1.

Weight Estimation:

𝑾𝒆
Range =
𝑾𝟎

𝑾𝒆
Value =
𝑾𝟎

𝑾
For 𝑾𝒇 (Divide in
𝟎
different section
for Mission
Profile).
For Descent =
0.992

(𝑳⁄𝑫)𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑲𝑳𝑫 √𝑨𝑹𝒘𝒆𝒕

(𝑳⁄𝑫)𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒃𝟐 𝑨𝑹
For Range and 𝑨𝑹𝒘𝒆𝒕 = =
𝑺𝒘𝒆𝒕 𝑺
Endurance ( 𝒘𝒆𝒕⁄𝑺 )
𝒓𝒆𝒇
equation ahead. 𝑲𝑳𝑫 = [For Civil Jets = 15.5, For Military Jets = 14, For Retractable
Prop A/C = 11, For Nonretractable Prop A/C = 9, For High AR A/C =
 13, and For Sailplanes = 15]

𝑺𝒘𝒆𝒕
( ⁄𝑺 )
𝒓𝒆𝒇

𝑨𝑹𝒘𝒆𝒕 with 𝑨𝑹
calculation from
Wing Estimation.
Then
(𝑳⁄𝑫)𝒎𝒂𝒙.

Cruise (Range
Equation)
−𝑹𝒄
R = Range. 𝑾𝒊 ( 𝑳 )
C = Fuel = 𝒆 𝒗( ⁄𝑫)
𝑾𝒊−𝟏
Consumption. For c (Fig. 3.3 for at cruise condition)
V = Velocity.
L/D at Cruise.
 −𝑬𝒄
𝑾𝒊 ( 𝑳 )
= 𝒆 ( ⁄𝑫)
𝑾𝒊−𝟏
For c (Table 3.3 and Table 3.4)
Loiter
(Endurance
Equation)
E = Endurance or
Loiter Time (Safe
= 1 Hour)
C = Fuel
Consumption.
L/D at Loiter.

𝑾𝒇 𝑾𝟓
𝑾𝒇 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟔 × (𝟏 − )
𝑾𝟎 𝑾𝟎
𝑾𝟎 𝑾 𝑾 𝑾 𝑾 𝑾 𝑾
Where 𝑾𝟓 = 𝑾𝟏 𝑾𝟐 𝑾𝟑 𝑾𝟒 𝑾𝟓
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒

2. Wing Estimation:
For Wing, take it as a Trapezoidal Wing throughout the Design Process, with close to Elliptical Lift
Distribution.
 AR

𝑻𝒊𝒑
𝑪𝑹𝒐𝒐𝒕 + 𝑪𝒍
(𝑪𝒍 )𝟐𝑫
𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝒍
without any flaps
𝟐
Select Airfoil: Plain Flaps = At 45˚ Deflection = 0.9.
Root = NACA 23015 –
𝟐𝟎
𝑪𝑹𝒐𝒐𝒕
𝒍 = 1.6 At Takeoff partially deflected flaps (20˚) = ∆𝑪𝒍 𝑻/𝑶
𝒎𝒂𝒙
= 𝟎. 𝟗 × 𝟒𝟓
Tip = NACA 23012 –
𝑻𝒊𝒑
𝑪𝒍 = 1.8 𝑪𝒍 𝟐𝑫,𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝒎𝒂𝒙
= (𝑪𝒍 )𝟐𝑫 𝑻/𝑶
𝒎𝒂𝒙 + ∆𝑪𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒙

𝑪𝑳 𝟑𝑫,𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝒎𝒂𝒙
= 𝟎. 𝟗 ∗ 𝑪𝒍 𝟐𝑫,𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝒎𝒂𝒙
∗ 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝚲𝟎.𝟐𝟓𝒄 )

(𝒕⁄𝒄)
Using Cruise Mach
Number
 Wing’s Leading-Edge
Sweep = 𝚲𝑳𝑬
(Only for Subsonic Case)
(For Supersonic Case
use the Dashed Line)

Wing’s Quarter-Chord
Sweep Angle = 𝚲𝟎.𝟐𝟓𝒄
(Both Sweeps are
different)
 Taper Ratio = 𝝀
Low-Sweep Wing = 0.4
to 0.5.
Swept Wing = 0.2 to 0.3.
Less than 0.2 is not good
except for Delta Wing
(Promotes Tip Stall)
If too tricky to find
simply use 𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟓

Twist of the Wing = −𝟑° .

Good but will then require shift of 𝝀 to Dashed Line.
Homebuilt A/C = 2˚
Wing Incidence Transport A/C = 1˚
Military A/C = 0˚

Dihedral or Anhedral
Angle. Always keep it
low to avoid Dutch Roll

3. Thrust-to-Weight / Power-to-Weight

Fewer Engines = Higher

(T/W) Needed.
(T/W) for Jet A/C.
(P/W) for Prop A/C.

(T/W) can be converted

to (P/W). 𝑷𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟕 − 𝑻 𝑷𝒓 𝑷 (𝒊𝒏 𝑾) 𝟓𝟓𝟎×𝑷𝒓 𝑷 (𝒊𝒏 𝒉𝒑)
𝟎. 𝟖.
=( )( )=( )( ) [ft/s/lb units]
𝑾 𝒗 𝑾 𝒗 𝑾
𝒗 = Velocity
 (P/W) for Prop A/C
Ensure that you read the
words below each table
to avoid any confusing
value.

Need to Find (T/W) and (P/W) at various points of mission, and then select the highest value from
them.

Cruise Condition (Max.

Speed Achieved) (Table
5.3 for Jet, and Table 5.4
for Prop)
Also, Equation can be
used too. But use the
(L/D) of cruise.

𝑻 𝟏
( ) =
𝑾 𝒄𝒓𝒖𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝑳
(𝑫)
𝒄𝒓𝒖𝒊𝒔𝒆

Climb Condition
𝑳 𝑳
(𝑫) < (𝑫)
𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒃 𝒄𝒓𝒖𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝑻 𝟏 𝒗𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍
Select a value less than ( ) = +
cruise condition. 𝑾 𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒃 𝑳 𝒗
( 𝑫)
𝒗𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 should be given. 𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒃
𝒗 is the velocity at cruise
altitude.
 𝑻 𝑻 𝑾𝒄𝒓𝒖𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝑻𝑻𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒐𝒇𝒇
( ) = ( ) ( )( )
𝑾 𝑻𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒐𝒇𝒇 𝑾 𝒄𝒓𝒖𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝑾𝑻𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒐𝒇𝒇 𝑻𝒄𝒓𝒖𝒊𝒔𝒆

Take-off Condition (Use

the Fig. 5.1 for finding
𝑻
( 𝑻𝑻𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒐𝒇𝒇 ). Use the value
𝒄𝒓𝒖𝒊𝒔𝒆
from 0m and inverse the
value on the x-axis for ).

4. Wing Loading

Historical Values of
(𝑾⁄𝑺).
(Remember to read the
words below the Table).

Need to Find (W/S) at various points of mission, and then select the lowest value from them.
Stall Speed (Use the
Upper Limit:
Formula Given)
Civilian Trainer or Other A/C to be operated by low-time pilots = 50 Knots
For (𝑪𝑳 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 use the one
(25.7222 m/s).
found in Wing Design 𝑾 𝟏
Phase. = × 𝝆 × 𝒗𝟐𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍 × (𝑪𝑳 )𝒎𝒂𝒙
(Density at Sea-Level) 𝑺 𝟐
Approach Angle 3˚
Approach Speed (𝒗𝒂 ) Civil A/C = 𝟏. 𝟑𝒗𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍 & Military A/C = 𝟏. 𝟐𝒗𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍
Lift-off Speed (𝒗𝑳𝑶 ) for
Take-off’s ground roll or
𝒗𝑳𝑶 = 𝟏. 𝟏 × 𝒗𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍
obstacle clearance
distance.
For both Jet and Prop,
(𝑪𝑳 )𝑻𝑶
𝒎𝒂𝒙
A/C, the Take-off Lift (𝑪𝑳 )𝑻𝑶 =
Coefficient. 𝟏. 𝟐𝟏
 Utilizing the Take-off
Distance, find the Take-
off Parameter (TOP).
(𝝈 = 𝟏) for Sea-Level.

𝑾 𝑷 (𝒊𝒏 𝒉𝒑)
Propeller: = (𝑻𝑶𝑷) × 𝝈 × (𝑪𝑳 )𝑻𝑶 × ( )
𝑺 𝑾

𝑾 𝑻
Jet: = (𝑻𝑶𝑷) × 𝝈 × (𝑪𝑳 )𝑻𝑶 × ( )
𝑺 𝑾
Touchdown Speed (𝒗𝑻𝑫 ) 𝒗𝑻𝑫 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓 × 𝒗𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍
𝑾 𝟏
Landing Distance 𝒔𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝟖𝟎 × ( ) ( ) + 𝒔𝒂 [ft]
𝑺 𝝈×(𝑪 𝑳 )𝒎𝒂𝒙
(𝒔𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 )
(Remember to convert 𝑾 𝟏
𝒔𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝟓 × ( ) ( ) + 𝒔𝒂 [m]
(W/S) in calculation as 𝑺 𝝈×(𝑪 𝑳 )𝒎𝒂𝒙
said above).
(Change the (𝑪𝑳 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 to Here, 𝝈 = 𝟏
one with full flap 𝒔𝒂 =1000ft (305m) For Airliner, at 3˚ Glideslope.
deflection at landing) 600ft (183m) For General Aviation, Powered-off.
450ft (137m) For STOL, at 7˚ Glideslope.
For landings with thrust reversers or reversible pitch propellers, use 𝒔𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 × 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔

For most Jet A/C, landing is calculated at about 85% of take-off weight.
𝑪𝑫𝟎 : Jet A/C = 0.015; Clean Propeller A/C = 0.02; Dirty Fixed Gear
Cruise Condition Propeller A/C = 0.03.
𝒆: During Cruise: Fighter = 0.6 to 0.8; Others = 0.8.
For Propeller (Through 𝑾
maximum range) = 𝒒√𝝅 × 𝑨𝑹 × 𝒆 × 𝑪𝑫𝟎
(Altitude – Sea-level) 𝑺
For Jet (Through
𝑾 𝝅 × 𝑨𝑹 × 𝒆 × 𝑪𝑫𝟎
maximum range) = 𝒒√
(Altitude – Cruise) 𝑺 𝟑
Loiter Condition
(Secondary Loiter Velocity: Propeller A/C = 80-120 Knots (50 m/s); Jet A/C = 150-200
Condition/Not really Knots (90.2778 m/s)
necessary)
Maximum Propeller 𝑾
Loiter. = 𝒒√𝟑 × 𝝅 × 𝑨𝑹 × 𝒆 × 𝑪𝑫𝟎
(Altitude – Sea-level) 𝑺
 Maximum Jet Loiter. 𝑾
= 𝒒√𝝅 × 𝑨𝑹 × 𝒆 × 𝑪𝑫𝟎
(Altitude – 10 km) 𝑺
(W/S) for loiter need to be converted to Take-off Conditions, therefore divide the (𝑾⁄𝑺)𝒍𝒐𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓 by 0.85.

5. Fuselage Sizing

For Fuselage Length

Fuselage Inner Diameter usually provided. If not provided then needs to be calculated in the
Passenger Comfort Section and then return here.
For Fuselage Outer Add extra thickness around the inner diameter: Small Buisness/Utility A/C
Diameter = 2.5 cm; Jumbo Jet = 10 cm.
𝑭𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
Another way for 𝑭𝑭𝑹 =
Diameter is by Fuselage 𝑭𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓
Fineness Ratio (FFR) For Subsonic A/C between 6 – 8.
For Supersonic A/C between 10 – 15, or more than 15.

6. Wing Sizing
Use values from Wing Estimation
𝑾𝟎
𝑺𝑾 (Wing Area) 𝑺𝑾 =
(𝑾⁄𝑺)𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒃𝑾 (Wing Span) 𝒃𝑾 = √𝑨𝑹 × 𝑺
𝟐×𝑺
𝒄𝒓 (Root Chord) 𝒄𝒓 =
𝒃(𝟏 + 𝝀)
𝒄𝒕 (Tip Chord) 𝒄𝒕 = 𝝀 × 𝒄𝒓
̅̅̅̅
𝒄𝑾 (Mean Aerodynamic 𝟐 𝟏 + 𝝀 + 𝝀𝟐
Chord) ̅̅̅̅
𝒄𝑾 = × 𝒄𝒓 × ( )
𝟑 𝟏+𝝀
̅
𝒀𝑾 (Mean Chord 𝒃 𝟏 + 𝟐𝝀
̅𝑾 = × (
𝒀 )
Location) 𝟔 𝟏+𝝀

7. Tail Sizing
 For Aspect Ratio (𝑨𝑹)
and Taper Ration (𝝀)

For Horizontal Tail

Volume Coefficient (𝒄𝑯𝑻 )
& Vertical Tail Volume
Coefficient (𝒄𝑽𝑻 )

A/C with Front-Mounted Propeller Engine = 60% of Fuselage Length.

Horizontal Tail Moment
A/C with Engines on Wing = 50-50% of Fuselage Length.
Arm (𝑳𝑯𝑻 ) & Vertical
A/C with Aft Mounted Engine = 45-50% of Fuselage Length.
Tail Moment Arm (𝑳𝑽𝑻 )
Sailplane = 65% of Fuselage Length.
All Moving Tail – Reduce the Volume Coefficients by 10-15%.
For Different Tail
T-Tail – Reduce the Volume Coefficients by 5%.
Configurations
H-Tail – Reduce the Horizontal Tail Volume Coefficient by 5%.
𝒄𝑯𝑻 × ̅̅̅̅
𝒄𝑾 × 𝑺𝑾
𝑺𝑯𝑻 =
Horizontal Tail Span 𝑳𝑯𝑻
Area (𝑺𝑯𝑻 ) Here, ̅̅̅̅
𝒄𝑾 = Mean Aerodynamic Chord of Wing
𝑺𝑾 = Wing Area
𝒄𝑽𝑻 × 𝒃𝒘 × 𝑺𝑾
𝑺𝑽𝑻 =
Vertical Tail Span Area 𝑳𝑽𝑻
(𝑺𝑽𝑻 ) Here, 𝒃𝒘 = Wingspan
𝑺𝑾 = Wingspan Area
Now the same process as the Wing Design is needed to be followed just for both Horizontal and
Vertical Tail
𝒃 𝒃 = √𝑨𝑹 × 𝑺
𝟐×𝑺
𝒄𝒓 (Root Chord) 𝒄𝒓 =
𝒃(𝟏 + 𝝀)
𝒄𝒕 (Tip Chord) 𝒄𝒕 = 𝝀 × 𝒄𝒓
𝒄̅ (Mean Aerodynamic 𝟐 𝟏 + 𝝀 + 𝝀𝟐
Chord) ̅
𝒄 = × 𝒄𝒓 × ( )
𝟑 𝟏+𝝀
̅ (Mean Chord
𝒀 𝒃 𝟏 + 𝟐𝝀
̅ = ×(
𝒀 )
Location) 𝟔 𝟏+𝝀
 8. Passenger Compartment Design

For Seat Dimensions

Only ≤ 𝟑 seats should be accessible for one side from an aisle.

Doors & Entry Aisle need to be placed every 10-20 rows of seats. Needs to include the closet space
which will be (𝟏 − 𝟏. 𝟓𝒎) in length.
Cabin Interior Diameter given or calculated (Check the Fuselage Design Section).

9. Landing Gear Design

• 𝑾𝟎 < 𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟖𝟎 𝒌𝒈 (1 Wheel/Strut. But go 2 Wheels/Strut for Safety.)
• 𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟖𝟎𝒌𝒈 < 𝑾𝟎 < 𝟔𝟖𝟎𝟒𝟎𝒌𝒈 (𝑪𝒂𝒏 𝒈𝒐 𝒕𝒐 𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈) (2
For Multi-Bogey
Wheels/Strut for Safety.)
Landing Gear System
• 𝟗𝟎𝟕𝟐𝟎𝒌𝒈 < 𝑾𝟎 < 𝟏𝟖𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟎𝒌𝒈 (4 Wheels/Strut for Safety.)
• 𝟏𝟖𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟎𝒌𝒈 < 𝑾𝟎 (4 Struts in the rear. 4/6 Wheels/Strut for Safety.)
Nose Strut/Gear carries 10% of 𝑾𝟎 .
The Rear Struts/Gears carry 90% of 𝑾𝟎 and this weight can be divided
among each strut.

Weight Distribution
10. Weight Estimation