South Valley University ‫جامعة جنوب الوادى‬

Qena Faculty Of Nursing ‫كلية التمريض بقنا‬

Staff Pediatric Nursing Department

Faculty of Nursing – South Valley University

0202/0202

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 List of Contents
Topic Page
Introduction 3

Learning Objectives 5

Introduction Teaching strategies 72

*Definition of Teaching strategies
*Functions of Teaching strategies
*Factors to Consider in choosing teaching strategies
Methods of Teaching
1. Lecture
2. Demonstration
3. Critical thinking
4. Discussion
5. Role playing
6. Brain storming
Teaching Aids
1. Flip board charts & wall chart
2. Books & handout
3. Projected display materials
a. Over head projector
b. Slide projectors
c. Computer projectors
4. Video films
Evaluation 55

References 101

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Introduction

A learning objective is an outcome statement that captures

specifically what knowledge, skills, attitudes learners should be

able to exhibit following instruction. A common misapplication

of objectives is for the teacher/presenter to state what he/she is

going to do (e.g., ―My plan this morning is to talk about…‖),

rather than what the student is expected to be able to do (e.g.,

―After this session, you should be able to…‖).

Definition

Course goals

 Describe the overall purpose of the course within the

larger curriculum. Its characteristic are Broad, vague

 General intentions or observations

 Intangible

 Abstract

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  Cannot be validated

Definition

 Course objectives

 Break down goals into measurable behaviors that

demonstrate competency

 Ensure successful accomplishment of course goals.

Its characteristic are

 Narrow, limited

 Precise

 Concrete

 Measurable

 Competency based

 Always stated in terms of the learner

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Definitions of Learning Objectives

 A good learning objective is one that can be assessed to

determine the students’ mastery of the course material.

 Learning objectives describe the intended result of

instruction rather than the process of instruction.

Why have learning objectives?

Creating clear learning objectives during the planning process of

a unit/week/individual session serves the following purposes:

 Helps unit planners integrate across a day/week/unit of

learning (Facilitate course development through objective-

directed planning)

 Serves to connect content and assessment around learning

 Guides selection of teaching/learning activities that will

best achieve objectives

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  Gives learners a clear picture of what to expect and what’s

expected of them

 Forms the basis for evaluating teacher, learner, and

curriculum effectiveness

What are the key components of a

learning objective?

Learning objectives should be “SMART”

• Specific

• Measurable/Observable

• Attainable for target audience within scheduled time and

specified conditions

• Relevant and results-oriented

• Targeted to the learner and to the desired level of learning

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 • Objectives are statements that describe what the students

will know and be able to do after completing your course.

Your students are very interested in the objectives—they

want to know what they are going to learn.

• Clear objectives help you determine the course content,

decide how you will teach the course, and identify how

students' learning should be assessed.

• The development of clear, concise, and measurable

learning objectives is a critical step in planning your

course.

How Objectives Guide Teaching

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IDENTIFY THE KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, AND

ATTITUDES TO BE LEARNED IN YOUR

COURSE

Learning occurs in three different areas or domains:

 Knowledge: What we know (also known as the cognitive

learning domain)

 Skills: What we do or perform (also known as the

psychomotor learning domain)

 Attitudes: How we feel about what we know and do (also

known as the affective learning domain)

Some examples of objectives for each area of

learning:

Knowledge Objectives:

 Explain why adolescents are at increased risk of sexually

transmitted infections

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  List the nutritional needs of infants younger than 6 months

old

 Identify general benefits of breastfeeding

 Identify the signs and symptoms of pregnancy-induced

hypertension

Skill Objectives:

• Assess a sick child for common serious illnesses

and malnutrition

• Insert an IUD

• Perform a pelvic examination

• Perform a full antenatal examination on a pregnant

woman

• Demonstrate the ability to assess breastfeeding attachment

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Attitudinal Objectives: •

 Demonstrate a willingness To maintain confidentiality

in interactions with adolescent patients

 Counsel patients about sexual risk reduction using

nonjudgmental language (both verbal and non-verbal)

 Obtain a relevant and comprehensive history in a sensitive

and friendly manner, assuring the woman of

confidentiality.

Meeting knowledge objectives requires understanding and

processing facts, and also often requires recalling information

and solving problems. Skill objectives refer to the acquisition

of skills or the ability to perform procedures. Attitudinal

objectives deal with opinions or feelings.

 Objectives are usually written at two levels: course and

supporting. Every course should have at least one course

objective. A course objective—also known as a main

objective, primary objective, or course aim—describes in

broad terms what students should know and be able to do

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 after completing the entire course. A course may have one

or several course objectives.

 Course objectives often encompass knowledge, skill, and

attitude areas or domains, and should relate to one or more

of the core competencies for the overall academic

program.

 A course objective can be achieved by meeting a series of

supporting objectives. Supporting objectives—also

known as secondary, specific, instructional, or enabling

objectives—describe the specific knowledge, skills, and

attitudes that students must master to achieve each course

objective.

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 academic
program.

Core Core Core

Competency A Competency B Competency C

Course1 Course2

Course Course
objective objective

Supportive Supportive
objective objective
knowledge knowledge

Supportive Supportive
objective objective
Skills Skills

Supportive Supportive
objective objective
Attitudes Attitudes

A course will always have supporting objectives for knowledge.

These are the supporting objectives that students achieve

through learning methods such as classroom presentations,

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reading assignments, discussions, and exercises. In addition,

many courses will also have supporting objectives for skills and

attitudes.

 When students achieve all of the supporting objectives,

they have also achieved the course objective (s). When

students achieve the course objective (s), they have

developed all or part of one or more of the core

competencies for the academic program. And when

students complete all of the courses within an academic

program, they have achieved all of the core competencies

for that program.

 It is important to write concise, specific course and

supporting objectives because they determine how

students will be taught and assessed. Then select

appropriate methods and materials for teaching,

learning, and student assessment that will help students

meet the course objectives.

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Write Course Objectives
 Assessing, classifying, and treating a sick child will clearly

involve specific knowledge. The student must also be able

to perform specific skills. And the interaction and

communication with the sick child and family members

will require certain attitudes. Note also that this course

objective clearly indicates that the student will be able to

treat a sick child, not just "know" how to do this.

 This means that the student must have access to sick

children during the course in order to demonstrate

competence. From the teacher's perspective, course

objectives provide a great deal of information about what

will be taught during the course. From the students'

perspective, course objectives provide a clear picture of

what they should know and be able to do when they

complete the course.

Each course objective should include the following three

pieces of information:

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1) When to demonstrate the knowledge or perform the

skill.

Course objectives should specify when the student should

demonstrate the expected level of knowledge or skill. The

objective of this module begins with "After completing this

module...." Other examples include: "After completing this

course," "After completing this clinical rotation," and "After

completing this lesson."

2) Who will demonstrate competency.

The course objective states the person who will demonstrate

competency. This will usually be the "student."

3) What will be demonstrated.

This is the heart of the course objective. It describes the

knowledge, skills, and attitudes the student is expected to

acquire during the course.

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These statements are based on the main topics being presented

throughout the course. You may also base these statements on

textbook content, specific assignments, or core competencies the

student will acquire and demonstrate during your course.

The statement should begin with an action word, for

example:

 Assist with a normal childbirth

 Assess and classify the sick child

 Administer the chosen family planning method

 Provide counseling and testing services for people

with HIV/AIDS

Three components of a course objective.

 Example: After completing this course, the student will

be able to assist with a normal childbirth.

In addition to its three basic components, a course objective may

or may not include an evaluation criterion. This is a description

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of how well the performance must be demonstrated, or the

performance standard. This evaluation component is known as

the objective's standard or criterion of performance. In any

given area, expect that there will be some skills in which

students should show a high degree of competence and others

with which they may show only familiarity.

Consider these examples of standards:

 According to the standards presented in the course

materials

 According to the clinical protocol or checklist

 With at least 97 percent accuracy

Many of the course objectives you write will not contain

criterion statements, because overall assessment criteria and

methods are often presented in the syllabus.

Two basic components that make up supporting objectives:

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  1) Specific action to be taken. The specific action

describes what the students must do to demonstrate

competence. Common action verbs for learning objectives

are shown as Bloom’s Taxonomy (1950s)

Bloom’s Taxonomy

 Structure for categorizing competencies

 Description of skills that must be demonstrated for each

level of thinking

 Action verbs that elicit student responses within that level

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Sample Core Competency and Objectives for a Pediatric

Clinical Rotation

• Core Competency (Bachelor Degree of Medicine and

Surgery program—MBBS)

• Graduates provide high-quality, culturally sensitive

outpatient care for children with common illnesses and

malnutrition.

Course Objective
• After completion of this course, the student will be able to

manage major childhood illnesses and malnutrition in

outpatient settings in an effective and integrated manner

Supporting Objectives
To meet this objective, students will:

• Assess, in an integrated manner, the signs and symptoms

of common serious childhood illnesses and

malnutrition

• Check the immunization status of a sick child

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• Recognize general danger signs that require urgent referral

to hospital

• Classify common conditions according to the IMCI

clinical guidelines

• Identify treatments appropriate for all IMCI classifications

• Demonstrate respect for mothers and caretakers by

listening carefully to their explanations and concerns and

by asking questions to check their understanding.

• Teach caretakers how to give treatments at home

• Identify children in need of urgent referral

• Advise mothers or caretakers about feeding during illness,

provision of fluids, and when to return to a healthcare

provider

• Assess feeding, including breastfeeding positioning and

attachment

• Counsel mothers to overcome feeding problems

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GUIDE FOR DEVELOPING OBJECTIVES
• Identify the title of your course. Identify the core

competencies your course must link to or support.

• Write one or more course objectives, includes:

-When to demonstrate the knowledge or performance

-Who will demonstrate competency

-What will be demonstrated

-How well the performance must be demon demonstrated

each course objective, write a series of supporting objectives

including

• Knowledge objectives

• Skill objectives

• Attitude objectives

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Supporting objectives should be written with :
• Specific action

• Object of the action

Sequence the supporting objectives by using one or more of

the following

• Simple to complex

• Performance order

• Related objectives

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Teaching strategies
Out Line:-

*Introduction

*Definition

*Functions of Teaching strategies

*Factors to Consider in choosing teaching strategies

Methods of Teaching
7. Lecture

8. Demonstration

9. Critical thinking

10. Discussion

11. Role playing

12. Brain storming

Teaching Aids
5. Flip board charts & wall chart

6. Books & handout

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7. Projected display materials

d. Over head projector

e. Slide projectors

f. Computer projectors

8. Video films

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 Teaching strategies

Introduction

are simple ways to provide learning experiences. Strategy

varies some what a2ccording to whether the learners must

receive information, be shown objects or procedure, participate

actively in their own learning.

*Definition

Interaction between teacher and student under the teacher's

responsibility in order to bring about expected changes in the

student behavior.

Functions of Teaching strategies

- Convey technical information

- Promote student interest

- Help students retain information

- Make teaching more enjoyable

- Involve the five senses

Factors to Consider in choosing teaching strategies

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 - Abilities and interest of students

- Size of class

- Teacher competence

- Facilities and Resources available

- Time available

- Behavioral objectives of class

Teaching methods used in nursing.

1. Nursing clinics/ bedside clinic

2. Nursing rounds.

3. Nursing assignments.

4. Health team conferences.

5. Nursing care conferences and nursing team conferences.

6. Individual's conferences.

7. Field visits.

8. Process recording.

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*Characters of good teacher:

That vital to success in the teaching profession:

1. Has desire to be a good teacher.

2. Have wide base knowledge and up to date it.

3. Have leadership abilities

4. Have convincing abilities.

5. Able to manage and control time.

6. Have appositive attitudes.

7. Fair and avoid bias.

8. Good physical appearance.

9. Good observer.

10. Be worm (sociable and patient).

11. Give the students confidents.

12. Try to motivate students

13. Listen to the students.

Methods of Teaching

1- Lecture

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Lecture is the method for conveying large amount of

information, facts,

and concept in a limited time for large numbers of students.

Components of lecture

The three main parts of a lecture are the introduction,

body and summary.

1- the introduction

The purpose of the introduction is to capture the interest and

attention of the students. It can also serve to make students

aware of the instructor's expectations and encourage a positive

learning climate. A good introduction is critical to the success

of a lecture.

2) the body

The body of the lecture contains the core of the information

to be transferred to the students.

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3) the summary

The purpose of the lecture summary is to draw together the

critical information presented and ensure that students leave the

lecture with a clear under-standing of this information. The

summary should be brief and address only main points. There

are several techniques which can be used to summarize a

lecture:

 Ask the students for questions. This gives students an

opportunity to

clarify their understanding of the content.

 Ask questions of the students. Several questions which focus

on the

main points of the content may be used to summarize the

content of

the lecture.

• Use a transparency, slide or flipchart to review the summary

points

Advantages disadvantages

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1. Useful for large group 1. Proficient oral skills are

2. Easy to plan and necessary

implemented 2. audience is often passive

3. Economic and safe time 3. don’t develop or simulate

4. Provide organized and problem solving skills

systemic sequence of 4. Communication is one way

information 5. No feed back

5. increase listening abilities

6. gives a feeling of security

7. cover a large amount of

content or information

2- Demonstration

A demonstration is a carefully prepared presentation that shows

how

to perform an act or use a procedure. It is accompanied by

appropriate

oral and visual explanations, illustrations and questions.

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Responsibilities of the demonstrator

1. analyze the process, breaking it into small sequential steps

2. make sure every one can see each step of the presentation

3. have all material in place

4. check the operation of all equipment before the

demonstration

5. position or scale the models so all learners can see parts all

the time

Advantages Disadvantages
1- attract and hold attention 1- number of students is
2- develop observation skills 2- keep the students in passive
3- present subject matter in a limited
situation
that can be understood easily 3- no feedback
way
4- the teacher presence gives a 4- does not allow for
feeling of security paces of learning
individual
5- present reality 5- high cost in personnel and
6- provide practical 6- difficulty in repeating the
time
theory and knowledge demonstration in order to
applications of
7- limits damage to equipment competence
acquire
material when students do
and
work afterwards
practical
8- ensure contact with
problem
concrete
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and
3- Critical thinking

Definition of Critical thinking

is the disciplined, intellectual process of applying skilful

reasoning as a guide to belief or action. In nursing, critical

thinking for clinical decision-making is the ability to think in a

systematic and logical manner with openness to question and

reflect on the reasoning process used to ensure safe nursing

practice and quality care.

The critical thinking process

It includes four steps. Students generally begin their

critical thinking at step one and, with practice, progress

to step 2 and up the ladder.

Step 1: Explore interpretations and connections. This includes

recognize one's own bias, articulating the reasoning associated

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with: 'alternative points of view, and organizing! information in

meaningful ways. (mode cognitive complexity)

Step 2: Explore interpretations and connections. This includes

recognize one's own bias, articulating the reasoning associated

with: 'alternative points of view, and organizing! information in

meaningful ways. (modern cognitive complexity)

Step 3: Prioritize alternatives and communicate conclusions.

This includes thorough analysis, developing the guidelines used

for, prioritizing factors, and defending the:’ solution option

chosen. (high cognitive complexity) Step 4: Integrate, monitor,

and refine strategies' for re-addressing the problem. This;

includes acknowledging limitations of chosen solution and

developing an ongoing; process for generating and using new:

: information. (highest cognitive complexity) .

Benefits of thinking critically

 Students are able to raise vital questions and

problems, as well as

formulate and present them clearly

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  Students can gather and assess information and

interpret it

effectively

• Students can reach well-reasoned conclusions and

solutions to

problems while testing them against relevant criteria and

standard

 Students can be open-minded

 Students can clearly communicate ideas, positions, and

solutions

to other

Critical Thinking Skills

 Interpretation

 Analysis

 Inference

 Evaluation

 Explanation

 Self-regulation

Levels of Critical Thinking In Nursing

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  Basic - concrete, based on set of rules or principles

 Complex: "it depends"

 Commitment: choose an action & stand by it.

In the basic level of critical thinking a learner trusts that

experts have the

right answer for every problem. Thinking is concrete, based on

set of

rules or principles. For example, a nurse uses an institution's

procedure

manual to confirm IV catheter. The student nurse follows the

procedure

step by step without adjusting the procedure to meet a client's

unique

needs.

 In the complex level of critical thinking a person begins

to separate from authorities and analyze and examine

alternatives more

independently.

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 Lastly, in the commitment level of critical thinking the

individual

anticipates the need to make choices without assistance

from others and then assumes accountability for them.

Critical Thinking Competencies

 Scientific method

 Problem Solving

 Decision Making

 Nursing Process

Components of critical thinking

 Knowledge base

 Experiences

 Competencies

 Attitudes

 Standards

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Universal Intellectual Standards in thinking

• Clear: If a statement is unclear we cannot evaluate its fit with

the other standards.

 Accurate: Accuracy = TRUTH. Is it true?

• Precise: Is there enough detail to completely understand the

statement.

 Relevant: Is the information connected to the

question at hand?

 Depth: Does the statement, fact, etc. address the

complexity of the

issue?

 Breadth: Are there other points of view or other

ways to consider

this question? Are you considering the key factors?

• Logic: Does it make sense? Can you make that conclusion

based

on the information and evidence?

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Major concepts of the Critical Thinking Process

The eight components that have been identified as part of the

critical thinking process include:

1. Perception

2. Assumption

3. Emotion

4. Language

5. Argument

6. Fallacy

7. Logic

8. Problem Solving . ,

4- Discussion:

may be defined as the free consideration of a problem by a

cooperative group of persons talking together under the

guidance of one of its members or leader.

Group discussion: Is a condition in which every member of

group

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given an opportunity to express himself on the subject being

considered exposed to the view points of others.

Function of group discussion

 Put group members at the center of things.

 Allow opportunities for face to face interaction.

 Exchange ideas and feelings.

 Be challenged by other people view points.

 Expand the member's awareness.

Types of group discussion:

1) Small group discussion

2) 2) Large group discussion :

( more than 25 members):

Advantages of group discussion:

1. Permits participation of all members.

2. Permits a teacher / student dialogue.

3. Develops the abilities to share in direct group activities.

4. Gain of knowledge.

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5. Development of skills in reflective thinking and problem

solving activities.

6. Facilitates evaluation and teacher can observe the

student as participating in class and can plan for individual

differences.

7. Improve self- awareness and self- confidence

8. During discussion new insights are likely to emerge.

9. Increase motivation

10. Improve critical thinking

Disadvantages of group discussion:

1. Discussion can be blocked due to side talking or

interruption.

2. Some people may be afraid of thinking or to be put on the

spot.

3. Wasting of time if not controlled.

5- Role playing

Definition of role playing

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 A role play is a learning activity in which students play

out roles in a simulated situation which is often useful for

exploring, discussing, and influencing the behaviors and

attitudes of students and helpings students develop skills

Purpose of role play

 To convey information.

 To develop specific skills.

 To develop a situation for analysis.

 To prevent alternative courses of action.

 To prepare for meeting future situations.

 To developing understanding of points of view of others.

 Increases students typical ways of dealing.

 Length of role play will make the situation clear and

awareness can be created in the minds of the students.

Types of role play

 Socio drama

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 Deals with interaction of people with other

group/individuals, involves situation more than one person and

deals with problems.

 Psycho drama

Deals with unique individual's need/problems.

Steps of role play

 Selecting of a problem

 Construction of role playing situation

 Casting the players

 Briefing

 Role playing action

 Discussion and analysis of action

 Problems in role playing

Process of play

1- Preparation

2- Define the problem

3- Create a readiness for the role

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4- Establish the situation

5- Cast the characters

6- Brief and warm up

7- Consider the training

8- Playing

9- Acting

10- Stopping

11- Involving the audience

12- Analyzing the discussion

13- Evaluating Guidelines

Advantage of role playing

 Note individual student's needs by observing and analyzing

his or her needs in a simulated real life.

 Assist students' in meeting their own need by either giving

or encouraging her group member to give her on the spot

suggestions.

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Disadvantage

 Role play places undue emphasis on the dramatic

aspects.

 Cannot be used successfully till the group

understands and accepts it as a method of learning.

 Time consuming.

 Require willing volunteers who would be ready to

act.

6- Brain storming

Definition

1- Is generating a list of idea, thoughts, or alternative solutions

that focus on a specific topic or problem.

2- Is a large group activity which encourages students to focus

on a topic and contribute to the free flow of ideas.

Purpose of Brain storming:-

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  To focus students' attention on a particular topic.

 To generate a quantity of ideas.

 To teach acceptance and respect for individual differences.

 To encourage learners to take risks in sharing their ideas

and opinions.

 To demonstrate to student that their knowledge and their

language abilities are valued and accepted.

 To introduce the practice of idea collection prior to

beginning tasks such as writing or problem solving.

 To provide opportunity for students to share ideas and

expand their existing knowledge by building on each

other's contribution.

Types of Brain storming:-

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  The nominal group technique is a type of brainstorming

that encourage all participants to have an equal say in the

process. It also used to generate a ranked list of ideas.

 Participants are asked to write down their idea

anonymously, then the moderator collects the idea and

each is voted on by the group, the vote can be as simple as

a show of hands in favor of a given idea, this process is

called distillation.

Advantage of Brain storming:-

 It promotes creative thinking.

 Stimulate interest in a topic.

 It increases group involvement.

 Maximum ideas can be sought within a short time.

 It motivates the students since all ideas are accepted.

 It provides a laughing, tension free atmosphere

Disadvantage of Brain storming:-

 It is not applicable for young children.

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 The teacher/leader for brainstorming needs to have

practice and ability to control the group.

 Evaluation of brainstorming is lengthy and it is difficult.

 Some students will dominate the group by ideas.

 The concluding session may not result into useful

conclusion or solution of the problem.

7- Flip board charts & wall chart

Flip board charts

Consist number of large sheets of paper or cloth fixed to a

support bar by clamming or pinning along the edges

backward or forward. Wall charts

 are displays that are pinned to wall& are mainly

intended for casual study out side the context of a

formal lesson.

 They Can be made of paper, cloth, plastic sheet, wood

or glass.

Advantages of using flip board:-

1-simple to use; can be used by teachers and students.

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2-Inexpensive.

3-Need no electricity

4-portable; easy to move from room to room.

5- Effective; they help to focus your learners attention.

6- Useful for back ground information

7- Can record ideas from discussion& keep for future

reference.

8- Can reveal successive bits of story.

9-They can contain far more complicated and detailed

information than transparencies.

Tips for using a flip chart

1.Make it easy to read. Use bullets (.)to highlight items on the

page.

2.Make the flip chart page attractive (use different colored

pens to provide contrast and borders to improve the

appearance of the page.

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3.Face the students, not the flip chart, while talking.

4.When you finish with a flip chart page, tape it to the wall

where you want and the students can refer to it.

5.Prepare your charts before presentation.

6.Use the flip board on the spot during your presentation.

7.Use flip board for group discussion.

8- Books & handout

The following points should be kept in mind while using

books and handouts

1. Be typed.

2. Organize the information.

3. Lay out your handout in such away that it visually

emphasizes the most important things.

4. Keep students attention by intentionally leaving some

blanks in the handout for them to write when you tell them .

5. Use headings and page numbering consistently.

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6. Use bullet points rather than continuous prose.

7. Avoid excessive use of CAPTALISATION and

underlining.

8. Avoid starting sentences at the end of line.

Advantages of books and handouts:

1. Very easy to use.

2. Enable student to work at his own pace.

3. Facilitates self evaluation.

4. High availability .

5. Listing reference.

Disadvantages of books & handout

• Can be a distraction.

• Low impact.

• Don't enhance actual presentation.

9- Projected display materials

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A- Over head projector

• It allows teachers to write ideas down as discussed in

transparencies, which are projected onto a projector screen

so that all student can see.

• You can also photocopy pages from books on to acetate

sheets.

There are three ways to produce transparencies;-

1- Use permanent or nonpermanent (water soluble) pens to

create text or drawings on plastic.

2- use a copy machine with transparency film designed for

copies.

3- Use computer and printer.

Advantages of overhead projector (transparencies):

1. Good for large group.

2. Presenter facing audience .

3. Relatively easy to prepare with local materials.

4.They can be stored and reused in the future.

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 5.Pointed gathered from discussion can immediately

written on transparency.

Disadvantages of transparencies projectors:

1. Electricity required .

2. Equipment and materials for making sophisticated

transparencies expensive .

3. Not usually suitable for photographic material due to cost.

4. It is not easy to adopt for the leaner to use.

B- Slide projectors

• are great for projection high quality images on to large

screen. Ideal for photographic clubs, medial applications

and as advert projectors for cinemas.

Advantages of slide projector:

1. Offer to the instructor great deal of flexibility.

2. During slide presentation it is easy to go back word to

review information .

3. Good for large group.

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 Disadvantages of slide projector

1. Require power supply.

2. Show in he darkness.

3. More difficult to update other than visual aids.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer projectors

Advantages Disadvantages

• Professional in • Require special

appearance equipment/facilities

• Interactive retrieval and • Require initial training to

use of information create

• Allow student to learn at • Require basic

their own pace graphics/composition

• Good for large or small skills

groups • expensive

• Easy to integrate with

classroom discussion

• Animated

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Up-to-date technology

Easy to update

Advantages and Disadvantages of Video films

Advantages Disadvantages

• Professional in appearance • More expansive than other

• Good for large or small visual aids

groups • Requires special

• Videotapes repeatable to fit equipment

learning schedules • Not good for discussion

and interaction

• Require accurate cueing

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Evaluation
Definition of Assessment

 Assessment involves getting the data.

 Assessment describes one or more processes that identify,

collect, and prepare data to evaluate the achievement of

learning outcomes.

Definition of Evaluation
 Evaluation describes what is done with the data.

 Evaluation

 Involves interpreting the data and evidence

accumulated through assessment practices.

 Results in decisions and actions to improve the

program.

 Evaluation is the systematic assessment of the worth

or merit of some object.

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  Evaluation is the systematic acquisition and

assessment of information to provide useful feedback

about some object.

Principles of Evaluation
Evaluation should be

1. Based on clearly stated objectives

2. Comprehensive

3. Cooperative

4. Used Judiciously

5. Continuous and integral part of the teaching – learning

process

Types of evaluations

 Process refers to the changes made in the way a course or

academic program is taught, the methods and materials

used, and how teachers and students respond to those

methods and materials.

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 Outcomes refer to the final results of a course or academic

program, particularly with regard to students' knowledge,

skills, and attitudes (i.e., competence). You can evaluate

outcomes by testing students at the end of a course or

academic program. The examination, however, must be

relevant and based on defined learning objectives that

reflect the job that the students are being trained to do.

 Effectiveness assesses the ability of students to apply

knowledge, skills, and attitudes to their work after

graduation (i.e., performance). It can be evaluated by

finding out how well students are doing after they have left

the teaching institution and started work.

 Impact concentrates on improvements in the health status

of a population that may, or may not, be related to changes

in the quality of care provided by graduates.

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Types of evaluations
 Formative Formative evaluation, including pre-testing, is

designed to assess the strengths and weaknesses or

materials or campaign strategies before implementation.

Formative research tailors the program to the target

audience. Messages or products are tested by a small group

before they are implemented on a large scale. This type or

evaluation permits necessary revisions before the full

effort goes forward. Its basic purpose is to maximize the

change for program success before the activity starts.

 Summative Any combination measurements and

judgments that permit conclusions to be drawn about

impact, outcome, or benefits of a program or method.

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Prepare and Use Knowledge/Understanding Assessments

Objectives

 Select methods for assessing students’

knowledge/understanding

 Prepare knowledge assessments

 Develop questions for essay/objective written

examinations

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  Administer and score knowledge assessments

 Use assessment results to improve performance

Select Methods for Assessing Students'

Knowledge:
 Drills, quizzes, and practice tests.

 Written exercises.

 Case studies, clinical scenarios, and patient management

problems.

 Project reports.

 Essay examinations.

 Objective written examinations (e.g., true-false, multiple-

choice, matching and short-answer questions).

 Structured practical examinations.

 Oral examinations.

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Drills, Quizzes, and Practice Tests:
Drills, quizzes, and practice tests are typically used for

formative assessment. Drills are verbal question-and-answer

periods during a classroom or practical session. They help the

teacher get a general impression of students' understanding of

the object. Quizzes and practice tests are short versions of

written examinations, and are designed to help prepare students

for a summative assessment.

Written Exercises:
Written exercises involve asking students to read and then

answer questions to check their understanding of the reading.

They can also involve asking students to read a case study, or

view a video, slides, or photographs and then respond to related

questions. Exercises, which are typically completed as

"homework," are useful for formative assessment.

Case Studies, Clinical Scenarios, and Patient

Management Problems:
Typically begin with a variable amount of information followed

by a series of questions to which the student should respond.

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Simulate problem solving or clinical decision-making.

Particularly valuable for formative assessment and feedback

where they generate lively discussion about the pathways and

decisions taken.

Example: Case Studies, Clinical Scenarios, and

Patient Management Problems:
A woman comes to the health center and tells you that she

feels tired all the time. You find out that she is 30 years old

and about 5 months pregnant.

 List three things that you think might cause the tiredness.

 Write down two other questions that you would like to ask

the woman.

Project Reports:
A project involves doing a task such as surveying the

community or working on a healthcare team. Often students

present a report on the project after it is completed. Teachers

need to be given time to mark project reports, and the scores

may not reliable if they do not have clear standards to follow.

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 However, this method of assessment is very useful for

formative assessment, and can be valid if projects are chosen

carefully to give students practice in performing important

skills. Projects can be very powerful learning experiences and

should be graded to encourage students to make their

maximum effort.

Essay Examinations:
An essay examination is a common type of written examination

in which students are asked to write down what they know about

a subject or question. Essay questions are easy for teachers to

develop and can test the students' ability to organize and express

their ideas.

Essay questions
 Write an essay on Protein Energy Malnutrition.

 Discuss the Universal Immunization Programme.

Modified essay question (MEQ

A 3 day old neonate presents with history of jaundice noted at

48 hours of age. Baby is full term and weighs 3 Kg. On

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examination, he looks very pale and has a palpable spleen. Rest

of the examination is normal.

 What are the possible causes of this type of presentation?

 Which investigations will you order to arrive at a

diagnosis?

 The bill Rubin has been reported as 20 mg%. What would

be your next line of action?

 If this baby is not properly managed, what can be the long

term sequelae?

 You will note that these questions are mutually exclusive

Objective Written Examinations:

An objective examination or assessment is one in which

equally competent scorers will obtain the same scores,

whereas a subjective assessment is one in which the scores

are influenced by the opinion or judgment of the person doing

the scoring. The objective written examination includes

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 multiple-choice, matching, true-false, and short-answer

questions.

Structured Practical Examinations:

The structured practical examination can assess knowledge,

skills, and attitudes. This approach to assessment is described

in detail in Prepare and Use Skills Assessments. It is not

really an assessment method but rather an administrative

structure in which a variety of assessment methods can be

incorporated. Typically students rotate through a series of

stations where they answer questions (orally or written), or

perform tasks under observation. Marking sheets for the

stations requiring written responses and checklists for the

observed stations are prepared beforehand to improve

reliability. The "objective structured clinical examination" is

one of the most well-known forms of structured practical

examinations.

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Oral Examinations:
Oral examinations are a traditional part of healthcare

providers' education. Although they involve important

personal contact between the examiners and students, they

suffer from serious limitation such as non-standardized

question, limited objectivity, and the considerable time their

administration requires. In view of these limitations, oral

examinations should be used only to test competencies that

cannot be tested by other methods of assessment. These

competencies include alertness, ability to express oneself,

confidence, decisiveness, and ability to discuss logically.

Prepare Knowledge Assessments

The following are general guidelines to use when developing knowledge
assessments:

 Identify the learning objectives or outcomes.

 Use simple and clear language.

 Include at least one item per objective (too few items –

may not be valid, too many items – students become test

tired)
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  Use correct grammar in questions and answers.

 Ensure that questions reflect conditions stated in the

objective.

 Is the question in any way controversial?

 Are the distractors in multiple-choice questions

reasonable, and similar in structure and length to the

correct answers?

 What is the difficulty of the questions?

 Make each test item separate from other items.

 Ask the same or similar questions (especially for oral

examinations and reports).

 Divide long tests into several parts.

 Provide clear directions for each type of item.

 Decide on the model answers to questions. Use answer

keys or checklists for scoring.

Arranging Test Items

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  Subject matter

 Type

 Level of difficulty

Review the Assembles Test

 Are there items for all of the objectives? Does the number

reflect the time spent on each objective?

 Is the number of items included in the test in direct

proportion to their importance in learning?

 Does each item really measure the students’ attainment of

the objective?

 Is each set of directions clear?

 Is there ample space to write the response?

 Are tricky, obvious, or irrelevant questions avoided?

 Is each item separate and independent from the rest of the

items?

 Are similar items grouped together?

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  Is the test designed so that it is easy to score?

 Will students be provided with meaningful feedback about

their answers?

Preparing a Test Bank

 Work in a group to develop questions.

 Sort questions based on subject, category, level of

knowledge, or type of test item.

 Store the questions on a computer or cards.

 Ensure that only authorized persons have access to the

question bank.

73
74
75
How to write a best answer question item

Writing True-False Items

76
 The language of true-false test items should be clear,

concise, and understandable (avoid words such as more,

few, large, and good).

 Avoid using negatively stated items (e.g., It is not

recommended that. . . .) as these are confusing in a true-

false question.

 Avoid words or expressions that frequently identify a

statement as true or false.

 Words often found in false statements are only, never, all,

every, always, none, and no.

 Words often found in true statements are usually,

generally, sometimes, customarily, often, may, could, and

frequently.

 Use statements that are either completely true or

completely false. Avoid a statement that is partially true

and partially false. True-false items should focus on one

idea and should challenge, but not trick, the students.

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  Make the true statements equivalent in length and number

to the false statements.

Sample Directions

Directions: For each of the following statements, print a

capital T in the block to the left of the number if the statement is

true or a capital F if the statement is false. You will receive one

point for each correct answer.

Parts of the Multiple Choice Question

 Stem

 Responses

 Distractors

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Steps in writing MCQs

Protein requirement of Protein requirement (gm per

Indian reference man is : Kg body weight) of Indian

(a) 1 gm per kg body weight reference man is :

(b) 2 gm per kg body weight (a) 1

(c) 5 gm per kg body weight (b) 2

(d) 10 gm per kg body (c) 5

weight (d) 10

Key : a

Multiple-Choice Questions(MCQs)

 Write simple stems that clearly state the central problem.

 Avoid using negative terms in the stem.

Example: "Which of the following is not the …."

 Provide a coherent list of possible answers.

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  Write reasonable distractors.

 Use of "All" and "None of the above" in responses should

be avoided as much as possible.

Sample Scenario MCQ

Mrs. B. is 20 years old and had an IUD inserted a month

ago. She came to the health center 2 days ago with vaginal

discharge and abdominal and pelvic pain. She reports that she

does not have any fevers or chills.

1. What is your plan?

A. Gather history, send vaginal cultures, remove

the IUD.

B. Gather history, send vaginal cultures, follow up

in 3 days.

C. Gather history, treat with antibiotics for

presumptive PID.

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 D. Gather history, send vaginal cultures, treat with

antibiotics for PID, and remove the IUD if the

woman wishes.

Sample Directions

Directions: Each of the items on this examination is

followed by four possible responses. For each item, select the

best response. Indicate your answer by circling the appropriate

letter next to your answer. Each correct response is worth one

point.

Matching Questions

 Focus the matching question on one subject.

 Keep the list of statements brief (no more than 10 to 15

statements). If the list is long, students may spend

considerable time on one matching item even if they have

a rather clear idea of what the response should be. Keep

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 the matching exercise on one page; it is confusing when it

runs onto the next page.

 By very clear about the basis for the exercise. For

example, in the example below, the basis is to match a

contraceptive method with its effective life.

 Arrange the premises and responses in a logical order. If

the premises or responses are names or titles, they may be

arranged alphabetically. If they are numbers, they may be

arranged sequentially. Any logical order can be used.

Example:

 Directions: the two columns below are lists of

contraceptive methods and their effective life. Read the

contraceptive method in the left column and select its

effective life from the right column. Write the

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 corresponding letter of the response in the blank

provided in the left column. Note that each answer may

be used only once and that there is one extra response.

Two points will be earned for each correct response.

Contraceptive method Effective life

1. Copper T380 A A. 3 months

2. Norplant implants B. 3 years

3. DMPA C. 5 years

4. Vasectomy D.10 years

E. Permanent

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Example:

 Directions: the two columns below are lists of weights

and dosages of amoxicillin needed for the child with the

pneumonia classification. Read the weights in the left

column and select the appropriate dosage from the right

column. Write the corresponding letter of the response in

the blank provided in the left column. One point will be

earned for each correct response.

Child’s weight dosage

 1.4-5 kg A. 7.5 ml

 2.5-10 kg B. 5 ml

 3.10-14 kg C. 2.5 ml

 4.14-20 kg D. 10 ml

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Short-Answer Questions

 Make the questions clear and easy to understand.

 Prepare a structured marking sheet.

 Write some questions that involve possible multiple

responses.

 Example:

Family planning methods most appropriate for adolescents are:

a.______________, b._________________, c. ________________

 write clear directions for short-answer questions. Clearly

state if a point will be given for each correct response or if

the student must have all the correct responses to obtain

one point.

85
Test Administration

 Time allowed

 How to select and record answers

 Scoring system to be used

 Physical environment

 Remain in the room

 Lighting and ventilation

Score the Test

 With written objective examinations, students can mark

the answers directly onto the test or onto a separate answer

sheet.

 When there are many test items, it may be easiest for

students to write their answers on a separate answer sheet.

Score the Test

 Use an answer key (or a computer with scanner) to score

the tests.

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Using Assessment Results

 Knowledge is assessed to determine whether students are

meeting the learning objectives and have acquired the

required information base to become competent healthcare

providers.

 Formative knowledge assessments help students decide

what content areas they need to spend more time studying

to prepare for summative assessments.

 The results of summative assessments determine if

students are meeting the learning objectives.

 Instruct students to review the material related to the

questions they missed.

 Give students an opportunity to ask you questions about

any test items on which they scored poorly or that they did

not understand.

 If many students had trouble with the same questions,

either the teaching methods or materials did not adequately

87
 address that learning objective, or the question needs to be

rewritten.

 Do not be afraid to revise problematic test questions or

adapt the teaching methods used to better address the

content.

Prepare and Use Skills Assessments

Steps in Skill Development

 Introduce and demonstrate a skill.

 Observe students as they practice the skill and give

feedback to help them improve their performance.

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  Assess students for competency in the skill.

Objectives

 Select methods for assessing the skills of students

 Prepare skills assessments

 Develop structured practical examinations

 Administer and score skills assessments

 Use results to improve performance

89
Direct Observation

 Most valid way to assess students’ skills.

 Can be used for both formative and summative

assessments.

 Need to be creative developing approaches when you have

large numbers of students.

Structured Feedback Reports

 Assessing sustained performance rather than just taking ―a

snapshot‖ as you would with an examination.

91
  Can cover overall performance, demonstrated attitudes,

and essential healthcare delivery skills.

 Useful for assessing characteristics such as personal

attributes, attitudes, and professional values.

 Are easy, efficient, and consistent

 Provide a formal structure for assessment, particularly

formative assessment

 Reinforce essential skills

 Ensure that each student receives feedback

Logbook

 The logbook (also called a casebook) contains a list of

skills or tasks that students should be able to perform.

 The students are responsible for learning how to do each of

the tasks, and when they believe they are ready, they can

ask a teacher, tutor, or clinical instructor to assess their

performance.

91
Care Plan

 A care plan is used to document the patient’s problems,

care required, and expected outcomes.

 Students are often required to create care plans to

demonstrate their understanding of and ability to explain

management required for a specific problem.

Checklists

 A list of steps needed to perform a skill correctly, listed in

the correct sequence.

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  Assessor observes each step.

 Well-constructed checklists should contain only sufficient

detail to help the assessor evaluate and record the student’s

performance.

Designing a Checklist

 Identify the steps or tasks:

 Adapt an existing tool, or

 Conduct a task analysis

 Place the steps in the correct sequence.

 Identify the standards or minimum level of performance

(Yes/No or Multi-level rating systems).

 Include the key elements of a checklist (title, space for

names, course information, instructions, space for

signature).

 Field-test the checklist.

93
Feedback Repots

 Consider what major objectives or skill areas should be

assessed.

 Based on these objectives, describe the major skills or

areas for assessment.

 Develop a descriptive rating scale similar to the one on the

sample student feedback report.

 If you are working with clinical instructors, tell them when

the report should be completed and whether they should

review it with the student or submit it directly to you.

Rating Scales

 Rating scales can be incorporated into checklists or

feedback reports, or used independently.

 They are more effective for assessing broad skills or

demonstrated attitudes, and for giving formative feedback,

rather than for determining a grade.

94
 They can describe a quality or frequency of judgment. The

quality or frequency scale can be associated with a number

and descriptive text as shown in the examples below.

95
Structured Practical Examinations

96
  Typically students rotate through a series of stations where

they answer questions (orally or in writing), or perform

tasks while being observed.

 Students may demonstrate a skill, interpret diagnostic

materials, or respond to short questions or case studies.

 This type of examination is also known as a multiple

station assessment test (MSAT).

 The Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE) is

one of the most well known forms of the structured

practical examination.

Components of a Structured Practical Examination

 All students rotate through multiple stations and are tested

on the same KSAs.

 There is a time limit for each station.

 An assessor at each station that requires observation.

 All students are assessed according to the same standards.

97
Steps to Prepare for a Structured Practical Examination

 Choose which learning objectives will be tested.

 Decide on a problem, issue, or activity that addresses each

learning objective.

 Map out a plan for the stations

Steps to Prepare for a Structured Practical Examination

 Plan the details for each station:

 Write the task/scenario to be completed.

 Develop instructions.

 Develop assessment tools.

 List the resources needed.

Before the Skills Assessment

 Discuss previous practice sessions with the student.

 Ask if the student has any questions about the skill and is

ready to be assessed.

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  Review the assessment tool.

During the Skills Assessment

 Observe and assess the student’s performance:

 Stand where you can see without intruding and let the

student perform the skill.

 Do not interfere unless the student is about to make a

mistake that may endanger the patient.

 Provide only essential feedback while the student is

performing the skill.

After the Skills Assessment

 Review the skill with the student (student shares what she

or he did well and what could be improved).

 Provide positive feedback and offer suggestions for

improvement.

 Determine if the student is competent or needs additional

practice.

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Use Results to Improve Performance

 Give students an opportunity to ask you questions about

steps they did not understand or they performed

incorrectly.

 Instruct students to practice the steps that they performed

incorrectly.

111
References

1. BT Basavanthappy. 2023: Nursing education , first

edition, JPBGMP Typesetting unit , chapter 13 teaching

and teacher , pp 236-245.

2. Hanna, D.E., Glowacki-Dudka, M., & Conceição-Runlee,

S. (2000). 147 Practical Tips for Teaching Online Groups:

Essentials of Web-Based Education. Atwood Publishing:

Madison, WI.

3. Robson, C. (2000). Small-Scale Evaluation. SAGE

Publications: London.

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