ......................................................... 99
11: CROSS FLOW EXPERIMENT WITH HEATED CYLINDER ..................................................... 106
12: HEAT PIPE DEMONSTRATOR................................................................................................... 112
12: HEAT PIPE DEMONSTRATOR (New Setup) .............................................................................. 118
13: SCHEDULE & Batches ................................................................................................................. 123

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1: EMISSIVITY MEASUREMENT APPARATUS
1. INTRODUCTION:

All bodies emit and absorb the thermal radiation to and from surroundings. The rate of
thermal radiation depends upon the temperature of body. Thermal radiations are electromagnetic
waves and they do not require any medium for propagation.

When thermal radiation strikes a body, part of it is reflected, part of it is absorber and part
of it is transmitted through body.

The fraction of incident energy reflected by the surface is called reflectivity ( ). The
fraction of incident energy absorbed by the body is called absorptivity ( ) and the fraction of
incident energy transmitted through body is called transmissivity ( ).

The surface which absorbs all the incident radiation is called a black surface.

For a black surface,

The radiant flux, emitted from the surface is called emissive power (e).

The emissivity of a surface is ratio of emissive power of a surface to that of black surface

at the same temperature. Thus,

2. THE APPARATUS:

plate. It consists of two aluminium plates of equal physical dimensions. Mica heaters are provided
inside the plate. The plates are mounted in an enclosure to provide undisturbed surroundings.

One of the plates is blackened outside for use as a comparator (because black surface has ).
Another plate is having natural surface finish. Input to heaters can be controlled by separate
dimmerstats. Heater input is measured on common ammeter and voltmeter. One thermocouple is
fitted on surface of each plate to measure the surface temperature with digital temperature
indicator. By adjusting input to the heaters, both the plates are brought t same temperature so that
conduction and convection losses from both the plates are equal and difference in input is due to
different emissivity.

Holes are provided at back side, bottom and at the top of enclosure for natural circulation
of air over the plates. The plate enclosure is provided with Perspex acrylic sheet at the front.

1
 3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

1. Blacken one of the plates with the help of lamp black (Normally this is blackened at the
workplace, but if blackening is wiped out, then blackening is necessary.)
2. Keep both the dimmer knobs at ZERO position.
3. Insert the supply pin-
mains supply.
4. Switch ON the mains switch on the panel.
5. Keep the meter selector switch (toggle switch) at the black plate side position.
6. Adjust dimmer of black plate, so that around 110-120 volts are applied to black plate.
7. Now, switch the meter selector switch on the other side.
8. Adjust test plate voltage slightly less than that of black plate. (say 100-110 volts)
9. Check the temperatures (after say 10 minutes) and adjust the dimmers so that temperatures
on both the plates are equal and steady. Normally, very minor adjustments are required for
this.
10. Note down the reading after the plate temperatures reach steady state.

4. OBSERVATIONS:

INPUT SURFACE
PLATE
V(volts) I(ampere) TEMPERATURE oC
Test Plate T1=
Black Plate T2=

o
Enclosure temperature, T3= C

5. CALCULATIONS:

1. Enclosure temperature, TE = T3 oC
= (T3+273.15) K
=
o
2. Plate surface temperature, T= T1= T2= C
TS = (T+273.15) K
=
3. Heat input to black plate, Wb = V x I watts =
4. Heat input to test plate, WT = V x I watts =

2
 5. 2

= 0.0447 m2
Where, D=diameter of plates= 0.16m.
And t=thickness of plates= 0.009m.
6. For black plate, Wb=WCVb + WCdb + WRb ------------------------------------- (i)
Where, WCVb = Convection losses
WCdb = Conduction losses
WRb = Radiation losses
Similarly, for test plate,
WT = WCVT + WCDT + WRT ---------------------------------------------- (ii)
As both plates are of same physical dimensions, same material and at same temperatures,
WCVb +WCDb = WCVT + WCDT
Subtracting equation (ii) from (i), we get,
Wb-WT = WRb- WRT
=
=
As emissivity of black plate is 1,
Wb-WT =
Where, = Emissivity of test plate
Boltzmann constant = 5.667 x 10-8 W/m2 K4

[Note Emissivity of oxidized aluminum plate i.e. test plate is normally within the range of
0.3 to 0.7]

6. CONCLUSION:

The emissivity of test plate was found to be ------------------at the temperature of------------- oK

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7. PRECAUTIONS:
1. Black plate should be perfectly blackened.
2. Never put your hand or papers over the provided at the top of enclosure.
3. Keep at least 200 mm distance between the back side of unit and the wall.
4. Operate all the switches and knobs gently.

5
2: HEAT TRANSFER IN NATURAL CONVECTION

1. INTRODUCTION:

In contrast to the forced convection, natural convection phenomenon is due to the

temperature difference between the surface and the fluid and is not created by any external agency.
Natural convection flow patterns for some commonly observed situations are shown in Fig. 1.

The present experimental setup is designed and fabricated to study the natural convection
phenomenon from a vertical cylinder in terms of the variation of local heat transfer coefficient
along the length and also the average heat transfer coefficient and its comparison with value
obtained by using an appropriate correlation.

2. APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of a brass tube fitted in a rectangular vertical duct. The duct is open
at the top and bottom and forms an enclosure and serves the purpose of undisturbed surrounding.
One side of the duct is made up of Perspex for visualization. An electric heating element is kept
in the vertical tube which in turn heats the tube surface. The heat is lost from the tube to the
surrounding air by natural convection. The temperature of vertical tube is measured by seven
thermocouples. The heat input to the heater is measured by an ammeter and a voltmeter and is
varied by a dimmerstat. The vertical cylinder with the thermocouple positions is shown in Fig. 2
while the possible flow pattern and also the expected variation of local heat transfer coefficient
are shown in Fig. 3. Te tube surface is polished to minimize the radiation losses.

3. SPECIFICATIONS:

1. Diameter of the tube (d) = 38 mm

2. Length of tube (L) = 500 mm
3. Duct size: 200 mm x 200 mm x 800 mm Length
4. Multichannel Digital Temperature Indicator: 0-300 oC using Chromel/ Alumel
thermocouple.
5. Ammeter: 0-2 Amp. And Voltmeter: 0-200 Volts
6. Dimmerstat: 2 Amp. 240 Volts

6
 4. EXPERIMENT:

To determine the surface heat transfer coefficient for a vertical tube losing heat by natural
convection.

5. THEORY:

When a hot body is kept in still atmosphere, heat is transferred to the surrounding fluid by
natural convection. The fluid layer in contact with the hot body gets heated, rises up due to the
decrease in its density and the cold fluid rushes in to take place. The pressure is continuous and
the heat transfer takes place due to the relative motion of hot and cold fluid particles.

The heat transfer coefficient is given as

------------------(1)

(Assume the negligible heat loss from radiation)

Where, h = Average surface heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 oC)

q = Heat transfer rate (Watts)

As = Area of h d.l (m2)

Ts = Average surface temperature

o
= C

Ta = Ambient temperature in the duct = T8 oC

q1 = Heat loss by radiation =

where, = Stefan Boltzmann Constant = 5.678 x 10-8 W/m2K4

A = Surface area of pipe = 0.0597 m2

= emissivity of pipe material = 0.40

Ts and Ta = Surface and ambient temperatures in K respectively

The surface heat transfer coefficient of a system transferring heat by natural convection
depends on shape, dimensions and orientation of the fluid and the temperature difference between

parameters is generally expressed in terms of non-dimensional groups as follows

7
 --------------(2)

Where, = Nusselt Number

= Grashof Number and

= Prandtl Number

tation of the heat transferring

surface.

Where, L = A characteristic dimension of the surface

k = Thermal conductivity of the surface

= Kinematic viscosity of fluid

µ = Dynamic viscosity of fluid

Cp = Specific heat of fluid

= Coefficient of volumetric expansion for the fluid

g = Acceleration due to gravity

T = (Ts-Ta)

For gases, /K

equation (2) have been determined and the following empirical correlations are obtained.

for 104 <Gr.Pr<108 ----------------------------------------------- (3)

8
 for 108 <Gr.Pr<1012 ---------------------------------------------- (4)

L = Length of the cylinder.

All the properties of the fluid are determined at the mean film temperature (Tf).

6. PROCEDURE:
1.
40 W, 60 W, 70 W etc ).
2. Wait till the steady state is reached, which is confirmed from temperature readings (T1
to T7).
3. Measure surface temperature at the various points i.e. T1 to T7.
4. Note the ambient temperature i.e. T8.
5. Repeat the experiment at different heat inputs (Do not exceed 80 W).

7. OBSERVATIONS:

1. O. D. of cylinder = 38 mm.
2. Length of cylinder = 500 mm.
3. Input to heater = V x I watts.

SR. TEMPERATURE oC
VOLT AMP.
NO. T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8

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 8. CALCULATIONS:

1. Calculate the value of average surface heat transfer coefficient, neglecting end losses using
equation (1).
2. Calculate and plot (Fig. 4) the variation of local heat transfer coefficient along the length
of the tube using:
T= T1 to T7 and

3. Compare the experimentally obtained value with the predictions of the correlation
equations (3) or (4).

NOTE:

The heat loss due to radiation and conduction is not considered, but they are present
which give difference between actual and theoretical values.

9. PRECAUTIONS:
1. Proper earthing is necessary for the equipment.
2.
increase it slowly.
3. Keep at least 200 mm space behind the equipment.
4. Operate the change-over switch of temperature indicator gently from one position to
another i.e. from 1 to 8 position.
5. Never exceed input above 80 watts.

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3: PIN FIN APPARATUS

1. INTRODUCTION:

Extended surfaces or fins are used to increase the heat transfer rates from a surface to the
surrounding fluid wherever it is not possible to increase the value of the surface heat transfer
coefficient or the temperature difference between the surface and the fluid. Fins are lubricated in
variety of forms. Fins around the air cooled engines are a common example.

As the fins extend from primary heat transfer surface, the temperature difference with the
surrounding fluid diminishes towards the tip of the fin. The aim of the experiment is to study the
temperature distribution and the effectiveness of the fin, which plays an important role in fin
design.

The duct is attached to suction end of a blower. One end of fin is heated by an electrical heater.
Thermocouples are mounted along the length of fin and thermocouple notes the duct fluid
temperature. When top cover over the fin is removed and heating started, performance of fin with
natural convection can be evaluated and with top cover closed and blower started, fin can be tested
in forced convection.

2. SPECIFICATIONS:

1. Fins - 12 mm O.D., effective length 102 mm and 5 Nos. of thermocouple positions along
the length, made of brass, mild steel and aluminum 1 each.
Fin is screwed in heater block which is heated by a band heater.
2. Duct 150 x 100 cross section, 1000 mm long connected to suction side of blower.
3. F.H.P. centrifugal blower with orifice and flow control valve on discharge side.
4. Orifice diameter 22 mm, coefficient of discharge Cd = 0.64.
5. Measurements and Controls-
a. Dimmerstat to control heater input: 0-200V, 2 amp.
b. Voltmeter: 0-250 V, for heater supply voltage.
c. Ammeter: 0-1 amp. For heater current.
d. Multichannel digital temperature indicator.
e. Water manometer connected to orificemeter.

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 3. THEORY:

Let, A = cross sectional area of the fin (m2)

P = circumference of the fin (m)

L = length of the fin=0.102 (m)

Tb = base temperature of the (K)

Tf = duct fluid temperature (channel no. 6 of temperature indicator )

= temperature difference of fin and fluid temperature

= T- Tf

h = heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)

Kf = thermal conductivity of fin material (W/mK)

= 110 W/mK for brass

= 46 W/mK for mild steel

= 232 W/mK for aluminum

Heat is conducted along the length of fin and also lost to surroundings. Applying first law

from the base.

-----------------(1)

-----------------(2)

Where, --------------------------------------------------------------------- (3)

With the boundary conditions of = 1 at x=0

1= Tb-Tf assuming tip to be insulated

at x=L results in obtaining equation (2) in the form

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 ----------------(4)

This is the equation for temperature distribution along the length of the fin. Temperatures
Tb and Tf
convection i.e. natural or forced.

4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

4.1 NATURAL CONVECTION:

Open the duct cover over the fin. Ensure proper earthing to
main supply. Adjust dimmerstat so that about 80 volts are supplied to the heater. The fin will start
heating. When the temperatures remain steady, note down the temperatures of the fin and duct
fluid temperature. Repeat the experiment at different inputs to heater.

OBSERVATIONS:

DUCT
o FLUID
INPUT FIN TEMPERATURE C
SR. NO. TEMP.
o
C
V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

4.2 FORCED CONVECTION:

Close the duct cover over the fin. Start the blower. Adjust the dimmerstat so that about
100-110 volts are supplied to the heater. When the temperature becomes steady, note down all the
temperatures and the manometer difference.

Repeat the experiment at different inputs and at different air flow rates.

15
 DUCT FLIUD
MANOMETER
SR. FIN TEMPERATURES oC TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENCE o
NO. C
H (m of water) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

5 CALCULATIONS:

5.1 NOMECLATURE:

Tm = Average fin temperature =

= Tm - Tf

Tmf = mean film temperature =

a = Density of air (kg/m3)

w = Density of water (kg/m3) = 1000 kg/m3
D = Diameter of pin fin = 12 x 10 -3 m
d = Diameter of orifice = 22 x 10-3 m
Cd = coefficient of discharge of orifice = 0.64
µ = dynamic viscosity of air (Ns/m2)
Cp = specific heat of air (KJ/kg oC)
= kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
kair = thermal conductivity of air (W/moC)
= volumetric expansion coefficient =

H = manomet
V = velocity of air duct (m/s)
Q = volume flow rate of air (m3/s)
Vtmf = velocity of air at mean film temperature (m/s)

All properties are to be evaluated at mean film temperature.

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5.2 NATURAL CONVECTION:

The fin under consideration is horizontal cylinder losing heat by natural convection. For
horizontal cylinder, Nusselt number,

---------- for 10-1 < Gr.Pr < 104

---------- for 104 < Gr.Pr < 109

---------- for 109 < Gr.Pr < 1012

where, Gr = Grashof Number

Pr = Prandtl Number

Determine Nusselt Number.

Now,

Therefore, h =

From h, determine m

Using and determine temperature distribution in the fin from equation (4).

The rate of heat transfer from the fin can be calculated as

----------------------(5)

And effectiveness of the fin can be calculated as

----------------------(6)

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5.3 FORCED CONVECTION:

As in natural convection, for horizontal cylinder loosing heat by forced convection

------- for 40 < Re < 4000

------- for 4000 < Re < 40000

Where,

Velocity of air is determined from air volume flow,

m3/s

V = Q/Duct cross sectional area

= m/s

Now from temperature distribution, heat transfer rate and effectiveness of the fin can be
calculated using equations 4,5 and 6 respectively.

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20
4:THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATING POWDER

1. INTRODUCTION:

Conduction of heat is flow of heat which occurs due to exchange of energy from one
molecule to another without appreciable motion of molecules. In any heating process, heat is
flowing outwards from heat generation point. In order to reduce losses of heat, various types of
insulations are used in practice. Various powders e.g. asbestos powder, plaster of paris etc. are also
used for heat insulation. In order to determine the appropriate thickness of insulation, knowledge
of thermal conductivi

2. THE APPARATUS:

s fitted a
mica electric heater. Smaller sphere is fitted at the center of outer sphere. The insulating powder
whose thermal conductivity is to be determined is filled in the gap between the two spheres. The
heat generated by heaters flows through the powder to the outer sphere. The outer sphere loses
heat to the atmosphere. The input to the heater is controlled by a dimmerstat and is measured on
voltmeter and ammeter. Four thermocouples are provided on the outer surface of inner sphere and
six thermocouples on inner surface of outer sphere, which are connected to a multichannel digital
temperature indicator. Average of outer and inner sphere temperatures give the temperature
difference across the layer of powder.

3. SPECIFICATIONS:

1. Inner sphere - 100 mm O.D., halved construction

2. Outer sphere - 200 mm I.D., halved construction
3. Heater- Mica flat heater, fitted inside inner sphere
4. Controls-
A) Main Switch - 30 A, DPDT Switch
B) Dimmerstat 0-230 volts, 2 A capacity
5. Measurements-
A) Voltmeter 0-200 volts
B) Ammeter 0-1 ampere
C) Multichannel Digital Temperature Indicator calibrated for Cr/Al thermocouples

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 4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

1. Keep dimmerstat knob at ZERO positon and switch ON the equipment.

2. Slowly rotate the dimmerstat knob, so that voltage is applied across the heater. Let the
temperature rise.
3. Wait until steady state is reached.
4. Note down all the temperatures and input of heater in terms of volts and current.
5. Repeat the procedure for different heat inputs.

5. OBSERVATIONS:

TEMPERATURES 0C HEATER INPUT

Sr. No.
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 VOLTS APMS.

6. THEORY:

Consider the transfer of heat by conduction through the wall of a hollow sphere formed
of insulating powder (Refer Fig.)

Let,

ri = radius of inner sphere (m)

ro = radius of outer sphere (m)

Ti = Average inner sphere surface temperature (oC)

To= Average outer sphere surface temperature ( oC)

22
 ifference

Where, k= thermal conductivity of insulating powder.

Integrating between ri to ro and Ti to To, we get,

i o, the thermal conductivity of insulating

powder can be determined as

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7.CALCULATIONS:

1. Heater input=q=V x I watts.

2. Average inner sphere surface temperature

oC

3. Average outer sphere surface temperature

oC
4. Inner sphere radius= 50 mm=0.05m.
5. Outer sphere radius= 100 mm 0.1m.

Now W/mk at oC

25
 8. PRECAUTIONS:

1. Operate all the switches and controls gently.

2. If thermal conductivity of the powder other than supplied is to be determined, then gently
dismantle the outer sphere and remove the powder taking care that heater connections
and thermocouples are not disturbed.
3. Earthing is essential for the unit.

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4. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATING POWDER
(New setup)
1. OBJECTIVE:
To determine the thermal conductivity of insulating powder.

2. AIM:
2.1 Comparison of thermal conductivity of insulating powder at different temperatures.

2.2 Determination of thermal conductivity of insulating powder.

3. INTRODUCTION:
In many heat transfer equipment’s, heat loss to surrounding is to be minimized to achieve maximum
economy. In such cases they are lagged by materials of lower thermal conductivity, which are referred
as insulators. Because of demand of such insulating materials, many industries have come up to
produce such material. Preference is given to produce materials having lower and lower thermal
conductivities. Also, their material is available in different shapes, sizes and forms of powders.
Powders have the advantage that they can take any complicated shape between any two confirming
surfaces. In addition its conductivity will be much lower than that of the Basic solid from which the
powder has been made. This is because of a very large number of air spaces in between particles,
which has much lower thermal conductivity values. Thermal conductivity of such material is a
complicated function of the geometry of the particles, particle thermal conductivity, the nature of heat
transfer, conduction, convection and radiation in air spaces, which is determined by the air space size
and temperature level etc. Thus it is very difficult quantity to estimate and almost in all practical cases
it is measured experimentally.
4. THEORY:
Consider the transfer of heat by conduction through the wall of hollow sphere formed by the
insulating powdered layer packed between two thin copper spheres.
ri = Radius of inner sphere in meter
ro = Radius of outer sphere in meter
Ti = Average temperature of the inner surface in oC
To = Average temperature of the outer surface in oC
From the experiment values of Q, T i and To, the unknown thermal conductivity k can be
determined by following formulas:

𝑄(𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟𝑖 )
𝑘=
4𝜋𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑖 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )

27
5. DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consists of two thin walled concentric spheres of copper of different size. The small inner
copper sphere housed the heating coil. The insulating Powder (ASBESTOS) is packed between the two
spheres. The power given to the heating coil is measured by Voltmeter and Ammeter and can be varied
by using dimmerstat. There are ten (T1 to T10) Thermocouples embedded on the copper spheres, T1 toT4
(4 Nos.) are embedded on the inner sphere and rest T5 to T6 (6 Nos.) on the outer sphere. Thermal
Conductivity of Insulating Powder can be finding out by taking the temperature reading of these
thermocouples.
6. UTILITIES REQUIRED:
Electricity Supply: Single Phase, 220 V AC, 50 Hz, 6 Amp combined socket with earth connection and
Floor area required : 950mm x 650mm.
7. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
7.1 STARTING PROCEDURE:

7.1.1 Ensure that mains ON/OFF switch given on the panel is at OFF position.
7.1.2 Connect the electric supply to the set-up.
7.1.3 Switch ON the mains ON/OFF switch.
7.1.4 Set the heat input by the diammerstat.
7.1.5 After 1.5 hrs. note down the reading of voltmeter, ammeter and temperature
sensors in the observation table after every 10 minutes interval till observing
change in consecutive readings of temperatures (± 0.2 oC).
7.1.6 Repeat the above procedure for different input voltages.
7.2 CLOSING PROCEDURE:
7.2.1 When experiment is over switch OFF the heater ON/OFF switch.

7.2.2 Switch OFF the mains ON/OFF switch.

7.2.3 Switch OFF the power supply to the set-up.

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OBSERVATION & CALCULATION:

8.1 DATA:
Inner radius ri = 0.05 m
Outer radius ro = 0.1 m

8.2 OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr. V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10
No. (volt) (Amp) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC)

CALCULATIONS:
𝑄 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 (𝑊)
𝑇1 +𝑇2 +𝑇3 +𝑇4
𝑇𝑖 = (℃)
4

𝑇5 +𝑇6 +𝑇7 +𝑇8 +𝑇9 +𝑇10

𝑇𝑜 = (℃)
6

𝑄(𝑟𝑜 −𝑟𝑖 )
𝑘= (𝑊/𝑚℃)
4𝜋𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑜 (𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 )

8.3 CALCULATION TABLE:

Sr. No. k (W/moC)

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9. NOMENCLATURE:
Nom Column Heading Units Type
k Thermal conductivity of insulating powder W/m oC Calculated
Q Amount of heat transfer W Calculated
ri Inner radius m Given
ro Outer radius m Given
Temperature of temperature sensors embedded on the W
T1 – T4 Measured
inner sphere
Temperatures of temperature sensors embedded on the W
T5 – T10 Measured
outer sphere
Ti Inside surface temperature ˚C Calculated
To Outside surface temperature ˚C Calculated
V Voltmeter reading Volt Measured
I Ammeter reading Amp Measured

10. PRECAUTION & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

10.1 Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 200 volts and more than 230 volts.

10.2 Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches given
on the panel are at OFF position.

10.3 Operate selector switch of temperature indicator gently.

10.4 Always keep the apparatus free from dust.

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Block Diagram

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5: PARALLEL/ COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER

1. OBJECTIVE:

To study the heat transfer phenomena in parallel/ counter flow arrangements.

2. AIM:

To calculate overall heat transfer coefficient for both types of heat exchangers

3. INTRODUCTION:

Heat exchangers are devices in which heat is transferred from one fluid to another. The
necessity for doing this arises in a multitude of industrial applications. Common examples of heat
exchangers are the radiator of a car, the condenser at the back of a domestic refrigerator and the
steam boiler of a thermal power plant.

Heat exchangers are classified in three categories-

a. Transfer Type
b. Storage Type
c. Direct Contact Type

4. THEORY:

A transfer type of heat exchanger is one of which both fluids pass simultaneously through
the device and heat is transferred through separating walls. In practice most of the heat exchangers
used are transfer type ones.

The transfer type exchangers are further classified according to flow arrangement as-

a. Parallel Flow in which fluids flow in the same direction

b. Counter Flow in which they flow in opposite direction
c. Cross Flow in which they flow at right angles to each other

A simple example of transfer type of heat exchanger can be in the form of a tube type
arrangement in which one of the fluids is flowing through the inner tube and the other through the
annulus surrounding it. The heat transfer takes place across the walls of the inner tube.

33
5. DESCRIPTION:

The apparatus consists of a tube in tube type concentric tube heat exchanger. The hot fluid
is hot water which is obtained from an insulated water bath using a magnetic drive pump and
it flows through the inner tube while the cold fluid is cold water flowing through the annulus.

The hot water flows always in one direction and the flow rate of which is controlled by
means of a valve. The cold water can be admitted at one of the end enabling the heat exchanger
to run as a parallel flow apparatus or a counter flow apparatus. This is done by valve operations.

RTD PT-100 type sensors measure the temperature. For flow measurement, rotameters are
provided at inlet of cold water and outlet of hot water line. The readings are recorded when
steady state is reached.

6. UTILITIES REQUIRED:

Water supply: 10 lit/min. (approx.)

Drain

Electricity supply: 1 phase 220 V AC, 3KW

Flow area: 2m x 0.6m

7. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

1.
2. Adjust the required temperature of hot water using DTC.
3. Adjust the valve. Allow the hot water to recycle in bath through by-
the magnetic pump.
4. Start the flow through the annulus and run the exchanger either as parallel flow or counter
flow unit.
5. Adjust the flow rate on cold water side by rotameter.
6. Adjust the flow rate on hot water side by rotameter.
7. Keeping the flow rates same, wait till the steady state conditions are reachd.
8. Record the temperatures on hot water and cold water side and also the flow rates accurately.
9. Repeat the experiment with a counter flow under identical flow conditions.

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 8. SPECIFICATIONS:

Inner tube : Material- SS, ID 9.5 mm, OD 12.7 mm

Outer tube : material- GL, ID 28 mm, OD 33.8 mm

Length of the heat exchanger: L=1.61 m

Temperature controller : Digital, Range: 0-200oC

Temperature Indicator : Digital Range: 0-200 oC and least count 0.1 oC with multichannel
swirch

Temperature Sensors : RTD PT-100 type (5 Nos.)

Flow Measurement : Rotameter (2 Nos.)

Water Bath : Material: SS insulated with ceramic wool and powder coated MS
shell fitted with heating elements

Pump : FHP magnetic drive pump (max. operating temperature 85 oC)

9. FORMULAE:
9.1 Rate of heat transfer from water:
Watt

kg/s

9.2 Rate of heat transfer to cold water:

Watt

kg/s

9.3 Average heat transfer:

Watt

9.4 LMTD:
o
C

Where, 2 = Thi Tci (For Parallel Flow)

= Thi Tco (For Counter Flow)

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 And 1 = Tho Tco (For Parallel Flow)
= Tho Tci (For Counter Flow)

Note that a special case of Counter Flow Exchanger exists when the heat capacity rates
Cc Ch are equal, then Thi Tco = Tho Tci thereby making 2 = 1 . In this case, LMTD
is of the form 0/0 and so undefined. But it is obvious that since is constant throughout the
exchanger, hence

m = i = o

9.5 Overall heat transfer coefficient:

W/m2 oC

W/m2 oC

10. OBSERVATIONS:

DATA: Ai = 0.04807 m2

Ao = 0.06426 m2

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Parallel flow:

HOT WATER SIDE COLD WATER SIDE

SR. NO. Fh (LPH) Thi oC o
Tho C Fc (LPH) Tci oC Tco oC

Counterflow:
HOT WATER SIDE COLD WATER SIDE
SR. NO.
Fh (LPH) Thi oC o
Tho C Fc (LPH) Tci oC Tco oC

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 11. CALCULATIONS:

Mass flow rate of water:

Average Temperature = ------------ oC

h = 983.2 kg/m3

Mh = ------------ kg/hr

Cph = 4.174 KJ/kgoK

Qh = --------------- KW

Mass flow rate of hot water:

Average Temperature = ------------ oC

c = 995.7 kg/m3

Mc = ------------ kg/hr

Cpc = 4.179 KJ/kgoK

Qc = --------------- KW

LMTD for counter flow =-----------------------oC

W/m2 oC

W/m2 oC

12. NOMENCLATURE:

Qh = heat loss by the hot water (W)

Mh = mass flow rate of the hot water

Fh = flow rate of hot water (LPH)

38
Fc = flow rate of cold water (LPH)

Cph = specific heat of hot fluid at mean temperature

Tho = outlet temperature of the hot water

c = density of cold water at mean temperature

h = density of hot water at mean temperature

Thi = inlet temperature of the hot water

m = log mean temperature difference

Qc = heat gained by the cold water

Mc = mass flow rate of the cold water

Cpc = specific heat of cold fluid at mean temperature

Tco = outlet temperature of the cold water

Tci = inlet temperature of the cold water

Q = average heat transfer from the system

Ui = inside overall heat transfer coefficient

Ai = inside heat transfer area

Uo = outside overall heat transfer coefficient

Ao = outside heat transfer area

13. PRECAUTIONS AND MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

1.

2. Keep all the assembly undisturbed.

3. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 volts and above than 230 volts.
4. Operate selector switch of temperature indicator gently.
5. Always keep the apparatus free from dust.
6. ng the water into the bath.

39
 5.PARALLEL AND COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER
(NEW SETUP)
1. OBJECTIVE: To study the heat transfer phenomena in parallel and counter flow arrangements.

2. AIM: To calculate overall heat transfer coefficient for both types of heat exchangers

3. INTRODUCTION:
Heat exchangers are devices in which heat is transferred from one fluid to another by conduction or
convection. In parallel flow heat exchanger both hot fluid and cold fluid are traveling in the same direction
while both are moving in the opposite direction in counter flow heat exchanger. A simple heat exchanger
can be in the form of a tube arrangement. One fluid (hot fluid here) is flowing through the inner tube and
other (outer tube) through the annulus surrounding it. The heat transfer takes place across the walls of the
inner tube.
Heat exchangers are classified in three categories-
a. Transfer Type

b. Storage Type

c. Direct Contact Type

4. THEORY:
The tubular heat exchanger
The heat exchangers are supplied with the required flow rates of cold water and hot water by the Service
Unit (referred to below as the service unit for short).
Unit description and function
The key function of the service unit is to provide the required cold and hot water flow rates for the
connected heat exchanger. In the heat exchanger, thermal energy is transferred from the hot water to the
cold water. The thermal energy transferred to the cold water is added in the service unit by heating the
cooled hot water.

40
 The selected heat exchanger is connected to the service unit using the
four self-locking plug-in couplings for cold water and hot water
(referred to below as coupling for short).
Fig. 1 shows both versions of the couplings. The couplings are
different for cold water and hot water to make it easier to connect
the heat exchangers. The cable emerging from the coupling provides
the connection between the integrated temperature sensor and the
service unit.

Fig.1. Couplings

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2. (a) hot water tank (b) tank cover and pump, (c) connection block

The tank has a cover which allows to add water. Sealing the cover can prevent water tank so as to prevent
the heater damage. Figure 2(a) shows the top view of the open hot water tank, with the electric hot water
heater, the level switch and the immersion sleeve for the temperature sensor. Figure 2(b) shows the hot
water tank, the hot water pump and other components of the hot and cold water circuit can be seen, with
the pipework and internal hoses. The service unit is connected to the water supply using hose couplings
to the connection block. Details are shown in Figure2(c) and supplement the markings on the connection
block itself.

41
 Tubular Heat Exchanger unit description

Fig. 3 Tubular Heat Exchanger with base plate

The schematic of the tubular heat exchanger (refer Fig. 3) consists of two double tubes. In the double
tubes, the transparent outer tube allows the stainless steel inner tube to be seen. Two separate areas are
created, the tube area (inside the inner tube) and the shell (between the inner tube and the outer tube). Both
the tube areas and the shells of the two double tubes are connected in series. The split into two double tubes
reduces the overall length and enables temperature measurement for cold and hot water in the centre of the
overall heat exchanger. As determined by the two different coupling designs, hot water (red) flows
through the tube area and cold water (shown in blue) through the shell (refer Fig. 4). Cold and hot water
flow along the inner tubes either in the same direction (parallel flow) or in opposite directions (counter
flow).

Parallel
flow

Counter
flow

Fig. 4 Schematic representation of parallel and counter flow heat exchanger

42
5. DESCRIPTION OF THE SETUP:

Fig. 5 Schematic of the service unit

1. Secure the base plate of the tubular heat exchanger on the base plate of the service unit using the
grip bolts.
2. Connect the main plug to the mains.
3. Connect the wire for the center cold & Hot water temperature, measuring lead to the appropriate
socket.
4. Plug the couplings for hot & cold water into the corresponding connections on the tubular heat
exchanger.
5. Ensure that the required flow is produced (parallel flow or counter flow).

The tubular heat exchanger consists of two double tubes as shown in Fig. 5. In the double tubes, the
transparent outer tube allows the stainless steel inner tube to be seen. Two separate areas are created, the
tube area (inside the inner tube) and the shell (between the inner tube and the outer tube). Both the tube
areas and the shells of the two double tubes are connected in series. The split into two double tubes
reduces the overall length and enables temperature measurement for cold and hot water in the centre of the
overall heat exchanger. As determined by the two different coupling designs, hot water flows through the
tube area and cold water through the shell. Cold and hot water flow along the inner tubes either in the same
direction (parallel flow) or in opposite directions (counter flow).

43
6. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
6.1 STARTING PROCEDURE:
 Clean the apparatus and make the water bath free from dust.
 Close the entire drain valve provided.
 Fill the water in the bath.
 Connect the power supply to the apparatus.
 Switch ON the mains ON/OFF switch.
 Switch ON the heater ON/OFF switch.
 Set the desired water temperature in the PID by operating the increment or decrement and set button of
PID.
 Then couple-up the couplings to their corresponding section of hot water supply and also couple-up the
desired couplings for the cold water to their corresponding section.
 Allow hot water to flow through heat exchanger and adjust the flow rate by rotameter.
 Adjust the cold water flow with the help of rotameter.
 This heat exchanger accessory having two intermediate temperature for hot and cold water.
 At steady state record the temperature & flowrate of hot and cold water.
6.2 PARALLEL AND COUNTERFLOW SETUP
For a parallel flow setup ensure that the inlet self-locking plugin from the cold water inlet is connected
towards the hot water inlet and the cold water outlet is connected towards the hot water outlet. Now using
this setup, one can take the readings after steady state is reached.
For a counter flow setup, please follow the procedure as follows:
 Stop the cold water flow by adjusting the rotameter.
 Unplug the self-locking plugs of the cold water inlet and outlet.
 Exchange the connection.
 Start the rotameter.
 Now after steady state is reached, take the readings.
7. OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

7.1 DATA:
Inner diameter of tube di = 0.010 m
44
 Outer diameter of tube do = 0.012 m
Length of tube L = 0.730 m
Mean heat transfer area A = 0.025 m2

7.2 OBSERVATION TABLE:

Fh Fc T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
Sr. No. T (oC)
(LPH) (LPH) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC)

CALCULATION:
𝑇 +𝑇
𝑇ℎ = 1 2 3 (℃)
𝑇 +𝑇
𝑇𝑐 = 4 2 6 (℃)
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑝ℎ , 𝜌ℎ 𝑎𝑡 𝑇ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑝𝑐 , 𝜌ℎ 𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝐶 .
𝐶𝑝ℎ = _____𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃
𝐶𝑝𝑐 = _____𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃
𝜌ℎ = _____𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝜌𝑐 = _____𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝐹ℎ ×𝜌ℎ
𝑀ℎ = 1000×3600 𝑘𝑔/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑄ℎ = 𝑀ℎ 𝐶𝑝ℎ (𝑇1 − 𝑇3 ) (𝑊)
𝐹𝑐 ×𝜌𝐶
𝑀𝑐 = 1000×3600 (𝑘𝑔/𝑠𝑒𝑐)
𝑄𝑐 = 𝑀𝑐 𝐶𝑝𝑐 (𝑇6 − 𝑇4 ) (𝑊)
𝑄 +𝑄
𝑄 = ℎ 2 𝑐 (𝑊)
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
∆𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇4 (℃)
∆𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇3 − 𝑇6 (℃)
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
∆𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇6 (℃)
∆𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇3 − 𝑇4 (℃)
∆𝑇 −∆𝑇
∆𝑇𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥∆𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 (℃)
𝑙𝑛
∆𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑄
ℎ𝑜 = (𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾)
𝐴×∆𝑇𝑚

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 CLOSING PROCEDURE:
 When experiment is over switch OFF the heater first.
 Switch OFF pump for hot water supply.
 Switch OFF power supply to the panel.
 Drain water bath with the help of drain valve.

7.3 CALCULATION TABLE:

Sr.
ho (W/m2-K)
No.

Plotting temperature curve:

 In parallel flow operation.
 In counter flow operation.

Water properties table

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8.0 NOMENCLATURE:
Nom Column Heading Units
𝐴 Mean heat transfer area m2
𝐶𝑝ℎ Specific heat of hot fluid at mean temperature kJ/kgC
𝜌ℎ Density of hot water at mean temp. kg/m3
𝐶𝑝𝑐 Specific heat of cold fluid at mean temperature kJ/kgC
𝜌𝑐 Density of cold water at mean temp. kg/m3
𝑄 Average heat transfer W
𝑑𝑖 Inner diameter of tube m
𝑑𝑜 Outer diameter of tube m
𝐹ℎ Flowrate of hot water LPM
𝐹𝑐 Flowrate of cold water LPM
𝐿 Length of tube m
𝑀ℎ Mass flowrate of hot water kg/sec
𝑀𝑐 Mass flowrate of cold water kg/sec
𝑄𝑐 Heat gained by the cold water W
𝑄ℎ Heat loss by the hot water W
𝑇ℎ Mean temperature of hot water C
𝑇𝑐 Mean temperature of cold water C
𝑇1 Inlet temperature of hot water C
𝑇2 Centre temperature of hot water C
𝑇3 Outlet temperature of hot water C
𝑇4 Inlet temperature of cold water C
𝑇5 Centre temperature of cold water C
𝑇6 Outlet temperature of cold water C
∆𝑇𝑚 Log mean temperature difference C
ℎ Heat transfer coefficient W/m2.K
∆𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 Difference of hot and cold fluids temperatures at inlet C
∆𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 Difference of hot and cold fluids temperatures at outlet C
𝑇 Set temperature of hot fluid C

48
 6: CRITICAL RADIUS OF INSULATING MATERIAL

Whenever there exists any hot cylinder of pipe ( e. g. steam piping ) it is customary to put
the insulation around the pipe. Naturally, one would expect that thicker the insulation, the
lesser will be the heat loss from pipe. But it is not the case always.
THEORY
As stated above, addition of insulation does not always reduce heat loss. As
thickness of insulation increases, heat loss also increases to certain limit called critical
radius of insulation. Addition of insulation there after reduce the heat loss.
To determine the value of critical radius at q max, the equation is given as,

or ( r ) critical radius = k / ho
where, k = Conductivity of insulating material.
ho = Convective heat transfer coefficient.
Hence, for a particular insulating material for a particular value of ho, if outer radius

is less than rcr, than addition of insulation will increase the heat loss till the actual radius

equals to rcr . Further addition of insulation reduces the heat loss.

SPECIFICATIONS:

1. Test pieces: 33mm O.D. and 260mm length, G.I. pipes, provided with cartridge heaters inside
and plaster of Paris insulation of different thickness outside. The thickness
of

TP1 = 10 mm (dia. 53 mm )

TP2 = 15.5 mm (dia. 64 mm )

TP3 = 25.5 mm (dia. 84 mm )

TP4 = 36.5 mm (dia. 106 mm )

75
49
50
2. Controls and measurements:
i) Dimmerstats : 2 amps. Capacity, 4 Nos. to supply independent input to heaters
in the test pieces.
ii) Voltmeter: 0 - 250 V
iii) Ammeter: 0 - 3 A
iv) Selector switches : 4 Nos. to indicate heater input (in volts and amps.) in downward position
and to disconnect the meters in upward position.
v) Multichannel digital temperature indicator.
vi) Thermocouples located one each at inner and outer multichannel digital temperature indicator.
vii)Thermocouples located one each at inner and outer radius of insulation for all test pieces and
a thermocouple to note the ambient temperature.

EXPERIMENTATION:
To study the critical radius phenomenon and to show experimentally that heat loss across the
insulation is maximum at critical radius, provided outside heat transfer coefficient is constant.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the supply plug to the socket.

2) Check that all the dimmerstats are at zero position.

3) Initially, all the selector switches should be in upward direction.
4)Switch 'ON' the main switch and the corresponding heater switches. Operate the corresponding
dimmerstat one by one and adjust the input to the heaters such that all the heater surface
temperatures come to be the same.
5)The unit will reach steady state within around two hours, note down the heater input and
temperatures.

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51
OBSERVATION TABLE

Sr. no. Test piece Input Ti oc To oc

voltage current
1 TP1 T1 = T2 =
2 TP2 T3 = T4 =
3 TP3 T5 = T6 =
4 TP4 T7 = T8 =

Ambient temperature (T9) = ------- oc

CALCULATIONS:
1. Heat input, q = V x I watts.

2. Surface area (A) of ..

i) TP1 = 0.0433 m2
ii) TP2 = 0.0523 m2
iii) TP3 = 0.0686 m2
iv) TP4 = 0.0866 m2

3. Convective heat transfer coefficient,

h W/m^2 K

4.Critical radius, (where, k = 0.48 w/ m . k )

GRAPH : Plot the graph of 'heat input' v/s 'actual radius'.

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53
CONCLUTION:
i) Critical radius for ho = ---- was found to be ---- m .
ii) Heat lost (i.e. heat input ) was maximum for test piece of critical radius.

PRECAUTIONS:
i) Operate all the switches and knobs gently.
ii) Before putting 'ON' the main switch see that all the dimmerstats are at zero
position and all the selector switches are in upward direction.
iii)Check that 'earthling' is connected to the unit.
iv) Use only one meter selector switch at a time.

54
 6.CRITICAL RADIUS OF INSULATING MATERIAL (New Setup)

1. OBJECTIVE:
To determine the maximum heat transfer rate and critical radius of insulation for given insulating
material.
2. AIM:
2.1 Behavior of cylindrical specimen with different type of insulation.
2.2 Plotting curves;
Heat transfer coefficient vs radius of insulation
Heat transfer rate vs radius of insulation
2.3 Calculate of maximum heat transfer coefficient and critical radius of insulation.

3. INTRODUCTION:
Use of thermal insulating materials is a very common practice for a wide range of applications. These are
utilized for reducing heat gain such as in refrigeration piping, cryogenics, chilled water loops, electrical,
transmission, refrigeration, industries and cryogenics etc. A thermal insulator is a poor conductor of heat
and has a low thermal conductivity. Insulation is used in buildings and in manufacturing processes to
prevent heat loss or heat gain.

4. THEORY:
Adding insulation to a flat wall always decreases heat transfer, because of the added conductive
resistance. The thicker the insulation, the lower the heat transfer rate. This is expected, since the heat
transfer area is constant, and adding insulation always increases the total resistance for heat transfer.

Figure 1:Plane slab Figure 2:Plane slab with insulation

55
Let T1 and T2 be the left and right face temperatures of the wall and T o be the ambient temperature, L be
thickness of wall, A be the area along which the heat transfer is taking place and ho be the outer surface
convective heat transfer coefficient, then the total thermal resistance is given as

L 1
Rth   C/W ……(Without insulation)
o
K . A ho . A

If we provide the insulation of thickness X to plane wall , then the total thermal resistance become,

L X 1 o
Rth    C/W …...(With insulation)
K . A K '.A ho . A

Where L = Thickness of slab (m); K = Thermal conductivity of slab material (W/moC); K’ =

o
Thermal conductivity of insulation (W/m C); X = Thickness of insulation (m); ho = Outer surface
heat transfer coefficient (W/m2oC); A = Heat transfer area (m2)
Hence for plane wall, on providing the insulations, it will always result in increase in total thermal
resistance. Adding insulation to a cylindrical piece or a spherical shell, however, is a different matter.
The additional insulation increases the conduction resistance of the insulation layer (because of increase
in the radius of insulation but decreases the convection resistance of the surface because of the increase
in the outer surface area for convection. The heat transfer from the pipe may increase or decrease,
depending on which effect dominate.

Figure 3: Cylinder with insulation

The total resistance for cylindrical surface is given as

56
 1 r 1
Rth  . ln   
2. .K .L  ri  ho . A
Where, K = Thermal conductivity of insulating material. (W/moC); L = Length of cylinder (m);
r = Radius of insulation (m); ri = Inner radius of cylinder (m); h = Outer surface heat transfer coefficient
(W/m2oC); A = Outer surface area(m2) = 2πrL (m2)
In above expression, total thermal resistance consists of two resistance, conductive resistance of insulation
and convective resistance for outer surface.

1 r
Conductive resistance is Rcond  ln  
2. .K .L  ri 

1
Convective resistance is Rconv 
h.(2. .r.L)
On increasing the insulation radius, Conductive resistance increases whereas the convective resistance
decreases.
Critical radius calculation for cylinder:
Heat transfer rate for above cylinder is given as
T2  TO
Q Watt
1 r 1
ln 
2KL ri ho .(2Lr )

2KL(T2  TO )
Q Watt
r K
ln 
ri ho r

For maximum heat transfer rate, Derivative of heat transfer with respect to radius of insulation should
be zero. i.e.
dQ
0
dr

d  r K 
 ln  0
dr  ri ho .r 

1 k 2 
    r    0
1
 r  ri  ho 
 
 ri 

57
 1 K
 0
r ho .r 2

K
rc  r 
ho

Above expression is for calculation of critical radius of insulation for cylinder.

5. UTILITIES REQUIRED:
Electricity supply: Single phase, 220 V AC, 50 Hz, 5 Amp combined socket with earth connection and
floor area required:

6. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
6.1 STARTING PROCEDURE:
6.1.1 Connect the power supply to the apparatus.
6.1.2 Switch ON the mains ON/OFF switch.
6.1.3 Note down all the initial temperatures from T 1 to T9.
6.1.4 Turn on all the heaters. Set the value of voltage with the help of variac (Say 50V)
and wait for 30 minutes till all the temperatures rises.
6.1.5 After 30 minutes, start taking readings of all the temperatures of inside and outside
cylindrical surface with the help of multichannel switch in an interval of 10
minutes.
6.1.6 These readings should be noted until the steady state is achieved.
6.1.7 When the steady state is achieved, all the center temperatures (T1, T3, T5, T7)
become constant but they are different for different insulations.
6.1.8 Observe the maximum center temperature among (T 1, T3, T5, T7).
6.1.9 Now increase the voltage of other heaters by 1 units in such a way that all other
center temperatures become equal to the maximum center temperature among 4.
6.1.10 Wait for steady state and accordingly we can increase the voltage of other three
heaters for making the center temperature equal.
6.1.11 When all the center temperature become equal to that of maximum center
temperature and steady state is achieved, Note down the corresponding values of
Voltage and currents for all pipes.
6.1.12 At steady state record the temperature & flowrate of hot and cold water.
6.2 CLOSING PROCEDURE:
6.2.1 When experiment is over turn OFF the variac to zero.
58
 6.2.2 Turn OFF all the heaters.
6.2.3 Switch OFF the mains.
6.2.4 Switch OFF power supply to the panel.
7. OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:
7.1 DATA:
Inner radius of heater (ri) = 0.016 m
Radius of insulation for first cylinder (r 1) = 0.023 m
Radius of insulation for second cylinder(r2) = 0.0345 m
Radius of insulation for third cylinder (r 3) = 0.043 m
Radius of insulation for fourth cylinder (r 4) = 0.0525 m
Length of first cylinder (l1) = 0.228 m
Length of second cylinder (l2) = 0.223 m
Length of third cylinder (l3) = 0.226 m
Length of fourth cylinder (l4) = 0.225 m
Thermal conductivity of Plaster of Paris (K) = 0.48 W/mK

7.2 OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr. V1 I1 V2 I2 V3 I3 V4 I4 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
No. (V) (A) (V) (A) (V) (A) (V) (A)

CALCULATION:
Q1  V1  I1 (Watt)
Q2  V2  I 2 (Watt)
Q3  V3  I 3 (Watt)
Q4  V4  I 4 (Watt)
Q1
h1  (W/m2oC)
2 .r1l1 (T2  T9 )
Q2
h2  (W/m2oC)
2 .r2 l 2 (T4  T9 )
Q3
h3  (W/m2oC)
2 .r3l3 (T6  T9 )
Q4
h4  (W/m2oC)
2 .r4 l 4 (T8  T9 )

59
 Compare the values of h for which heat transfer rate is maximum (say h max)
K
rc  (m)
hmax
CALCULATION TABLE:
Sr. Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 h1 h2 h3 h4 rc
No. (W) (W) (W) (W) (W/m C) (W/m C) (W/m C) (W/m2OC)
2O 2O 2O
(m)

Plot the following curves

 Heat Transfer rate vs radius of insulation.
 Coefficient of convective heat transfer vs radius of insulation.

This is kept blank for students to do their sample calculations.

60
8. NOMENCLATURE:
Nom Column Heading Units Type
V1 Voltage for heater 1 Volt Measured
V2 Voltage for heater 2 Volt Measured
V3 Voltage for heater 3 Volt Measured
V4 Voltage for heater 4 Volt Measured
I1 Current for heater 1
Amp Measured
I2 Current for heater 2 Amp Measured
I3 Current for heater 3 Amp Measured
I4 Current for heater 4 Amp Measured
T1 Temperature at center of heater 1 o
C Measured
T2 Temperature at outer surface of cylinder 1 o
C Measured
T3 Temperature at center of heater 2 o
C Measured
T4 Temperature at outer surface of cylinder 2 o
C Measured
T5 Temperature at center of heater 3 o
C Measured
T6 Temperature at outer surface of cylinder 3 o
C Measured
T7 Temperature at center of heater 4 Measured
o
C

T8 Temperature at outer surface of cylinder 4

Measured
o
C
T9 Ambient Temperature o
C Measured
ri Inner radius of heater m Given
r1 Radius of insulation for first cylinder m Given
r2 Radius of insulation for first cylinder m Given
r3 Radius of insulation for first cylinder m Given
r4 Radius of insulation for first cylinder m Given
l1 Length of first cylinder m Given
l2 Length of second cylinder m Given
l3 Length of third cylinder m Given
l4 Length of fourth cylinder m Given

61
 Thermal conductivity of Plaster of Paris 0.48
K W/mK Given

rc Critical radius of insulation m Calculated

h1 Coefficient of convective heat transfer for insulation 1 W/m2 OC Calculated
h2 Coefficient of convective heat transfer for insulation 1 W/m2 OC Calculated
h3 Coefficient of convective heat transfer for insulation 3 W/m2 OC Calculated
h4 Coefficient of convective heat transfer for insulation 4 W/m2 OC Calculated
hmax Maximum coefficient of heat transfer W/m2 OC Calculated

9. PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

9.1. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180volts and above than230 volts.

9.2. Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFFswitches
given on the panel are at OFF position.

9.3. Operator selectors switch off temperature indicator gently.

9.4. Always keep the apparatus free from dust.

62
Block Diagram

63
7: HEAT TRANSFER IN FORCED CONVECTION

1. INTRODUCTION:

Whenever a fluid is being forced over the heated surface, forced convection heat transfer

being forced. Pipe is heated by a band heater outside the pipe. Temperature of pipe is measured
with thermocouples attached to the pipe surface. Heater input is measured by a Voltmeter and
Ammeter. Thus, heat transfer rate and heat transfer coefficient can be calculated.

2. SPECIFDICATIONS:

1. Test pipe : 33mm I.D., 500 mm long

2. Band heater for pipe.
3. Multichannel Digital Temperature Indicator (0-300 oC) using Chromel/ Alumel
Thermocouples.
4. Dimmerstat: 2 Amps and 240 Volts for heater input control.
5. Voltmeter: 0-200 volts
6. Ammeter: 0-2 amperes
7. Blower to force air through test pipe.
8. Orificemeter with water manometer.

3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

1.
2. Adjust the heater input with the help of dimmerstat.
3. Start the blower and adjust the air flow with valve.
4. Wait till steady state is reached and note down the reading in the observation table.

64
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65
 4. OBSERVATIONS:

MANOMETER
SR. VOLT AMPERE TEMPERATURES oC
DIFERENCE
NO. T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 hw
V I

5. CALCULATIONS:

o
1. Air inlet temperature: T1= C
o
2. Air outlet temperature: T7= C
3. Density of air, kg/m3 = kg/m3

4. Diameter of orifice = 22mm

Manometer difference = Water Head = hw m = m

Air Head = m

Where, w=Density of water = 1000 kg/m3

Therefore, air flow rate, m3/sec = m3/sec
Where, Cd = 0.64
ao = Cross Sectional Area of Orifice = m2
5. Mass flow rate of air, ma = Q x a kg/s = kg/s

6. Velocity of air, m/sec = m/sec

Where, ap = Cross Sectional Area of Pipe

= 8.33 x 10-4 m2
7. Heat gained by air, q = ma x Cpa x (T7-T1) =

Where, Cpa = Specific Heat of Air = 1 kJ/kgK OR 103 J/kgK

8. Average inside surface temperature, 0 0
C= C

66
 9. Bulk mean temperature of air, 0 0
C= C

10. Average surface heat transfer coefficient,

Actual heat loss due to Forced Convection = q Heat loss due to radiation

Heat loss due to radiation, ---

Therefore, actual heat loss = q q1

(Assume negligible Heat loss from radiation)
Therefore, W/m2 K =

0.033 x 0.5
= 0.0518 m2
di = Inside diameter of pipe = 0.033 m

11. Reynolds number: =

= Kinematic viscosity at Tm
D = 0.033 m
If ReD < 2000, flow is laminar.
For laminar flow,

If Reynolds number exceeds 2000, flow is turbulent.

For turbulent flow,

Where, n = 0.4 when fluid is being heated.

N = 0.3 when fluid is being cooled.
;
Determine htheo from Nu.

NOTE: The calculated and actual values may differ appreciably because of heat losses. The heat
loss through natural convection, conduction and heat loss through insulation over the heater is not
considered, but they are present. Also, the heat flux is not uniform practically, as assumed in
theory, which gives difference actual and theoretical values.

67
6. PRECAUTIONS:

1.

2. Operate all the switches and controls gently.

3. Do not obstruct the flow of air while experiment is going on.

68
8: UNSTEADY STATE HEAT TRANSFER APPARATUS
In all steady state heat transfer process, if all the other parameters are constant then
temperature is also constant and does not vary with time also. In contrary to this, in unsteady
state heat transfer process, through other variables are constant temperature is function of
time. A very good example of this is when a chisel is to be hardened, it is heated and then
quenched in oil or water. During both, heating and cooling process temperature is a function
of time.
Our apparatus consists of a hot water bath provided with electrical heater, so that water
can be heated up to desired temperature. A test piece with a thermocouple at the center is
immersed in the water bath and its temperature is measured at fixed interval of time. The unit
is provided with timer, which shows temp. sound every five seconds. The hot test piece is
then cooled in atmospheric air or cold water. Thus heat transfer coefficients during heating
and cooling process can be calculated.

SPECIFICATIONS : -
1. Test piece - 25 dia. X 30 long, copper and m. s. - 1 each.
2. Hot water bath with electric heater.
3. Thermostat for heater.
4. Digital temperature indicator for bath and test piece temperature.
5. A timer to indicate temperature at 5 seconds interval.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Aim : - To determine the heat transfer coefficient in unsteady state .
1. Lift up the top cover of water bath and fill up sufficient water in it.
2. Attach the required test piece to the test piece holder, insert the
thermocouple in it and tighten the test piece.
3. Close the small opening for inserting the test piece and start the heater.
4. Set the thermostat at about 600C and note down water temperature when
thermostat puts 'off ' the heater.
5. Note down initial temperature of test piece and insert it in water bath. At the same
time put 'ON' the buzzer and note down temperature at every five seconds. (This is
done automatically by a limit switch provided.)

69
6. As test piece temperature approaches water bath temperature, take out the test piece
and cool it in atmospheric air or in cold water. During cooling also, note down the
temperatures at fixed time intervals (For cooling in air, note the temperatures, every
15 seconds. )
7. Repeat the procedure at elevated water bath temperatures, e. g. 70 0C., 800C. etc.

(Do not raise water temperature above 90 0C.)

8. Repeat the procedure for the other test piece.

OBSERVATIONS : -
Test piece - Copper / M.S.
0
Bath temp. = C.
0
Ambient temperature. = C.
Sr. No. Heating Process Cooling Process
Time Sec Temp. of Time Sec Temp. of
Test Piece Test Piece
0 0
5 15
10 30
15 45

THEORY : -
Let the initial temperature of body be to and surface area of body be A m 2.

When a body of volume 'V' is immersed in surrounding of temperature T f' then at any
instant of time t, rate of chance of internal energy of body is equal to heat transfer rate
from the surroundings. Hence,
dT
Va Cp ------- = h A ( T - Tf )
dt
if = ( T - Tf ) then

d
V Cp ------- = - h A
dt
Integrating and using initial condition,
at t = 0 , = ( To -Tf ) = o , then

70
 - h At
------- = [ -------------- ]
o e Cp V

For a cylinder of radius R and length L ,

-2h ( L + R ) t
------- = [ ------------------------ ]
o e Cp R L

The equation can be expressed in terms of two dimensionless parameters,

called Biot number ( Bi ) and Fourier number ( Fo )

hL T
Bi = ------- and Fo = ---------
K L2
Where,
K = Thermal Conductivity,
L = Characteristic dimension,
= Thermal diffusivity

K
= ----------
Cp

For the cylinder, R is characteristic dimension,

------- = [ - 2 (Bi ) ( Fo ) ( 1 + L / R ) -1 ]
o e

71
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72
CALCULATIONS : -

0
Initial temperature of body = To = C.
0
Temperature of water bath ( or surrounding ) = Tf = C.
Specimen size = dia. 25 mm x 30 mm. Long
Hence, Volume of specimen,

V = ------ D 2 x l
4
Surface area of specimen,

A=2[ /4 D2 ] + DL

= 2.847 x 10 - 3 m 2

o= ( To - Tf )
After 5 seconds,

5= ( To - Tf )
Now,
-2h ( L + R ) t
------- = [ ------------------------ ]
o e Cp R L

-2h ( L + R ) t
Log e [ ------ ] = [ ---------------- ]
o e Cp R L

Cp R L Log e [ / o ]
h = -----------------------------------------
2(L+R)t

= Mass density of specimen

= 7800 kg / m 3 for m.s.

= 8800 kg / m 3 for copper

73
 Cp = Specific heat of specimen
= 452 J / kg K ( 0.1 k cal / kg m 0C ) for m.s.

= 381 J / kg K (0.09 k cal / kg m 0C ) for copper.

R & L = Radius and Length of specimen.
t = time in hours.
The above calculations are made by neglecting the internal temperature gradients of
specimen. However, there is criterian for neglecting temperature gradient , which is ;
Bi 0.1 which can be readily verified, because
hL
Bi = ---------
K
Hence, for cylinder, R is characteristic dimension

hR
Bi = ---------
K

CONCLUSION : -
1. Average heat transfer coefficient for heating is --------------
2. Average heat transfer coefficient for cooling in air is --------------
3. Average heat transfer coefficient for cooling in water is --------------

PRECATIONS
1. Operate all the switches and controls gently.
2. Do not heat water above 90 0 C.
3. While heating the water, the small opening for inserting the test piece
should be covered.
4. NEVER START THE HEATER WITHOUT WATER IN THE TANK.

74
 8.UNSTEADY STUDY HEAT TRANSFER UNIT (New setup)
1. OBJECTIVE:
To study unsteady-state heat transfer at varying fluid temperature.

2. AIM:
2.1 To calculate the Biot number, Fourier number and hence the heat transfer coefficient.
2.2 To plot Heisler Chart for the given sample of cylinder solid.

3. INTRODUCTION:
In heat transfer analysis, some bodies are observed to behave like a “lump” whose interior temperature
remains essentially uniform at all times during a heat transfer process. The temperature of such bodies
can be taken to be a function of time only, T(t). Heat transfer analysis that utilizes this idealization is
known as lumped system analysis, which provides great simplification in certain classes of heat
transfer problems without much sacrifice from accuracy.
4. THEORY:
The solutions to this equation can be attained via analytical, numerical or graphical methods.
The energy balance equation as per following:
𝐸̇𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐸̇𝑔 = 𝐸̇𝑠𝑡
During a small time interval 𝑑𝑡, the temperature of the solid increases by a differential amount 𝑑𝑇. Assuming no
internal heat generation, the energy balance for the solid over this time interval can be expressed as Eq.(3).
Initially, the body is at a temperature 𝑇𝑖. When the cylinder is immersed in hot water, heat transfer occurs solely
through convection.

−𝐸̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐸̇𝑠𝑡
𝑑𝑇
−ℎ𝐴𝑠 (𝑇 − 𝑇∞ ) = 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝
𝑑𝑡
𝜃 = 𝑇 − 𝑇∞
𝑑𝜃
−ℎ𝐴𝑠 𝜃 = 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝
𝑑𝑡
Where 𝑉- Body volume 𝐴𝑠 - surface area 𝜌 - density of the body material 𝐶𝑝 - specific heat of the body
material.

75
 Where
𝑽- Body volume
𝑨𝒔 - Surface area cylinder
𝝆 - Density of the body material
𝑪𝒑 - Specific heat of the body
material

Figure A: Schematic of the experimental setup

𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝜃
= −𝑑𝑡
ℎ𝐴𝑠 𝜃
𝜃 𝑡
𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝜃
∫ = − ∫ 𝑑𝑡
ℎ𝐴𝑠 𝜃
𝜃𝑖 0

𝜃
𝜏𝑙𝑛 = −𝑡
𝜃𝑖
𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝
𝜏=
ℎ𝐴𝑠
𝑻 − 𝑻∞ 𝒕
= 𝒆−𝝉
𝑻𝒊 − 𝑻∞

𝝆𝑽𝑪𝒑 𝟏
𝝉= =( ) 𝝆𝑽𝑪𝒑 = 𝑹𝒕 𝑪𝒕
𝒉𝑨𝒔 𝒉𝑨𝒔

𝑅𝑡 - Resistance to convection heat transfer 𝐶𝑡 - Lumped thermal capacitance of the

solid
4.1 Criteria for the Lumped System Analysis:
The lumped system analysis assumes uniform temperature within the object, valid when the Biot number
ℎ𝐿𝑐
𝐵𝑖 = is much less than 1, indicating negligible internal temperature gradients. Here, ℎ is the convective
𝑘

heat transfer coefficient, 𝐿𝑐 is the characteristic length, and 𝑘 is the thermal conductivity of the object.
ℎ𝐿𝑐
𝐵𝑖 =
𝑘

76
Lumped system analysis is exact when 𝐵𝑖 = 0. Generally, accepted norm for assuming lumped system
analysis, 𝐵𝑖 ≤ 0.1.
5. DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consists of a small test cylinder. The cylinder is heated by a constant temperature water
bath, till steady state is reached. During heating, temperature of the cylinder is function of time and
hence, heating of cylinder is under unsteady state heat transfer. The temperature of cylinder is
measured with the help of temperature sensor inserted in the center. The hot water bath is provided
with a heater and is controlled by digital temperature controller. An agitator is also provided to
maintain the constant bath temperature.
5. UTILITIES REQUIRED:
Electricity supply: Single phase, 220 V AC, 50 Hz, 0 - 6 Amp combined socket with earth connection;
Water initial fill – 10 ltrs.; Floor drain required.;

6. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
STARTING PROCEDURE:
 Close drain valves.
 Ensure that switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
 Fill the water in water bath.
 Connect electric supply to the set up.
 Set the desired water temperature in the PID by operating the increment or decrement
and set button of PID.
 Switch ON the heater and wait till desired temperature achieves.
 Now put the desired test section in the water bath and simultaneously start the stop watch.
 Note down the time and temperature data for desired test section.
 Repeat the experiment for different temperature and test section.

CLOSING PROCEDURE:
When experiment is over switch OFF the heater. Drain the water from hot water tank.

7. OBSERVATION & CALCULATION:

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78
 8.1 DATA:
Length of Cylinder L = 0.14 m Radius of Cylinder r0 = 0.016 m
Density of Brass ρB = 8522 kg/m3 Density of SS ρss = 7900 kg/m3
Specific heat CpBB = 385 J/kgK Specific heat Cpss = 477 J/kgK
Thermal conductivity of Brass kB =110.7W/m˚C Thermal conductivity of SS kss =14.9 W/m˚C
8.2 OBSERVATION TABLE for brass brass (cooling)
(Heating)
Tꝏ = ______ (oC) Tꝏ = ______ (oC)
Sr.
t (sec) T (˚C) Sr. No. t (sec) T (˚C)
No.

8.2 OBSERVATION TABLE for Stainless steel (cooling)

Stainless steel (Heating)
Tꝏ = ______ (oC) Tꝏ = ______ (oC)
Sr.
t (sec) T (˚C) Sr. No. t (sec) T (˚C)
No.

79
CALCULATIONS :

𝑇∞ = ____(℃);

𝑇𝑖 = ____(℃)
𝑇−𝑇∞
𝜃0 = (°𝐶)
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇∞

∝𝑡
𝐹0 = 𝑉
(𝐴)2

𝑘
∝= (𝑚2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 )
𝜌𝐶𝑝

𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟02 𝐿

𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟0 𝐿
𝑇−𝑇∞
Plot the graph vs. t.
𝑇𝑖 −𝑇∞

Measure the slope from the graph.

−𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑉
ℎ= × 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
𝐴

Calculate Biot Number

ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑖 =
2𝑘

80
8.2 CALCULATION TABLE for Brass (cooling)
brass (heating)
Sr.No. t (sec) Ɵ0 (oC) Fo Sr.No. t (sec) Ɵ0 (oC) Fo

1.1 CALCULATION TABLE for Stainless Steel (cooling)

stainless steel (heating)
Sr.No. t (sec) Ɵ0 (oC) Fo Sr.No. t (sec) Ɵ0 (oC) Fo

81
9. NOMENCLATURE:

Nom Column Heading Units Type

A Area of the test piece m2 Calculated
L Length of the cylinder m Measured
r0 Radius of the cylinder m Measured
CpB Specific heat of Brass J/kg oC Given
CpSS Specific heat of SS J/kg oC Given
ρB Density of brass kg/m3 Given
ρss Density of SS kg/m3 Given
kB Thermal conductivity of Brass W/m oC Given
kss Thermal conductivity of SS W/m oC Given
t Time in sec sec Measured
T Temperature of test piece at any time o
C Measured
Tꝏ Water bath temperature o
C Measured
Ti Initial temperature of cylinder o
C Measured
Ɵo Temperature difference o
C Calculated
Fo Fourier number * Calculated
α Thermal diffusivity m2/sec Calculated
V Volume of test piece (m3) Calculated
Bi Biot number * Calculated
h Heat transfer coefficient W/m2 oC Calculated

* Symbols are unitless

10. PRECAUTION & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:
10.1 Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 200 volts and more than 230volts.

10.2 Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFFswitches
given on the panel are at OFF position.

10.3 Operator selector switch OFF temperature indicator gently.

10.4 Always keep the apparatus free from dust.

82
11. TROUBLESHOOTING:
11.1 If electric panel is not showing the input on the mains light, check the main
supply.

83
9 : CRITICAL HEAT FLUX APPARATUS

INTRODUCTION
When heat is added to a liquid from a submerged solid surface which is at a temperature higher

than the saturation temperature of the liquid, it is usual for a part of the liquid to change phase. This

change of phase is called boiling.

Boiling is of various types, the type depending upon the temperature difference between the

surface and the liquid. The different types are indicated in Fig. 1, in which a typical experimental

boiling curve obtained in a saturated pool of liquid is drawn.

The heat flux supplied to the surface is plotted against (Tw - Ts) the difference between the

temperature of the surface and the saturation temperature of the liquid. It is seen that the boiling

curve can be divided into three regions:

I) Natural Convection Region ,

II) Nucleate Boiling Region and

III) Film Boiling Region.

The region of natural convection occure at low temperature differences (of the order of 10 0C or

less). Heat transfer from the heated surface to the liquid in its vicinity causes the liquid to be

superheated.

This superheated liquid rises to the free liquid surface by natural convection, where vapour is

produced by evaporation.

As the temperature difference ( Tw - Ts ) is increased, nucleate boiling starts. In this region, it is

observed that bubbles start to form at certain locations on the heated surface. Region (II ) consists

of two parts. In the first part ( II - a ) the bubbles formed are very few in number. They condense

the liquid and do not reach the free surface. In the second part ( II - b ) the rate of bubble formation
84
as well as the number of locations where they are formed increase. Some of the bubbles now rise

all the way to the free surface.

With increasing temperature difference, a stage is finally reached when the rate of formation of

bubbles is so high, that they start to coalesce and blanket the surface with a vapour film. This is the

beginning of region (III) viz. film boiling. In the first part of this region (III - a) the vapour film is

unstable,so that film boiling may be occuring on a portion of the heated surface area, while nucleate

boiling may be occuring on the remaining area. In the second part ( III - b) a stable film covers the

entire surface . At the end of region(II) the boiling curve reaches a peak (Point A). Beyond this, in

region(III-A) inspite of increasing temperature difference, the heat flow increases with the formation

of a vapour film. The heat flux passes through a minimum (point B) at the end of region(III-a). It starts

to increase again with (Tw - Ts) only when stable film boiling begins and radiation becomes

increasingly important.

It is of interest to note how the temperature of the heating surface changes as the heat flux is

steadily increased from zero. Upto the point A, natural convection Boiling and then nucleate boiling

occur and the temperature of the heating surface is obtained by reading off the value of (Tw - Ts)

from the boiling curve and adding to it the value of Ts.

If the heat flux is increased even a little beyond the value of A, the temperature of the surface will

shoot up to the value corresponding to the point C. It is apparatus from Fig. 1. that the surface

temperature corresponding to point C is high.

For most surface, it is high enough to cause the material to melt. Thus in most practical situations,

it is undesirable to exceed the value of heat flux corresponding to point A . This value is therefore of

considerable engineering signficance and is called the critical or peak heat flux. The pool boiling

curve as described above is known as Nukiyam pool boiling curve. The discussions so far has been

85
concerned with the various type of boiling which occuring saturated pool boiling. If the liquid is below

the saturation temperature we say that sub-cooled pool boiling is taking place. Also in many practical

situations, e.g. steam generators, one is interested in boiling in a liquid flowing through tubes. This

is called forced convection boiling may aslo be saturated or subcooled and of the nucleate or film

type.

Thus in order to completely specify boiling occurring in any process, one must state that, --

(i) Whether it is forced convection boiling or pool boiling, (ii) whether the liquid is saturated or

subcooled, and (iii) whether is in the natural convection nucleate of film region.

APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a cylindrical glass housing the test heater and heater coil for heating
of the water. This heater coil is direct connected to the mains (Heater R1) and the test wire is also
connected to mains via. variac. An ammeter is connected in series while a voltmeter across it to read
the current and voltage respectively.

The glass container is kept on a stand. There is provision of observing the test heater wire with
the help of a lamp light from back and the heater wire can be view a lense.

SPECIFICATIONS -

1) Glass Container - Diameter - 250 mm Height - 100 mm

2) Heater for Initial Heating -
Nichrome Heater ( R-1 ) - 1 KW
3) Test Heater ( R-2 )
Nichrome wire - 0. 18 mm ( to be calculated according to wire used say 36 SWG to 40 SWG.)
4) Length of test Heater ( R-2 ) = 100 mm
5) Dimmerstat - 10 AMP, 230 volts
6) Voltmeter - 0 to 100 Volts
7) Ammeter - 0 to 10 Amps

8) Thermometer - 0 to 1000C

86
EXPERIMENTS
This experimental set up is designed to study the pool boiling phenomenon upto critical heat flux
point. The pool boiling over the heater wire can be visualised in the different regions upto the critical
heat flux point at which the wire melts. The heat flux from the wire is slowly increased by gradually
increasing the applied voltage across the test wire the change over from natural convection to
nucleate boiling can be seen. The formation of bubbles and their growth in size and number can be
visualised followed by the vigorous bubbles formation and their immediate carrying over to surface
and ending this in the breaking of wire indicating the occurance of critical heat flux point. This is
repeated for various temperatures of the water in the container upto the saturation temperature.

PROCEDURE

1) Take sufficient amount of distilled water in the container.

2) See that both the heaters are completely submerged.

3) Connect the heater coil R-1 (1 Kw Nichrome coil ) and test heater wire across the studs and make
the necessary electrical connections.

4) Switch on the heater R-1(Let variac be at O position. )

5) Keep it ON till you get the required bulk temperature of water in the container say 50 0C,
600C, 700C temperature.

6) Switch off the heater R-1.

7) Very gradually increase the voltage across test heater by slowly changing the variac position and
stop a while at each position to observe the boiling Phenomenon on wire.

8) Go on increasing the voltage till wire brakes and carefully note the voltage and current at this
point.

9) Repeat this experiment by altering the bulk temperature of water.

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OBSERVATIONS
1) Diameter of test heater wire, d = m.
2) Length of the test heater, L = 0.1 m

3) Surface area. A = . d.L = m2

Bulk Temperature of water Ammeter Reading Voltmeter Reading

0 ( I Amps ) ( V Volts )
C

400 C
500 C
600C
700 C

NOTE - The ammeter and voltmeter readings are to be note down when wire melts.

RESULTS -

The critical heat flux at various bulk temperatures water can be calculated by the following

procedure -

1) Heat Input, q = v. I watts.

Q V.I
2
2) Critical Heat flux, h act. = -------- = --------------- watts / m
A A

peak heat flux in saturated pool boiling =

3)Zuber has given following equation for calculating peak heat flux in saturated pool boiling :

1/2
q⁄ = 0.18 hfg [σ . g(ρ − ρ )]1/4 [𝜌𝐿 × 𝜌𝑉 ]
𝐴 LV L V 𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑉
Where,

q
/A = Heat Flux watts / m2

hfg = Latent heat of vaporisation J/ Kg---------- ( from steam table )

89
 LV= Liquid Vapour surface tension N/m --------- ( from chart )

L= Density of Liquid = 1000 Kg / m3

V= Density of vapour= 1/ Vg Kg / m3---------- ( from steam table )

hfg , L V , L and V are evaluated at the water temperature.

It can be observed that the critical heat flux value go on decreasing as the bulk temperature

approaches the saturation point as expected.

The experimental value of critical heat flux at the sat. temperature is comparable to that

SURFACE TENTION TABLE -

Temp.0c 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

LV ( N/ m ) 756 742 727 712 696 679 662 644 628 608 589

STEAM TABLE ( TEMPERATURE)

Temp. vapour density Specific Enthalpy Temp. vapour density Specific Enthalpy
0
c ( v ) kg / m 3 kJ / kg. 0
c ( v ) kg / m 3 x 103 J / kg. .

0 4.85 x 10- 3 2501.6 50 0.0830 2382.9

5 6.79 x 10- 3 2489.7 55 0.1044 2370.8

10 9.39 x 10- 3 2477.9 60 0.1302 2358.6

15 0.0136 2466.1 65 0.1612 2346.3

20 0.0172 2454.3 70 0.1981 2334.0
25 0.0230 2442.5 75 0.2418 2321.5
30 0.0303 2430.7 80 0.2933 2308.8
35 0.0396 2418.8 85 0.3536 2296.1
40 0.0511 2406.9 90 0.4235 2283.2
45 0.0654 2394.4 95 0.5045 2227.2

90
 PROPERTIES OF WATER

T Cp x 10 6 K Pr x 104 x106 LV

0
C Kgm/m3 kJ/kgm-K N-sec/m2 W/m-K 1/K m2/Sec. N/m

0 999.9 4.212 1787.8 0.551 13.67 -0.63 1.789 756

10 999.7 4.191 1305.3 0.575 9.52 +0.70 1.306 742
20 998.2 4.183 1004.2 0.599 7.02 1.82 1.006 727
30 995.7 4.174 801.2 0.618 5.42 3.21 0.805 712
40 992.2 4.174 653.1 0.634 4.31 3.87 0.659 696
50 988.1 4.174 549.2 0.648 3.54 4.49 0.556 679
60 983.2 4.179 469.8 0.659 2.98 5.11 0.478 662
70 977.8 4.187 406.0 0.668 2.55 5.70 0.415 644
80 971.8 4.195 355.0 0.675 2.21 6.32 0.365 628
90 965.3 4.208 314.8 0.680 1.95 6.95 0.326 608
100 958.4 4.220 282.4 0.683 1.75 7.52 0.295 589
110 951.0 4.233 258.9 0.685 1.60 8.08 0.272 569

PRECAUTIONS

1) Keep the variac to zero voltage position before starting the experiments.

2) Take sufficient amount of distilled water in the container so that both the heaters are completly
immersed.

3) Connect the test heater wire across the stud

4) Do not touch the water or terminal points when the main switch ON.

5) Operate the variac gently in steps and sufficient time in between.

6) After the attainment of critical heat flux decrease slowly the voltage and bring it to zero position.

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9. CRITICAL HEAT FLUX APPARATUS (New Setup)

1. OBJECTIVE:
To study the pool boiling phenomenon up to critical heat flux point.

2. AIM:
To determine the critical heat flux of a given wire.

3. INTRODUCTION:
When heat is added to a liquid from a submerged solid surface which is at a temperature
higher than the saturation temperature of the liquid, it is used for the part of the liquid
to change phase. This change of phase is called ‘Boiling’. Boiling of various types, the
depending upon the temperature difference between the surface and the liquid.

4. THEORY:
This experimental set-up is designed to study the pool boiling phenomenon up to critical
heat flux. The pool boiling over the heater wire can be visualized in the different
regions up to the critical heat flux point at which the wire melts. The heat flux from the
wire is slowly increased by gradually increasing the applied convection to nucleate
boiling can be seen. The formation of bubbles and their growth in size and number can
be visualized followed by vigorous bubble formation and their immediate carrying over
to surface and ending this in the breaking of wire indicating the occurrence of critical
heat flux point. This is repeated for various temperatures of the water in the container.

The different types experimental boiling curve obtained in a saturated pool of liquid.

The heat flux supplied to the surface is plotted against (T w-T1 ) (The difference between
the temperature of the surface and the boiling temperature of the liquid.)

It is seen that the boiling curve can be divide into three regions;

4.1 Natural Convection Region

4.2 Nucleate Boiling Region

4.3 Film Boiling Region.

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 4.1 NATURAL CONVECTION REGION:
The region of natural convection occurs at low temperature differences (of the order of
10 oC or less). Heat transfer from the heated surface to liquid in its vicinity causes the
liquid to be superheated. This superheated liquid rises to the free liquid surface by
natural convection, where vapour is produced by evaporation.

4.2 NUCLEATE BOILING REGION:

As the temperature difference (T w – T1 ) is increased, nucleate boiling starts. In this
region, it is observed that bubble start to form at certain locations on the heated surface.
Region II consists of two parts. In the first part, II-a, the bubbles formed are very few in
number. In the second part, II-b, the rate of bubble formation as well as the number of
locations where they are formed, increase. Some of the bubbles now rise all the way to
the free surface. With increasing temperature difference a stage is finally reached when
the rate of formation of bubble is so high, that they start to collapse and blanked the
surface with a vapour film. This the beginning of region III.

4.3 FILM BOILING REGION:

In the first part of region III, the vapour film is unstable, so that film boiling may be
occurring on a portion of the heated surface area, while nucleate boiling may be
occurring on the remaining area. In the second part of region III, a stable film covers the
entire surface. The temperature difference in this region is the order of 100 oC and
consequently radiative heat transfer across the vapour film is also significant.

5. DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consists of water bath with heater and test wire. Heater is also connected
to mains via a dimmer stat and a voltmeter. Temperature sensor is provided to measure
the temperature. A micro controller based peak detector has been provided to measure
the maximum current during the process. The heater wire can be viewed through a
transparent window.

6. UTILITIES REQUIRED:

6.1 Electricity Supply: Single Phase, 220 V AC, 50 Hz, 5- 15 Amp. combined
socket with earth connection

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 6.2 Water Supply (Initial Fill) 10 ltrs.

6.3 Floor Drain Required.

6.4 Floor area required : 1050mm x 940mm.

7. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

7.1 STARTING PROCEDURE:

7.1.1 Close the drain valve of water bath.

7.1.2 Fill the water bath with water up to 3/4th of its capacity.

7.1.3 Ensure that ON/OFF switches given on the panel are at OFF position.

7.1.4 Connect the test heater wire.

7.1.5 Connect electric supply to the set up.

7.1.6 Set the desired bath temperature with the help of PID (50o - 80o C).

7.1.7 Switch ON the heater and wait till desired temperature achieved.

7.1.8 Initialize the process monitor indicator by pressing the reset button provided.

7.1.9 Switch-ON the test heater.

7.1.10 Very gradually increase the voltage across it by slowly changing the variac
and stop a while at each position to observe the boiling phenomena on
wire.

7.1.11 Go on increasing the voltage till wire breaks and carefully note down the
voltage and current at this point.

7.1.12 Bring the variac to zero voltage.

7.1.13 Repeat the experiment for different water bath temperature.

7.2 CLOSING PROCEDURE:

7.2.1 When experiment is over, switch OFF the heater.

7.2.2 Switch OFF the main power supply.

7.2.3 Drain the water bath by opening the valve.

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8. OBSERVATION & CALCULATION:

8.1 DATA:
Diameter of test heater wire d = 2.1*10-4 m
Length of the test heater wire L = 0.08 m

OBSERVATION:
T1 = ( oC)

8.2 OBSERVTION TABLE:

S. No. V (Volt) I (Amp)

CALCULATIONS:

W  V  I (W)

A    d  L (m2)
𝑊
𝑞𝑐 = 𝐴
(𝑊/𝑚2 )

8.3 CALCULATION TABLE:

Sr. No. qc (W/m2 )

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9. NOMENCLATURE:

Nom Column Heading Units Type

A Area of test heater wire m2 Calculated
d Diameter of test heater wire m Given
I Ampere meter reading Amp Measured
L Length of the test heater wire m Given
2
qc Critical heat flux W/m Calculated
o
T1 Boiling temperature C Measured
V Voltmeter reading volt Measured
W Heat supplied by the heater W Calculated

10. PRECAUTION & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

10.1 Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 200 volts and more than 220 volts.

10.2 Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches
given on the panel are at OFF position.

10.3 Slowly increase the voltage of heater.

10.4 Always keep the apparatus free from dust.

11. TROUBLESHOOTING:

11.1 If electric panel is not showing the input on the mains light. Check the main supply.

97
12. BLOCK DIAGRAM:

98
11. DROPWISE & FILMWISE CONDENSATION APPARATUS
(New setup)
1. OBJECTIVE:
To study the Dropwise & Filmwise condensation phenomena.
2. AIM:
2.1 To study the Dropwise & Filmwise condensation of steam on a vertical surface.
2.2 Visualization of condensation process in dropwise as well as filmwise
condensation.
3. INTRODUCTION:

The use of steam both for power production and to convey heat a long history and its use in these fields is
likely to continue into the foreseeable future. In all applications, the steam must be condensed as it
transfers heat to a cooling medium which could be the cold water in the condensers of generating station,
hot water in heating calorifier, a sugar solution in a sugar refinery etc. During condensation very high
heat fluxes are possible and provided the heat can be quickly transferred from the condensing surface
into the cooling medium, steam heat exchangers can be compact and efficient. Steam may condense onto
a surface in two distinct modes, known as filmwise & dropwise. For the same temperature difference
between the steam and the surface, dropwise condensation is several times more effective than filmwise,
and for this reason the former is desirable although in practical plants, it seldom occurs for prolonged
periods.

4. THEORY:

Steam may condense on a surface in two distinct modes, known as film wise and drop wise
condensation. For same temperature between the steam and surface dropwise condensation is much
more effective than film wise condensation and for this reason, the former is desirable although in
practical plants, it rarely occurs for prolonged period.

Film wise condensation: Unless specially treating, most materials are wettable and as condensation
occurs as film condensate spreads over the surface. The thickness of the film depends upon a
number of factors, e.g. the rate of condensation, the viscosity of the fluid, the surface orientation and
nature. Fresh vapor condenses on the outside of the film and heat is transferred by conduction
through the film to metal surface beneath, as the film thickness increases it flows downward drips
from low points leaving the film intact and at an equilibrium thickness. The film of liquid is a barrier

99
to the heat transfer and its resistance accounts for most of the difference between the effectiveness of
the film wise and drop wise condensation.

Dropwise condensation: By specially treating the condensing surface, the contact angle can be
changed and the surface becomes not wettable. As steam condenses, a large number of generally
spherical beads cover the surface. As condensation proceeds, the beads become larger, coalesce, and
then strike downwards over the surface. The moving bead gathers on the static beads along its
downward in its tail. The bare surface offers very little resistance to the transfer of heat and very
high heat fluxes are therefore possible. Unfortunately, due to nature of material used in construction
of condensing heat exchangers, filmwise condensation is normal.

Filmwise Condensation Dropwise Condensation

5. DESCRIPTION:
The experimental set up consists of a metallic container in which steam generation takes place. The lower
portion houses suitable electric heater for steam generation. A cover is provided for filling water. The glass
cylinder houses two water cooled copper condensers, one of which is gold plated to promote drop wise
condensation and other is in its natural state to give film wise condensation. A pressure gauge is provided to
measure steam pressure. Separate connections oftwo condensers for passing water are provided. One Rota
meter is provided to measure flow rate of water through the condenser. A multi-channel digital temperature
indicator is provided to measure temperature of steam, condensers, and water inlet and outlet from condenser.

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6. UTILITIES REQUIRED:
Electricity Supply: Single Phase, 220 V AC, 50 Hz, 5-16 Amp combined socket with earth
connection; Floor area required : 1300mm x 800mm; Continuous water supply and floor drain
required.
7. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
STARTING PROCEDURE:
Close the drain valve of steam generator.
Fill the steam generator with water up to 3/4th of its capacity.
Ensure that ON/OFF switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
Connect electric supply to the set up.
Set the desired steam generator temperature with the help of PID (105 – 110 0C).

Switch ON the heater and wait till desired temperature achieved.

Allow the steam generation to take place.
The Pressure of the generated steam will be indicated on the pressure gauge. Note down the pressure gauge
reading of the steam inlet
Now select the condenser to be tested first and open the ball valve of the same for cooling water supply
Now start the supply of cooling water in the selected condenser (Dropwise or Filmwise).
Depending upon the type of condenser under test Dropwise or Filmwise condensation can be visualized.
If water flow rate is low than steam pressure in chamber will rise and pressure gauge will read the pressure.
If the water rate is matched than condensation will occur at more or less at atmospheric pressure.
Process of Dropwise and Filmwise condensation can be easily viewed through the front glass window of main
unit.
Note down the inlet temperature of the cooling water, outlet cooling water temperature as indicated by the DTI.
Slowly open the steam line valve and allow the steam to enter the steam chamber.
Observe the condensation phenomena and also note down the condenser temperature,steam inlet temperature.
Measure and note the cooling water flow rate through rotameter provided.
Repeat the above procedure for the second type of condenser.

CLOSING PROCEDURE:

Switch OFF the mains ON/OFF switch and Switch OFF the power supply to the set up.

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1
 OBSERVATION & CALCULATION:

8.1 DATA:

MOC: Copper with gold plating MOC: Copper with Natural finish
Dimensions: ID (di) = 0.016 m Dimensions: ID (di) = 0.016 m
OD (d0) = 0.019 m OD (d0) = 0.019 m
Length(L) = 0.170 m Length(L) = 0.170 m

Specific heat of water Cp = 4.178 kJ/kg-K

8.2 OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr. No. F1 (LPH) F2 (LPH) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 (oC)

o o o o o
( C) ( C) ( C) ( C) ( C)

CALCULATIONS:
For Dropwise condensation
𝐹 ×1000
𝑚1 = 1 60 (𝑔/𝑠𝑒𝑐)
𝜋
𝐴𝑜 = 4 𝑑02 + 𝜋𝑑𝑜 𝐿 (𝑚2 )
∆𝑇1 = 𝑇5 − 𝑇4 (℃)

𝑞𝑥1 = 𝑚1 𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇1 (𝑊)

(𝑇1 −𝑇4 )−(𝑇1 −𝑇5 )

∆𝑇𝑚1 = 𝑇 −𝑇 (℃)
ln( 1 4 )
𝑇1−𝑇5

𝑞𝑥1
∅1 = (𝑊/𝑚2 )
𝐴0

∅
𝑈1 = ∆𝑇 1 (𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾)
𝑚1

For Filmwise condensation

𝐹 ×1000
𝑚2 = 2 60 (𝑔/𝑠𝑒𝑐)

𝜋
𝐴𝑜 = 𝑑02 + 𝜋𝑑𝑜 𝐿 (𝑚2 )
4
∆𝑇2 = 𝑇6 − 𝑇4 (℃)
10
2
 𝑞𝑥2 = 𝑚2 𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇2 (𝑊)

(𝑇2 −𝑇4 )−(𝑇2 −𝑇6 )

∆𝑇𝑚2 = 𝑇 −𝑇 (℃)
ln( 2 4 )
𝑇2−𝑇6

𝑞𝑥2
∅2 = (𝑊/𝑚2 )
𝐴0
∅
𝑈2 = ∆𝑇 2 (𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾)
𝑚2

8.3 CALCULATION TABLE:

Sr. No. U1 (W/m2K) U2 (W/m2K)

9. NOMENCLATURE:
Nom Column Heading Units Type
Ao Heat transfer area m2 Calculated
P Gauge pressure of chamber m-bar Measured
do Outer diameter of condenser m Given
di Inner diameter of condenser m Given
qx1 Power Input for dropwise W Calculated

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3
 qx2 Power Input for filwise W Calculated
∆T1 Temperature difference for dropwise ˚C Calculated
∆T2 Temperature difference for filmwise ˚C Calculated
∆Tm1 Log mean temperature difference for dropwise ˚C Calculated
∆Tm2 Log mean temperature difference for filmwise ˚C Calculated
Ф1 Heat flux for dropwise W/m2 Calculated
Ф2 Heat flux for filmwise W/m2 Calculated
U1 Heat transfer coefficient for dropwise W/m2K Calculated
U2 Heat transfer coefficient for filmwise W/m2K Calculated
L Length of tubes m Given
F1 Cooling water flowrate for Dropwise condenser LPM Measured
F2 Cooling water flowrate for Fillmwise condenser LPM Measured
Cp Specific heat of water kJ/kg-K Given
m1 Mass flowrate of water for dropwise gm/sec Calculated
m2 Mass flowrate of water for filmwise gm/sec Calculated
T1 Surface temperature of dropwise condenser ˚C Measured
T2 Surface temperature of filmwise condenser ˚C Measured
T3 Temperature inside the glass chamber ˚C Measured
T4 Inlet temperature of water ˚C Measured
T5 Outlet water temperature of dropwise condenser ˚C Measured
T6 Outlet water temperature of filwise condenser ˚C Measured

10. PRECAUTION & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

10.1 Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 200 volts and more than 230 volts.

10.2 Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches given
on the panel are at OFF position.

10.4 Always keep the apparatus free from dust.

10
4
10
5
11: CROSS FLOW EXPERIMENT WITH HEATED CYLINDER
AIM
To determine the forced convection heat transfer coefficient in cross flow over a circular tube.
THEORY
The rate of heat transfer from a surface depends on the physical configuration of the surface, the
nature of fluid flow over it, and the properties of the fluid involved. Forced convective situations
can be of two types: (i) inside passages (tubes, ducts, etc.) and (ii) over bodies (plates, tubes,
rods, etc.). For a given configuration, the heat transfer data is usually correlated by equations of
the form

APPARATUS
The experimental setup consists of an arrangement to determine the average heat transfer
coefficient in cross flow over a tube.
The tube (20 cm long, 2.5 cm OD) is heated uniformly electrically from inside, and is located at
the inlet of a rectangular duct on the suction side of an exhaust fan. In order to reduce the effects
of axial heat conduction, the tube is made up of three pieces, a central piece 15 cm long, and two
end pieces, 2.5 cm long. They are joined to each other by two insulating rings.
The heat input can be varied by means of an electronic power supply unit. One can set the
required power, and the power consumed is displayed on this unit.
The thermocouples provide the temperature data. Eight thermocouples are located on the tube
surface, six on the central piece, and two on the end pieces. The ninth thermocouple measures
the temperature of the air entering the duct.
The air flow can be varied either by using the speed controller of the fan, or by using the bypass
valve.

PROCEDURE
1. Adjust the flow rate of air. Begin with the maximum flow rate.
2. Adjust the heat input to the tube. (Suggested input: 20 W.)
3. Read the thermocouples and wattmeter in the steady state.
4. Carry out the experiment for three flow rates over the range of flows possible.

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OBSERVATIONS:
Time Thermocouple reading
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

CALCULATIONS

At steady state, average surface temperature,

and ambient temperature,

Now, film temperature,

Calculate the thermo-physical properties of air correspond to Tf from Table 1.

1.1 Calculation of inlet Re number, ReDh

Note down the following.
1. CCl4 and H2O.

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8
2. CCl4 =1500kg/m3 and H2O=1000kg/m3.

3. D1=65mm, Dt=38mm, Ai=200mm*150mm

Now,
H2O* CCl4 -
Calculate V1 using energy balance (Bernouli’s relation),
1 2
𝐴1 2
∆𝑃 = ∗ 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 ∗ 𝑉1 ∗ (( ) − 1)
2 𝐴𝑡
Apply conservation of mass equation (continuity equation) to find the velocity at the inlet.

Now, calculate ReDh at inlet

1.2 Calculation of experimental Nusselt number, NuDh;exp

Note down the following.
1. Input voltage,V and current, I.
2. Assume Tsurr = T1, " =0.4, _ =5.67e-8W/m2.K4.
3. Dcyl=25mm, Lcyl=150mm
Now, Heat input
Qin = V I
4
Heat loss, Qloss = Qrad s.(Ts;avg -Tsurr 4)
Where, cyl.Lcyl.

Actual Heat input,

Qact = Qin Qloss
Average heat transfer coefficient ,

Now, experimental average Nusselt number, NuDh;exp

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9
1.3 Comparison of NuDh;exp with empirical correlations
Compare NuDh;exp with the following empirical relations.
1. Hilpert relation,
0.683.ReDh0.466.Pr1/3 if 40< ReDh <4000
=0:193.ReDh0.618.Pr1/3 if 4000< ReDh <40000
2. Churchill's relation (Churchill and Bernstien),

Plots required
1. Plot Ts;avg-time curve for 3 different Re numbers and compare the trend.
2. Plot curve. Compare them and write about the general
trend of NuDh - ReDh curve.

RESULT
1. Obtain the average forced convective heat transfer coefficient for the central 15 cm length
after accounting for the radiative component.
2. Evaluate and and plot against .
3. Make a comparison with available correlations.

CAUTION
START THE FAN BEFORE SWITCHING ON THE HEATER.
DO NOT EXCEED 100°C FOR THE TUBE SURFACE TEMPERATURES.
WHEN SWITCHING OFF, FIRST SWITCH THE HEATER OFF. WAIT FOR
THE TUBE TO COOL TO BELOW 45°C BEFORE SWITCHING THE FAN OFF.

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111
12: HEAT PIPE DEMONSTRATOR
Heat pipe is an interesting device, which is used to transfer heat from one
location to another. It works with the help evaporation and condensation of liquid,
which is filled inside the heat pipe as a working medium.

Heat pipe basically consist of a stainless steel pipe, sealed at both the ends. It is
evacuated and filled partially with distilled water. Stainless mesh is provided at
inside periphery of the pipe. When heat is applied at lower end of heat pipe, water
inside it evaporates and vapour passes to upper end of pipe. The heat is taken by
the medium surrounding upper portion of heat pipe. The vapour condenses giving
its latent heat of evaporation to surrounding medium. The condensed vapour
returns to bottom through the mesh packing thus because of circulation of vapour,
heat pipe operates at near to isothermal operation and conducts much heat than
conventional conductors.

The apparatus consists of three pipes, viz, " a heat pipe, copper pipe, and a
stainless steel pipe. All the pipes have same physical dimensions. Copper and
stainless steel pipes serve the purpose of comparison of heat pipe performance
with copper pipe as good conductor of heat and with stainless steel pipe as same
material of constriction. All pipes are mounted vertically with a band heater at lower
end and water filled heat sink at upper end. When heaters start heating, the pipes,
begin to transfer the heat to heat sink. Rapid rise of temperature of water in the
heat pipe heat sink demonstrates high (apparent) thermal conductivity of heat pipe.
Nearly isothermal operation of heat pipe is clearly vizilieed of longitudinal
temperature distribution of pipe.

SPECIFICATIONS: -

1) Heat pipe - stainless pipe, 25 mm O.D., 400 mm long at both ends, evacuated
and filled partially with distilled water - 1 no.

2) Copper and Stainless steel pipes of same size as that of heat pipe - 1 each
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 3) Equal capacity heater at bottom end of each pipe

4) Water filled heat sinks at upper end of each pipe.

5) Measurements and controls

a) Dimmerstat to control heat input to all the heaters. -1no.

b) A voltmeter and an ammeter to measure input to heaters one each.

c) Multichannel digital temperature indicator to measure temperature along the

length of pipes. Five thermocouples are provided on each pipe.

d) Thermometers to note down water temperatures in heat sinks -3nos.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCIDURE

Fill up sufficient water in heat sinks. Insure proper earthing to the unit put the
thermometers at the top of heat sinks. Keep dimmerstat zero position and start the
electric supply to the unit. Slowly increase the dimmer so that power is supplied to
heaters . As same dimmerstat supplies power to all heaters and all heaters are of
same capacity, power input to all the heaters remains same. This makes the
comparison simpler. Go on noting down the temperatures of water in heat sinks
every 5 minutes (stir the water before noting down the temperature. After around 30
minutes note down the longitudinal temperature of the pipes, from the temperatures
indicator Repeat the procedure at different heat inputs, but each time it is
necessary to replace the water. Replace the water when pipes become cool lower
than 450c, otherwise removing water at high temperature of pipe may burn the seals
at the bottom of heat sinks. If experiments are conducted for more time, it is merely
to raise the water temperature & ultimately evaporation of water. Hence it is not
recommended to conduct the experiment for more times than 30 minutes.

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 OBSERVATIONS

I) Heat sink water temperatures-

Time S.S. pipe Copper pipe Heat pipe

(minutes) Heat sink Heat sink Heat sink

5 min

10 min.

15min

20min

II) Longitudinal temperature distribution -

Heat. Pipe S.S.pipe Copper pipe

T1 T6 T11

T2 T7 T12

T3 T8 T13

T4 T9 T14

T5 T10 T15

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This page should not be printed.
This page is kept blank for students to plot their results.

Add 1 graph page instead of this page while binding your manual after printed.

115
This page should not be printed.
This page is kept blank for students to plot their results.

Add 1 graph page instead of this page while binding your manual after printed.

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 GRAPHS-

1) Plot the graph of heat sink water temperature rise up to 30 min.

2) Plot longitudinal temperature distribution for pipes.

PRECAUTIONS

1) Proper earthing is necessary.

2) Stir the water before noting the water temperature in heat sink.

3) Do not remove water from heat sinks till the pipes become cool.

OPERATE ONLY ONE METER SELECTOR SWITCH AT A TIME IN UPWARD POSITION.

OTHER TWO SWITCHES MUST BE IN DOWNWARD POSITION.

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 12.HEAT PIPE APPARATUS (New Setup)
1. OBJECTIVE:
To demonstrate the super thermal conductivity of heat pipe and to compare its working with best
conductor i.e. Cu pipe & SS pipe.
2. AIM:
2.1 To plot the temperature vs. time response of three pipes.

2.2 To plot the temperature distribution along the length of three pipes at different time
intervals.
3. INTRODUCTION:
The heat pipe is a device, which transfers heat by boiling a fluid at one end and condensing it on other end
of a pipe. The evaporation and condensation processes are responsible for the nearly isothermal working
of the heat pipe. The condensed liquid is transferred back to boiling area by the capillary action through a
wick structure in the heat pipe. This use of capillary action for pumping the liquid back is the unique
characteristic of the heat pipe.
4. THEORY:
Heat pipes are particularly useful in energy conservation equipment where it is desired to recover heat
from hot gases for air preheats or supplemental heating applications.
Thus, the heat pipe works continuously in a closed loop evaporation –condensation cycle. Only a
negligible quantity of heat transfers through the metal body of the pipe, as almost all the heat is
transferred through liquid vapour transformation. A heat pipe may be divided into three main regions :
1. Evaporator Section
2. Adiabatic Section
3. Condenser Section.
EVAPORATOR SECTION: This is the heat in section of the heat pipe. Due to very low vapour
pressure, as a result of evacuation, water in the wick boils at 5 oC, and converts into water vapour. As
water has very high latent heat of vaporization, large quantity of heat is absorbed in the form of latent
heat of phase transformation.
ADIABATIC SECTION: This section separates the evaporator and the condenser regions. Heat is
neither absorbed, nor rejected in this region. The water vapour during its flow from the evaporator to
the condenser undergoes a slight pressure drop in the section.

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CONDENSER SECTION: This is the Heat out section of the heat pipe. Heat is removed from this
position, using forced air, water or even by natural convection. This causes the steam inside the pipe to
condense, releasing large quantity of heat in the form of latent heat of condensation.
A peculiar characteristic of a heat pipe is that any portion of the heat pipe can be used as an evaporator
or a condenser. Hence, a heat pipe is totally reversible, and it needs no external power for its operation.
Also, it has no mechanically moving parts.
We demonstrate the super thermal conductivity of heat pipe by comparing its properties with Copper
and Stainless Steel Pipes. We plot the temperature vs. time graph for the three pipes and also we plot
and compare the temperature distribution of the three pipes with time. We set equal amount of heat to
be given to each of the pipes at one of their ends by fixing the value of voltage and the current. We
observe that the temperature variation with time was highest in Stainless Steel pipe followed by the
Copper pipe and then followed by the Heat Pipe. This concludes that Heat Pipes have the highest
thermal conductivity followed by the Copper pipes and then the Stainless Steel Pipes. The graphical
result supports the above statement and thus demonstrates the Super Thermal Conductivity of Heat
Pipes.

5. DESCRIPTION:
The experimental set up consists of three pipes, viz. a heat pipe, copper pipe and stainless steel pipe. All the
pipes have same physical dimensions. Copper and stainless pipes serve the purpose of comparison of heat
pipe performance. All pipes are mounted vertically with a band heater at lower end and water filled heat
sink at upper end. Nearly isothermal operation of heat pipe is clearly visualized from longitudinal
temperature distribution of pipe. A variacs is provided for varying the input to the heater and measurement
of input power carried out by a digital voltmeter & digital ammeter. Temperature sensors are provided to
measure the temperature of pipes.
6. UTILITIES REQUIRED:
6.1 Electricity Supply: Single Phase, 220 V AC, 50 Hz, 5-16 Amp combined socket with earth
connection.
6.2 Floor area required: 1300mm x 800mm along with Continuous water supply and Floor drain
required.
7. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

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 7.1 STARTING PROCEDURE:

7.1.1 Fill up sufficient water in the heat sinks.

7.1.2 Keep the dimmer state zero position and start electric supply to the unit.
7.1.3 Slowly increase dimmer so that power is supply to heaters.
7.1.4 As same dimmer stat supplies power to all heaters and all heaters are all same
capacity, power input to the entire heater remains same.
7.1.5 This makes the comparison simpler.
7.1.6 After 1.5 hrs. note down the reading of voltmeter, ammeter and temperature sensors in
the observation table after every 10 minutes interval till observing change in
consecutive readings of temperatures.
7.1.8 Repeat the above procedure for different input voltages.
7.2 CLOSING PROCEDURE:
7.2.1 When experiment is over set the dimmer stat to zero position.

7.2.2 Switch OFF the mains ON/OFF switch.

7.2.3 Switch OFF the power supply to the set up.

8. OBSERVATION & CALCULATION:

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 8.1 DATA:
Length of pipe L = 0.450 m
Inside diameter of pipe di = 0.022 m
Outside diameter of pipe do = 0.025 m

8.2 OBSERVATION TABLE:

Longitudinal Temperature Distribution

Sr. V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T6 T7 T8 T9 T11 T12 T13 T14

No. (Volt) (Amp) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC)

Heat Sink Water Temperature

Sr. No. V (Volt) I (Amp) t (min) T5 (OC) T10 (OC) T15 (OC)

CALCULATIONS:

𝑄 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 (𝑊)

 Plot the graph of heat sink water temperature rise up to 100 minutes.
 Plot longitudinal temperature distribution for pipes.

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9. NOMENCLATURE:
Nom Column Heading Units Type
Q Power input W Calculated
T1 – T4 Temperature of sensors for heat pipe ˚C Measured
T5 Temperature of water in the water tank for heat pipe ˚C Measured
T6 – T9 Temperature of sensors for copper pipe ˚C Measured
T10 Temperature of water in the water tank for copper pipe ˚C Measured
T11 – T14 Temperature of sensors for SS pipe ˚C Measured
T15 Temperature of water in the water tank for SS pipe ˚C Measured
V Voltmeter reading Volt Measured
I Ammeter reading Amp Measured

10. PRECAUTION & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

10.1 Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 200 volts and more than 230 volts.

10.2 Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches given on
the panel are at OFF position.

10.4 Always keep the apparatus free from dust.

Block Diagram

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 Before Mid-Sem Schedule
Tuesday: B Division (S1)

Batch 07-Jan-25 14-Jan-25 21-Jan-25 28-Jan-25 04-Feb-25 08-Feb-25 11-Feb-25 15-Feb-25

B1,B2 EXP 1 & 2 EXP 3 & 6 EXP 4 & 5 EXP 7 & 11 EXP 8 & 12 Makeup Lab EXP 9 & 10 End-Semester
B3,B4 EXP 4 & 5 EXP 1 & 2 EXP 3 & 6 EXP 9 & 10 EXP 7 & 11 Makeup Lab EXP 8 & 12 End-Semester
B5,B6 EXP 8 & 12 EXP 9 & 10 EXP 1 & 2 EXP 3 & 6 EXP 4 & 5 Makeup Lab EXP 7 & 11 End-Semester
B7,B8 EXP 9 & 10 EXP 7 & 11 EXP 8 & 12 EXP 1 & 2 EXP 3 & 6 Makeup Lab EXP 4 & 5 End-Semester
B9,B10 EXP 7 & 11 EXP 4 & 5 EXP 9 & 10 EXP 8 & 12 EXP 1 & 2 Makeup Lab EXP 3 & 6 End-Semester
B11,B12 EXP 3 & 6 EXP 8 & 12 EXP 7 & 11 EXP 4 & 5 EXP 9 & 10 Makeup Lab EXP 1 & 2 End-Semester

Friday: A Division (S2)

Batch 10-Jan-25 17-Jan-25 24-Jan-25 31-Jan-25 07-Feb-25 08-Feb-25 14-Feb-25 15-Feb-25

A1,A2 EXP 1 & 2 EXP 3 & 6 EXP 4 & 5 EXP 7 & 11 EXP 8 & 12 Makeup Lab EXP 9 & 10 End-Semester
A3,A4 EXP 4 & 5 EXP 1 & 2 EXP 3 & 6 EXP 9 & 10 EXP 7 & 11 Makeup Lab EXP 8 & 12 End-Semester
A5,A6 EXP 8 & 12 EXP 9 & 10 EXP 1 & 2 EXP 3 & 6 EXP 4 & 5 Makeup Lab EXP 7 & 11 End-Semester
A7,A8 EXP 9 & 10 EXP 7 & 11 EXP 8 & 12 EXP 1 & 2 EXP 3 & 6 Makeup Lab EXP 4 & 5 End-Semester
A9,A10 EXP 7 & 11 EXP 4 & 5 EXP 9 & 10 EXP 8 & 12 EXP 1 & 2 Makeup Lab EXP 3 & 6 End-Semester
A11,A12 EXP 3 & 6 EXP 8 & 12 EXP 7 & 11 EXP 4 & 5 EXP 9 & 10 Makeup Lab EXP 1 & 2 End-Semester

123
 Post Mid-Sem Schedule
Tuesday: D Division (S1)

Batch 04-Mar-25 11-Mar-25 18-Mar-25 25-Mar-25 01-Apr-25 05-Apr-25 08-Apr-25 12-Apr-25

D1,D2 EXP 1 & 2 EXP 3 & 6 EXP 4 & 5 EXP 7 & 11 EXP 8 & 12 Makeup Lab EXP 9 & 10 End-Semester
D3,D4 EXP 4 & 5 EXP 1 & 2 EXP 3 & 6 EXP 9 & 10 EXP 7 & 11 Makeup Lab EXP 8 & 12 End-Semester
D5,D6 EXP 8 & 12 EXP 9 & 10 EXP 1 & 2 EXP 3 & 6 EXP 4 & 5 Makeup Lab EXP 7 & 11 End-Semester
D7,D8 EXP 9 & 10 EXP 7 & 11 EXP 8 & 12 EXP 1 & 2 EXP 3 & 6 Makeup Lab EXP 4 & 5 End-Semester
D9,D10 EXP 7 & 11 EXP 4 & 5 EXP 9 & 10 EXP 8 & 12 EXP 1 & 2 Makeup Lab EXP 3 & 6 End-Semester
D11,D12 EXP 3 & 6 EXP 8 & 12 EXP 7 & 11 EXP 4 & 5 EXP 9 & 10 Makeup Lab EXP 1 & 2 End-Semester

Friday: C Division (S2)

Batch 07-Mar-25 08-Mar-25 21-Mar-25 28-Mar-25 04-Apr-25 05-Apr-25 11-Apr-25 12-Apr-25

C1,C2 EXP 1 & 2 EXP 3 & 6 EXP 4 & 5 EXP 7 & 11 EXP 8 & 12 Makeup Lab EXP 9 & 10 End-Semester
C3,C4 EXP 4 & 5 EXP 1 & 2 EXP 3 & 6 EXP 9 & 10 EXP 7 & 11 Makeup Lab EXP 8 & 12 End-Semester
C5,C6 EXP 8 & 12 EXP 9 & 10 EXP 1 & 2 EXP 3 & 6 EXP 4 & 5 Makeup Lab EXP 7 & 11 End-Semester
C7,C8 EXP 9 & 10 EXP 7 & 11 EXP 8 & 12 EXP 1 & 2 EXP 3 & 6 Makeup Lab EXP 4 & 5 End-Semester
C9,C10 EXP 7 & 11 EXP 4 & 5 EXP 9 & 10 EXP 8 & 12 EXP 1 & 2 Makeup Lab EXP 3 & 6 End-Semester
C11,C12 EXP 3 & 6 EXP 8 & 12 EXP 7 & 11 EXP 4 & 5 EXP 9 & 10 Makeup Lab EXP 1 & 2 End-Semester

124
Batch Roll Numbers
A1 22B2172, 22B4518, 22B2257, 22B2274, 22B2232
A2 22B2137, 22B2262, 22B2197, 22B2236, 22B0426
A3 22B2139, 22B4503, 22B2191, 22B2275, 22B2159
A4 22B2135, 22B2167, 22B4501, 22B2728, 22B2233
A5 22B2190, 22B4509, 22B2148, 22B0678, 22B4507
A6 22B3920, 22B2125, 22B2170, 22B0365, 22B2205
A7 22B2271, 22B2184, 22B2192, 22B2272,22B2130
A8 22B2106, 22B2154, 22B2141, 22B2269,22B4524
A9 22B2224, 22B2114, 22B2254, 22B2127
A10 22B2244,22B2410,22B0404, 22B2104
A11 22B2181,22B2158,22B2230,22B2215
A12 22B2163, 22B2157, 22B2543, 22B4516

Batch Roll Numbers

B1 22B2210, 22B2204, 22B2134, 22B4506, 22B2246
B2 22B2212, 22B2264, 22B2168, 22B0407, 22B0674
B3 22B2266, 22B2138, 22B2243, 22B4247, 22B2242
B4 22B2250, 22B2173, 22B2124, 22B2149, 22B2231
B5 22B4517, 22B2218, 22B2177, 22B2128, 22B2121
B6 22B0394, 22B2206, 22B4523, 22B0455, 22B2109
B7 22B2207, 22B2118, 22B2261, 22B2253, 22B4522
B8 22B2160, 22B2165, 22B2133, 22B4510,
B9 22B2201, 22B2116, 22B2186, 22B2200
B10 22B2140, 22B2142, 22B2706, 22B2108
B11 22B4520, 22B2239, 22B2126, 22B2198,
B12 22B2166, 22B2199, 22B2258, 22B2151

125
Batch Roll Numbers
C1 22B2248, 22B2418, 22B2122, 22B4515, 22B2131
C2 22B2213, 22B2150, 22B0608, 22B2123, 22B2179
C3 22B2102, 22B2245, 22B2252, 22B2115, 22B2103
C4 22B2161, 22B2260, 22B2235, 22B2256, 22B2495
C5 22B0637, 22B2268, 22B0424, 22B2194, 22B0434
C6 22B2226, 22B2162, 22B2193, 22B4508, 22B2259
C7 22B4526, 22B2203, 22B2129, 22B2101, 22B2241
C8 22B2273, 22B0447, 22B2249, 22B2112
C9 22B2214, 22B2145, 22B4513, 22B2155
C10 22B2169, 22B2528, 22B4223, 22B2152
C11 22B0331, 22B2189, 22B2240, 22B0050
C12 22B2229, 22B2221, 22B4511, 22B2251

Batch Roll Numbers

D1 22B4219, 22B2222, 22B2136, 22B2113, 22B2143
D2 22B2219, 22B2153, 22B2247, 22B2276, 22B0352
D3 22B2225, 22B1846, 22B2265, 22B2183, 22B2182
D4 22B2119, 22B4504, 22B4519, 22B2146, 22B4521
D5 22B3305, 22B2263, 22B2107, 22B2237, 22B2195
D6 22B0439, 22B4502, 22B2238, 22B2202, 22B2429
D7 22B2120, 22B2208, 22B0628, 22B0607, 22B2147
D8 22B2228, 22B2176, 22B0307, 22B2171
D9 22B2164, 22B2187, 22B2180, 22B2196
D10 22B4525, 22B2117, 22B2188, 22B2174
D11 22B2178, 22B4512, 22B4505, 22B2185
D12 22B4233, 22B2270, 22B2267, 22B2220

126