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unger-5355874
ADVANCED
ELECTRIC DRIVES
ADVANCED
ELECTRIC DRIVES
Analysis, Control, and Modeling
Using MATLAB/Simulink®

Ned Mohan
Copyright © 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
MATLAB and Simulink are registered trademarks of The MathWorks, Inc. See www.mathworks.com/trademarks for a list of
additional trademarks. The MathWorks Publisher Logo identifies books that contain MATLAB® content. Used with
permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book or in the software
downloadable from http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-047064477X.html and http://www.mathworks.com/
matlabcentral/fileexchange/?term=authorid%3A80973. The book’s or downloadable software’s use or discussion of MATLAB®
software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular use of the
MATLAB® software or related products.

For MATLAB® and Simulink® product information, or information on other related products, please contact:

The MathWorks, Inc.

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any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or
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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best
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visit our web site at www.wiley.com.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Mohan, Ned.
Advanced electric drives : analysis, control, and modeling using MATLAB/Simulink® / Ned
Mohan.
    pages cm
   Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-118-48548-4 (hardback)
1. Electric driving–Computer simulation. 2. Electric motors–Mathematical
models. 3. MATLAB. 4. SIMULINK. I. Title.
TK4058.M5783 2014
621.460285'53–dc23
2014005496
Printed in the United States of America.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS

Preface xiii
Notation xv

1 Applications: Speed and Torque Control 1

1-1 History 1
1-2 Background 2
1-3 Types of ac Drives Discussed and the
Simulation Software 2
1-4 Structure of this Textbook 3
1-5 “Test” Induction Motor 3
1-6 Summary 4
References 4
Problems 4

2 Induction Machine Equations in Phase Quantities:

Assisted by Space Vectors 6
2-1 Introduction 6
2-2 Sinusoidally Distributed Stator Windings 6
2-2-1 Three-Phase, Sinusoidally Distributed
Stator Windings 8
2-3 Stator Inductances (Rotor Open-Circuited) 9
2-3-1 Stator Single-Phase Magnetizing
Inductance Lm,1-phase 9
2-3-2 Stator Mutual-Inductance Lmutual 11
2-3-3 Per-Phase Magnetizing-Inductance Lm 12
2-3-4 Stator-Inductance Ls 12
2-4 Equivalent Windings in a Squirrel-Cage Rotor 13
2-4-1 Rotor-Winding Inductances
(Stator Open-Circuited) 13
v
vi   CONTENTS

2-5 Mutual Inductances between the Stator and

the Rotor Phase Windings 15
2-6 Review of Space Vectors 15
2-6-1 Relationship between Phasors and Space
Vectors in Sinusoidal Steady State 17
2-7 Flux Linkages 18
2-7-1 Stator Flux Linkage (Rotor
Open-Circuited) 18
2-7-2 Rotor Flux Linkage (Stator
Open-Circuited) 19
2-7-3 Stator and Rotor Flux Linkages
(Simultaneous Stator and
Rotor Currents) 20
2-8 Stator and Rotor Voltage Equations in Terms of
Space Vectors 21
2-9 Making the Case for a dq-Winding Analysis 22
2-10 Summary 25
Reference 25
Problems 26

3 Dynamic Analysis of Induction Machines in Terms

of dq Windings 28
3-1 Introduction 28
3-2 dq Winding Representation 28
3-2-1 Stator dq Winding Representation 29
3-2-2 Rotor dq Windings (Along the Same
dq-Axes as in the Stator) 31
3-2-3 Mutual Inductance between dq Windings
on the Stator and the Rotor 32
3-3 Mathematical Relationships of the dq Windings
(at an Arbitrary Speed ωd) 33
3-3-1 Relating dq Winding Variables to Phase
Winding Variables 35
3-3-2 Flux Linkages of dq Windings in Terms
of Their Currents 36
3-3-3 dq Winding Voltage Equations 37
 CONTENTS   vii

3-3-4 Obtaining Fluxes and Currents with

Voltages as Inputs 40
3-4 Choice of the dq Winding Speed ωd 41
3-5 Electromagnetic Torque 42
3-5-1 Torque on the Rotor d-Axis Winding 42
3-5-2 Torque on the Rotor q-Axis Winding 43
3-5-3 Net Electromagnetic Torque Tem on
the Rotor 44
3-6 Electrodynamics 44
3-7 d- and q-Axis Equivalent Circuits 45
3-8 Relationship between the dq Windings and
the Per-Phase Phasor-Domain Equivalent
Circuit in Balanced Sinusoidal
Steady State 46
3-9 Computer Simulation 47
3-9-1 Calculation of Initial Conditions 48
3-10 Summary 56
Reference 56
Problems 57

4 Vector Control of Induction-Motor Drives:

A Qualitative Examination 59
4-1 Introduction 59
4-2 Emulation of dc and Brushless dc
Drive Performance 59
4-2-1 Vector Control of Induction-Motor
Drives 61
4-3 Analogy to a Current-Excited Transformer with
a Shorted Secondary 62
4-3-1 Using the Transformer
Equivalent Circuit 65
4-4 d- and q-Axis Winding Representation 66
4-5 Vector Control with d-Axis Aligned with the
Rotor Flux 67
4-5-1 Initial Flux Buildup Prior to t = 0− 67
4-5-2 Step Change in Torque at t = 0+ 68
viii   CONTENTS

4-6 Torque, Speed, and Position Control 72

*
4-6-1 The Reference Current isq (t ) 72
4-6-2 The Reference Current isd (t ) 73
*

4-6-3 Transformation and Inverse-Transformation

of Stator Currents 73
4-6-4 The Estimated Motor Model for
Vector Control 74
4-7 The Power-Processing Unit (PPU) 75
4-8 Summary 76
References 76
Problems 77

5 Mathematical Description of Vector Control in

Induction Machines 79
5-1 Motor Model with the  d-Axis Aligned Along the
Rotor Flux Linkage λr -Axis 79
5-1-1 Calculation of ωdA 81
5-1-2 Calculation of Tem 81
5-1-3 d-Axis Rotor Flux Linkage Dynamics 82
5-1-4 Motor Model 82
5-2 Vector Control 84
5-2-1 Speed and Position Control Loops 86
5-2-2 Initial Startup 89
5-2-3 Calculating the Stator Voltages to
Be Applied 89
5-2-4 Designing the PI Controllers 90
5-3 Summary 95
Reference 95
Problems 95

6 Detuning Effects in Induction Motor Vector Control 97

6-1 Effect of Detuning Due to Incorrect Rotor
Time Constant τr 97
6-2 Steady-State Analysis 101
*
6-2-1 Steady-State isd /isd 104
*
6-2-2 Steady-State isq /isq 104
 CONTENTS   ix

6-2-3 Steady-State θerr 105

*
6-2-4 Steady-State Tem /Tem 106
6-3 Summary 107
References 107
Problems 108

7 Dynamic Analysis of Doubly Fed Induction Generators

and Their Vector Control 109
7-1 Understanding DFIG Operation 110
7-2 Dynamic Analysis of DFIG 116
7-3 Vector Control of DFIG 116
7-4 Summary 117
References 117
Problems 117

8 Space Vector Pulse Width-Modulated (SV-PWM) Inverters 119

8-1 Introduction 119

8-2 Synthesis of Stator Voltage Space Vector vsa 119
8-3 Computer Simulation of SV-PWM Inverter 124
8-4 Limit on the Amplitude V̂s of the Stator Voltage

Space Vector vsa 125
Summary 128
References 128
Problems 129

9 Direct Torque Control (DTC) and Encoderless

Operation of Induction Motor Drives 130
9-1 Introduction 130
9-2 System Overview 130
9-3 Principle of Encoderless
  DTC Operation 131
9-4 Calculation of λs, λr , Tem, and ωm 132 
9-4-1 Calculation of the Stator Flux λ s 132
9-4-2 Calculation of the Rotor Flux λr 133
9-4-3 Calculation of the Electromagnetic
Torque Tem 134
9-4-4 Calculation of the Rotor Speed ωm 135
9-5 Calculation of the Stator Voltage Space Vector 136
x   CONTENTS

9-6 Direct Torque Control Using dq-Axes 139

9-7 Summary 139
References 139
Problems 139
Appendix 9-A 140
Derivation of Torque Expressions 140

10 Vector Control of Permanent-Magnet Synchronous

Motor Drives 143
10-1 Introduction 143
10-2 d-q Analysis of Permanent Magnet
(Nonsalient-Pole) Synchronous Machines 143
10-2-1 Flux Linkages 144
10-2-2 Stator dq Winding Voltages 144
10-2-3 Electromagnetic Torque 145
10-2-4 Electrodynamics 145
10-2-5 Relationship between the dq Circuits
and the Per-Phase Phasor-Domain
Equivalent Circuit in Balanced Sinusoidal
Steady State 145
10-2-6 dq-Based Dynamic Controller for
“Brushless DC” Drives 147
10-3 Salient-Pole Synchronous Machines 151
10-3-1 Inductances 152
10-3-2 Flux Linkages 153
10-3-3 Winding Voltages 153
10-3-4 Electromagnetic Torque 154
10-3-5 dq-Axis Equivalent Circuits 154
10-3-6 Space Vector Diagram in Steady State 154
10-4 Summary 156
References 156
Problems 156

11 Switched-Reluctance Motor (SRM) Drives 157

11-1 Introduction 157
11-2 Switched-Reluctance Motor 157
11-2-1 Electromagnetic Torque Tem 159
11-2-2 Induced Back-EMF ea 161
 CONTENTS   xi

11-3 Instantaneous Waveforms 162

11-4 Role of Magnetic Saturation 164
11-5 Power Processing Units for SRM Drives 165
11-6 Determining the Rotor Position for Encoderless
Operation 166
11-7 Control in Motoring Mode 166
11-8 Summary 167
References 167
Problems 167

Index 169
PREFACE

When I wrote the first version of this textbook in 2001, my opening

paragraph was as follows:

Why write a textbook for a course that has pretty much disappeared from
the curriculum at many universities? The only possible answer is in hopes
of reviving it (as we have been able to do at the University of Minnesota)
because of enormous future opportunities that await us including bio-
medical applications such as heart pumps, harnessing of renewable
energy resources such as wind, factory automation using robotics, and
clean transportation in the form of hybrid-electric vehicles.

Here we are, more than a decade later, and unfortunately the situa-
tion is no different. It is hoped that the conditions would have changed
when the time comes for the next revision of this book in a few years
from now.
This textbook follows the treatment of electric machines and drives
in my earlier textbook, Electric Machines and Drives: A First Course,
published by Wiley (http://www.wiley.com/college/mohan).
My attempt in this book is to present the analysis, control, and mod-
eling of electric machines as simply and concisely as possible, such that
it can easily be covered in one semester graduate-level course. To do
so, I have chosen a two-step approach: first, provide a “physical” picture
without resorting to mathematical transformations for easy visualiza-
tion, and then confirm this physics-based analysis mathematically.
The “physical” picture mentioned above needs elaboration. Most
research literature and textbooks in this field treat dq-axis transforma-
tion of a-b-c phase quantities on a purely mathematical basis, without
relating this transformation to a set of windings, albeit hypothetical,
that can be visualized. That is, we visualize a set of hypothetical
dq windings along an orthogonal set of axes and then relate their cur-
rents and voltages to the a-b-c phase quantities. This discussion follows
xiii
xiv   PREFACE

seamlessly from the treatment of space vectors and the equivalent

winding representations in steady state in the previous course and the
textbook mentioned earlier.
For discussion of all topics in this course, computer simulations are
a necessity. For this purpose, I have chosen MATLAB/Simulink® for
the following reasons: a student-version that is more than sufficient
for our purposes is available at a very reasonable price, and it takes
extremely short time to become proficient in its use. Moreover, this
same software simplifies the development of a real-time controller of
drives in the hardware laboratory for student experimentation—such
a laboratory using 42-V machines is developed using digital control and
promoted by the University of Minnesota. The MATLAB and Simulink
files used in examples are included on the accompanying website to this
textbook: www.wiley.com/go/advancedelectricdrives.
As a final note, this textbook is not intended to cover power electron-
ics and control theory. Rather, the purpose of this book is to analyze
electric machines in a way that can be interfaced to well-known power
electronic converters and controlled using any control scheme, the
simplest being proportional-integral control, which is used in this
textbook.

Ned Mohan
University of Minnesota
NOTATION

1. Variables that are functions of time v, i, λ

2. Peak values (of time-varying variables) V̂ , Î , λ̂
3. Phasors V = Vˆ ∠θv, I = Iˆ∠θi
     
4. Space vectors ˆ jθ, i (t ) = Ie
H (t ), B(t ), F (t ), v(t ) = Ve ˆ jθ, λ (t ) = λˆe jθ
For space vectors, the exponential notion is used where,

e jθ = 1∠θ = cos θ + j sin θe jθ = 1∠θ = cos θ + j sin θ.

Note that both phasors and space vectors, two distinct quantities, have
their peak values indicated by “.”

SUBSCRIPTS

Stator phases a, b, c
Rotor phases A, B, C
dq windings d, q
Stator s
Rotor r
Magnetizing m
Mechanical m (as in θm or ωm)
Mechanical mech (as in θmech or ωmech)
Leakage ℓ

SUPERSCRIPTS

Denotes the axis used as reference for defining a space vector (lack of
superscript implies that the d-axis is used as the reference).

* Reference Value
xv
xvi   NOTATION

SYMBOLS

p Number of poles (p ≥ 2, even number)

θ All angles, such as θm and the axes orientation (for example,
ej2π/3), are in electrical radians (electrical radians equal p/2
times the mechanical radians).
ω All speeds, such as ωsyn, ωd, ωdA, ωm, and ωslip (except for ωmech),
are in electrical radians per second.
ωmech The rotor speed is in actual (mechanical) radians per second:
ωmech = (2/p)ωm.
θmech The rotor angle is in actual (mechanical) radians per second:
θmech = (2/p)θm.
fl Flux linkages are represented by fl in MATLAB and
Simulink examples.

INDUCTION MOTOR PARAMETERS USED

INTERCHANGEABLY

Rr′ = Rr
L′r = Lr
1 Applications: Speed and
Torque Control

There are many electromechanical systems where it is important to

precisely control their torque, speed, and position. Many of these, such
as elevators in high-rise buildings, we use on daily basis. Many others
operate behind the scene, such as mechanical robots in automated
factories, which are crucial for industrial competitiveness. Even in
general-purpose applications of adjustable-speed drives, such as pumps
and compressors systems, it is possible to control adjustable-speed
drives in a way to increase their energy efficiency. Advanced electric
drives are also needed in wind-electric systems to generate electricity
at variable speed, as described in Appendix 1-A in the accompanying
website. Hybrid-electric and electric vehicles represent an important
application of advanced electric drives in the immediate future. In most
of these applications, increasing efficiency requires producing maximum
torque per ampere, as will be explained in this book. It also requires
controlling the electromagnetic toque, as quickly and as precisely as
possible, illustrated in Fig. 1-1, where the load torque TLoad may take a
step-jump in time, in response to which the electromagnetic torque
produced by the machine Tem must also take a step-jump if the speed
ωm of the load is to remain constant.

1-1 HISTORY

In the past, many applications requiring precise motion control utilized

dc motor drives. With the availability of fast signal processing capability,
the role of dc motor drives is being replaced by ac motor drives. The

Advanced Electric Drives: Analysis, Control, and Modeling Using

MATLAB/Simulink®, First Edition. Ned Mohan.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

1
2   Applications: Speed and Torque Control

TLoad;Tem

0 t

ωm

0 t

Fig. 1-1 Need for controlling the electromagnetic torque Tem.

use of dc motor drives in precise motion control has already been dis-
cussed in the introductory course using the textbook [1] especially
designed for this purpose. Hence, our emphasis in this book for an
advanced course (designed at a graduate level but that can be easily
followed by undergraduates) will be entirely on ac motor drives.

1-2 BACKGROUND

In the introductory course [1], we discussed electric drives in an integra-

tive manner where the theory of electric machines was discussed using
space vectors to represent sinusoidal field distribution in the air gap.
This discussion included a brief introduction to power-processing units
(PPUs) and feedback control systems. In this course, we build upon that
discussion and discover that it is possible to understand advanced
control of electric drives on a “physical” basis, which allows us to visual-
ize the control process rather than leaving it shrouded in mathematical
mystery.

1-3 TYPES OF AC DRIVES DISCUSSED AND THE

SIMULATION SOFTWARE

In this textbook, we will discuss all types of ac drives and their control
in common use today. These include induction-motor drives, permanent-
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Tale of a
Field Hospital
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: The Tale of a Field Hospital

Creator: Frederick Treves

Release date: November 21, 2012 [eBook #41432]

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Al Haines

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TALE OF A

FIELD HOSPITAL ***
Cover
Portrait of Frederick Treves
 THE TALE OF A
FIELD HOSPITAL

BY
SIR FREDERICK TREVES, BART.
G.C.V.O., C.B., LL.D.

Late Consulting Surgeon with H.M. Troops in South Africa,

Serjeant-Surgeon to H.M. the King, Author of "The
Other Side of the Lantern," etc.

NEW EDITION

WITH PORTRAIT OF THE AUTHOR

CASSELL AND COMPANY, LTD
London, New York, Toronto and Melbourne
1912

First Published October 1900

Reprinted November and December 1900
February and August 1901
New Edition, November 1911
 Preface to New Edition
The South African War, of which this Tale is told, is already near
to be forgotten, although there are many to whom it still remains the
most tragic memory of their lives.
War is ever the same: an arena, aglare with pomp and pageant,
for the display of that most elemental and most savage of human
passions, the lust to kill, as well as a dumb torture place where are
put to the test man's fortitude and his capacity for the endurance of
pain.
This brief narrative is concerned not with shouting hosts in
defiant array, but with the moaning and distorted forms of men who
have been "scorched by the flames of war." It deals with the grey
hours after the great, world-echoing display is over, with the night
that ends the gladiator's show, when the arena is occupied only by
the maimed, the dying and the dead.
It is admitted that in the South African War the medical needs
of the Army were efficiently and promptly supplied. This account
serves to show of what kind is the work of the Red Cross in the field.
It may serve further to bring home to the reader the appalling
condition of the wounded in war when--as in the present campaign
in the Near East--the provision for the care of the sick is utterly
inadequate, if not actually lacking.
FREDERICK TREVES.
THATCHED HOUSE LODGE,
RICHMOND PARK, SURREY.
November, 1912.
 Preface to the First Edition
In this little book some account is given of a field hospital which
followed for three months the Ladysmith Relief Column, from the
time, in fact, that that column left Frere until it entered the long-
beleaguered town. The fragmentary record is based upon notes
written day by day on the spot. Some of the incidents related have
been already recounted in a series of letters published in the British
Medical Journal, and certain fragments of those letters are
reproduced in these pages, or have been amplified under
circumstances of greater leisure.
The account, such as it is, is true.
It may be that the story is a little sombre, and possibly on
occasions gruesome; but war, as viewed from the standpoint of a
field hospital, presents little that is cheery.
It appears that some interest might attach to an account of the
manner in which our wounded faced their troubles, and of the way
in which they fared, and under the influence of that impression this
imperfect sketch has been written.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

1. The Field Hospital

2. Frere Camp
3. The Hospital Dog
 4. The Morning of Colenso
5. The Hospital under the Ridge
6. Inside an Operation-Tent
7. The Surgeons of the Field Hospitals
8. A Professional Visit by Rail
9. The Hospital Train at Colenso
10. The Nurses at Chieveley
11. Some Traits in the Men
12. The Sign of the Wooden Cross
13. The Men with the Spades
14. The Marching
15. Spearman's Farm
16. The Hospital at Spearman's
17. The Two White Lights
18. After Spion Kop
19. The Story of the Restless Man
20. "Did We Win?"
21. The Fighting Spirit
22. The Body-Snatchers
23. Seeing Them Off
24. A Funeral at Spearman's
25. Absent-Mindedness
26. At Chieveley Again
27. A Journey to Ladysmith
28. A Straggler
29. How a Surgeon Won the Victoria Cross
30. "SIC TRANSIT GLORIA MUNDI"
 THE TALE OF
A FIELD HOSPITAL

I
THE FIELD HOSPITAL

The Field Hospital, of which some account is given in these pages,

was known as "No. 4 Stationary Field Hospital." The term
"stationary" is hardly appropriate, since the Hospital moved with the
column, and, until at least the relief of Ladysmith, it followed the
Headquarters' camp. The term, however, serves to distinguish "No.
4" from the smaller field hospitals which were attached to the
various brigades, and which were much more mobile and more
restless.
At the commencement of the campaign the capacity of the
Hospital was comparatively small. The officers in charge were Major
Kirkpatrick, Major Mallins, and Lieutenant Simson, all of the Royal
Army Medical Corps. These able officers--and none could have been
more efficient--were, I regret to say, all invalided as the campaign
progressed.
Before the move was made to Spearman's Farm the Hospital
was enlarged, and the staff was increased by the addition of eight
civil surgeons. It is sad to report that of these two died in the camp
and others were invalided. No men could have worked better
together than did the army surgeons and their civilian colleagues.
 The greatest capacity of the Hospital was reached after the
battle of Spion Kop, when we had in our tents about 800 wounded.
Some account of the nurses who accompanied the Hospital is
given in a section which follows.
The Hospital was well equipped, and the supplies were ample.
We carried with us a large number of iron bedsteads complete with
mattresses, blankets, and sheets. These were all presented to the
Hospital by Mr. Acutt, a generous merchant at Durban. It is needless
to say that they proved an inexpressible boon, and even when the
Hospital had to trust only to ox transport, all the bedsteads went
with it.
The ladies of the colony, moreover, worked without ceasing to
supply the wounded with comforts, and "No. 4" had reason to be
grateful for their well-organised kindness.
The precise number of patients who were treated in the
Hospital is no doubt recorded in the proper quarter, but some idea of
the work accomplished may be gained from the fact that practically
all the wounded in the Natal campaign--from the battle of Colenso to
the relief of Ladysmith--passed through No. 4 Stationary Field
Hospital. The exceptions were represented by the few cases sent
down direct by train or ambulance from the smaller field hospitals.

II
FRERE CAMP
It was from Frere Camp that the army under General Buller started
for the Tugela River, and the Hospital pitched its tents in that camp
on the evening of Monday, December 11th, 1899. We went up from
Pietermaritzburg by train. The contents were soon emptied out on
the line, some little way outside Frere Station, and close to the
railway the Hospital was put up. That night we all slept under
canvas--many for the first time--and all were well pleased that we
had at last arrived at the front.
Frere is merely a station on the line of rail which traverses
Natal, and as it consists only of some three or four houses and a few
trees it can hardly be dignified by the name of hamlet. Frere is
simply a speck--a corrugated iron oasis--on the vast undulating
plains of the veldt. These plains roll away to the horizon, and are
broken only by kopjes and dongas and the everlasting ant-hills.
On the way towards Ladysmith are a few kopjes of large size,
from any one of which the line of the Tugela can be seen, with the
hills beyond, occupied by the Boer entrenchments, and over them
again the hills which dominate Ladysmith. On the way towards
Estcourt winds a brown road, along which an endless train of ox-
wagons rumble and are lost in the wilderness of the camp.
The river which is reputed to "run" through Frere has long since
ceased to run. The water is retained by certain dams, and the pools
thus formed are uninviting. The water is the colour of pea-soup, and
when in a glass is semi-opaque and of a faint brownish colour. The
facetious soldier, as he drinks it, calls it "khaki and water."
In the lowest pool, immediately above the iron railway bridge
which has been blown up by the Boers, Tommy Atkins bathes with
gusto in what is seemingly a light-coloured mud. Here also he
washes his socks and his shirts.
The centre of the camp is the railway station, and that of Frere
is the smallest and most unpretending that any hamlet could
pretend to. It is, however, crowded out of all reason, and its
platform of hard earth is covered with boxes and baggage and sacks
and saddles in as much disorder as if they had been thrown in panic
from a burning train. Between the little goods shed and the little
booking-office are several stands of rifles. A sentry, proud apparently
in his covering of dust, is parading one end of the platform, while at
the other end a motley crowd of perspiring soldiers are filling water-
bottles at the tank which supplies the engine. In the waiting-room a
tumbled mass of men are asleep on the floor, while on a bench in
front of it two men-of-war's men are discussing an English paper six
weeks old.
Outside the station are ramparts of provision boxes and cases of
ammunition, and iron water cisterns and mealie bags, and to the
fragments of a railing which surrounds the station horses, of all
kinds and in all stages of weariness, are tied.
A ragged time-table on the wall, dealing with the train service to
Pretoria, and with the precise hour of the arrival of the trains there,
seems but a sorry jest. The stationmaster's house has been looted,
and the little garden in front of it has been trampled out of being,
save for two or three red geraniums which still bloom amidst the
dirt. This house is, for the time, the general's headquarters, and
before it waves the Union Jack.
When we reached the camp it was stated that 30,000 men were
under canvas. A camp of this size must of necessity present an
endless scene of bustle and movement. Nothing seemed at rest but
the interminable array of white tents and the rows of baggage
wagons. Cavalry would be moving in one direction and infantry in
another. Here a mounted patrol would be riding out or a couple of
scouts coming in. There would be a long line of Kaffirs carrying bales
and boxes to a temporary depot, and here a troop of eager horses
hurrying to the river to drink. Gallopers would be seen in all
directions, and everywhere would be struggling teams of oxen or of
mules enveloped in clouds of dust and urged on by sweating men
and strange oaths, and by the shrill yells of the Kaffir drivers, whose
dust-dried throats gave out noises like the shrieks of parrots.
There was no shade of any kind, and the camp during the day
lay dry, dusty, parched and restless under a blazing sun, but at night
there was a cool wind and cheery camp fires, and a darkness which
blotted out the dusty roads, the dried-up river, the dismal piles of
stores, and the general picture of a camp in a desert of baked earth.
Every night a search-light was at work sending dispatches to
Ladysmith, and almost every morning could be heard the Boer guns
thundering over that unhappy place.
The British soldier looked very smart in his khaki suit when
embarking at Southampton, but at Frere he showed the effects of
wear, and his tunic, his belt, his pouches, his boots and his face, had
all toned down to one uniform tint of dirt colour. He was of the earth
earthy. He was unshaven. His clothes had that abject look of want of
"fit" that is common to clothes which have been slept in, which have
been more than once soaked through, and which have more than
once dried upon the body of the owner.
 III
THE HOSPITAL DOG

Prominent among the personnel of the Hospital should be placed

"Durban," the Hospital dog. He was a brindled bull terrier of
exceptional physique and intelligence, and the story about him was
that he was a refugee dog who had attached himself to "No. 4" at
Durban, and that for want of a better name he had been called after
that pleasant town.
He had a great love of adventure, and fell into the life of a
moving camp with gusto. His good temper and his placid
appreciation of a practical joke were among his many excellent
qualities. When the orderlies were paraded on the platform of
Pietermaritzburg Station, previous to their being entrained for Frere,
"Durban" took his place in the ranks with no little dignity.
The orderlies were devoted to him and he to them, and I have
no doubt that, pampered and humoured in every canine whim, he is
with the Hospital still.
"Durban" had had a special collar made for him on which was
emblazoned the red cross and the name of his company. Just before
starting for Chieveley his particular master made him a pair of
putties, in which his fore legs were enveloped. He was uncommonly
pleased with these embarrassing articles of clothing, and was never
tired of going round the camp to show them to his many admirers.
At Spearman's he was provided with a travelling kit, consisting of a
waterproof cape with two minute panniers on either side, marked
with the red cross, and furnished with unappreciated surgical
dressings. This exquisite outfit was with difficulty secured in position,
and in the early stages of a march was sure to be found dangling
beneath "Durban's" ample chest.
His passion for bathing was only equalled by his passion for
catching flies, and when we reached the Lesser Tugela he would join
party after party on their way to the river, and would bathe as long
and as often as he found anyone to bathe with.
He was useful, too, as a watch-dog, and performed no mean
services in connection with the commissariat department. Some
sheep were given to the Hospital, and for a day or two it was a
problem as to how advantage could be taken of this important
supply of food. The sheep, when wanted for the kitchen, could not
be caught, and could not be shot, and so "Durban" was appealed to
in the difficulty. Accompanied by the cook, on certain mornings
"Durban" made his way to the little flock out on the veldt, and never
failed to pull down a sheep. He followed the cook and the sheep
back to the camp with the air of one who deserved well of his
country.

IV
THE MORNING OF COLENSO

At daybreak on the morning of December 15th the Field Hospital

was already astir. While it was yet dark the silence of the camp was
broken in upon by the rousing of the orderlies, by much slapping
upon the sides of silent tents, by much stumbling over darkened tent
ropes, and by sudden calls of "Get up, you chaps," "Tumble out,"
"Chuck yourselves about." "Why don't you wake a man up?" cries
out one peevish voice among the recently roused. "Why don't you
make a noise?" says another in sleepy tones. "Is the whole camp
afire and is the Boers on us, or is this your idea of calling a
gentleman?" mutters a sarcastic man, as he puts his head out of the
fly of his tent.
In a few minutes everyone in the camp is on the move, for
there is little needed to complete a toilet beyond the tightening of a
belt and the pulling on of a pair of boots. All are in the best of
spirits, and the collecting together of goods and chattels and the
preparing of a hurried breakfast proceed amidst infinite chatter and
many camp pleasantries. We are at last on the move. We are the
last to go. This is the day of the long expected battle, and we are to
push on to the front. The real fighting is to begin, and there is not a
man who is not possessed by the conviction that the Boers will to-
day be swept from the Tugela--if they have not already fled--and
that General Buller will have a "walk over."
One cannot but be reminded, many times since, that the
advance to Ladysmith was always spoken of as a "walk over."
Moreover, everyone is glad to leave Frere--dreary, sweltering
Frere. Since the column left it has become a waste of desolation; the
very grass has been already worn away, and there is nothing but an
expanse of bald earth, scarred with the landmarks of a camp that
was, glistening with empty meat and biscuit tins which flash in the
sun, and dotted over with a rabble of debris. The picturesque cavalry
camp, with its rows of restless horses, is now only indicated by more
or less formal lines of dirtier dirt. The avenues and squares of white
tents are gone, and in their place is a khaki waste covered with the
most melancholy of refuse.
At the outskirts of great towns there is usually, in a place or
two, a desert plot of land marked off by disreputable relics of a
fence and trodden into barren earth by innumerable untidy feet. If
such a plot be diversified with occasional ash heaps, with derelict
straw, and with empty tins and bottomless pots and pans, it will
represent in miniature the great camp of Frere after the column had
moved to the river.
Frere was indeed no longer Frere. It had become suddenly
quiet, and the depressed garrison left behind were almost too listless
to watch, with suitable jealousy, our preparations for departure.
On this particular morning the sun rose gloriously. Out of the
gloom there emerged rapidly the grey heights of the far-off
Drachenbergs, and as the light of the dawn fell full upon them, their
ashen precipices and pinnacles became rose-coloured and luminous;
and the terraces of green which marked the foot of each line of
barren cliff seemed so near and so strangely lit that many a man,
busy in the work of striking camp, stopped to gaze on these
enchanted mountains. The whole range, however, looks chilled and
barren--as barren, as solitary, as unearthly as the mountains of the
moon.
Before the peaks of the Drachenbergs were well alight the boom
of our great guns sounded with startling clearness, and it was
evident that the prelude for the battle had begun.
In due course a train of goods wagons backed down to the side
of the hospital. The tents and countless panniers, boxes, sacks, and
miscellaneous chattels of the hospital were packed upon the trucks.
Our instructions were to proceed by train to Colenso, and to there
unload and camp. There was apparently no doubt but that the
village by the Tugela would immediately be in our hands. Early
rumours reached us, indeed, that the Boers had fled, and that no
living thing was to be seen on the heights beyond the river. These
rumours were soon to be discredited by the incessant roar of
cannon, and later by the barking of the "pom-pom" and the minor
patter of rifle firing.
Four nurses were to go with the train: the two who had
accompanied me from London, Miss McCaul and Miss Tarr, and two
army sisters from Netley, Sister Sammut and Sister Martin.
While the train was being loaded the nurses waited at the hotel
or store. The hotel, a little unpretending bungalow, represented one
of the three or four dwellings which made up the settlement of
Frere. It was kept by Mr. and Mrs. Wilson, to whose hospitality we
were, on this and other occasions, much indebted. Mr. Wilson and
his family were excellent representatives of the many sturdy and
loyal colonists who are to be found throughout Natal. When the
Boers approached Frere they were compelled to fly to the south, and
when they returned to what had once been a home, they found such
a wreck of a house as only Boers can effect. Everything had been
looted that could be looted, and what could not be removed had
been ruthlessly broken up. Even the books in the ample book-case
had been torn to pieces. The empty rooms were filled with filth and
wreckage, and nothing had escaped the obscene hands of these
malicious marauders. Every cupboard had been torn open and, if
possible, torn down; every drawer had been rifled of its contents;
and on the floor, among fragments of broken chairs and crockery
and discarded articles of clothing, would be found a photograph of a
child, trampled out of recognition, or some small keepsake which
had little value but its associations. The Boers, indeed, do not stop
at mere looting, but mark their visits by fiendish malice and by a
savage mischievousness which would not be unworthy of an escaped
baboon.
The train carrying the hospital and its possessions moved on to
Frere Station, where it took up the equipment of officers and men.
There was a passenger carriage with one compartment in which
were accommodated the nurses and three others. The officers,
sergeants, and orderlies rode on the piles of baggage which filled
the open trucks.
The day was blazing hot, and thirst proportionate. The heat
oppressed one with the sense of something that had weight. Any
breeze that moved was heavy with heat.
At last we started for the actual front, full of expectancy and in
the best of spirits. The distance to Chieveley is about seven miles
across the veldt, across the trestle bridge, and past the wreck of the
armoured train. The train moved up the incline to Chieveley very
slowly, and as we approached the higher ground it struck us all that
the incessant artillery and rifle firing, and the constantly repeated
crack of the "pom-pom," were hardly consistent with the much-
emphasised "walk-over."
Outside Chieveley Station, the station of which we were to see
so much later on, the crawling train stopped, and a galloper came up
with a message requesting me to go down to the battlefield at once.
At the same time, Major Brazier-Creagh, who was in charge of the
hospital train, and who was always as near the front as he could get,
came up and told us that things were going badly at Colenso, that
we had lost several guns, and that the wounded were coming in in
scores.

V
THE HOSPITAL UNDER THE RIDGE

My wagon and mules were already at Chieveley when the train

reached that place, and I was able to start for the scene of action
without a moment's delay.
From Chieveley the grass-covered veldt slopes evenly to the
Tugela and to Colenso village, which lies upon its southern bank.
This slope, some few miles from Chieveley, is broken by a long ridge,
upon which the 4.7 naval guns were placed. From this ridge the
whole battlefield could be viewed.
Under the shelter of the ridge, and close to the great guns, four
little field hospitals were pitched, and here I made my first
acquaintance with the circumstances of war. Each field hospital
would be represented by a small central marquee, which formed an
operating and dressing station, and a number of bell tents around it,
which would accommodate in all about one hundred patients.
When I arrived the ambulances were already coming in--the
dreary ambulances, each one with a load of suffering, misery, and
death! Each wagon was drawn by ten mules and driven by a Kaffir,
and over the dusty hood of each the red cross flag waved in the
shimmering heat. They came along slowly, rocking and groaning
over the uneven veldt like staggering men, and each drew up at one
or other of the little hospitals under the ridge. Every ambulance
carried a certain number of wounded men who were well enough to
sit up, and a smaller number who were lying on stretchers--the
"sitting up" and "lying down" cases, as they were respectively called.
Those who could move themselves were soon helped down from the
wagon by willing hands, while the stretchers were taken out by
relays of trained bearers.
What a spectacle it was! These were the very khaki-clad soldiers
who had, not so long ago, left Waterloo, spick and span, amid a
hurricane of cheers, and now they were coming back to camp silent
and listless, and scarcely recognisable as men. They were burnt a
brown red by the sun, their faces were covered with dust and sweat,
and were in many cases blistered by the heat; their hands were
begrimed; some were without tunics, and the blue army shirts they
wore were stiff with blood. Some had helmets and some were bare-
headed. All seemed dazed, weary, and depressed.
Their wounds were of all kinds, and many had been shot in
more places than one. Here was a man nursing a shattered arm in
the blood-stained rags of a torn-up sleeve. There was another with
his head bandaged up and his face painted with black streaks of
dried blood, holding a crushed helmet beneath his arm like a
collapsible opera hat.
Some still gripped their rifles or dragged their bandoliers along
as they limped to the tents. Many were wandering about aimlessly.
All were parched with thirst, for the heat was extreme. Here a man
with a bandaged, bootless foot would be hopping along with the aid
of his gun, while another with his eyes covered up would be clinging
to the tunic of a comrade who could see his way to the tents. One or
two of those who were lying on the ground were vomiting, while
near by a poor fellow, who had been shot through the lung, was
coughing up blood.
All around the operation-marquee men were sitting and lying on
the ground, waiting for their turn at the surgeon's hands; while here
would be a great heap of dusty rifles, and there a pile of discarded
accoutrements, tunics and boots, and elsewhere a medley of boxes,
panniers, canteen tins, cooking pots, and miscellaneous baggage. A
few helmets were lying about which had probably dropped off the
stretchers, or had been removed from the dead, for some of them
were blood-stained and crushed out of shape, or riddled with holes.
The saddest cases among the wounded were those on the
stretchers, and the stretchers were lying on the ground everywhere,
and on each was a soldier who had been "hard hit." Some of those
on the stretchers were already dead, and some kindly hand had
drawn a jacket over the poor, dust-stained face. One or two were
delirious, and had rolled off their stretchers on to the ground; others
were strangely silent, and at most were trying to shade their eyes
from the blinding sun. One man, who was paralysed below the waist
from a shot in the spine, was repeatedly raising up his head in order
to look with persisting wonder and curiosity at limbs which he could
not move and in which he could not feel. Here and there groups of
dusty men, who had been but slightly wounded, were sitting on the
ground together, too tired and too depressed even to talk, or at most
muttering a word or two now and then in a whisper.
Overworked orderlies were busy everywhere. Some were
heating water or soup over the camp fires; others were hurrying
round to each wounded man with water and bread. The majority
were occupied in helping the injured to the tents or were concerned
in attempting to relieve those who seemed in most distress.
The surgeons in their shirt-sleeves were working for their lives.
Some were busy in the operation-marquee, while others were going
from man to man among the crowd upon the ground, giving
morphia, adjusting limbs, and hurrying each of the wounded into the
shelter of a tent with as much speed as possible. Yet, although the
whole ground seemed covered with stricken men, the dismal
ambulances were still crawling in, and far over the veldt the red
cross flag of other wagons could be seen moving slowly up to the
naval ridge.
Would this procession of wagons never end!
Besides the ambulances there was the Volunteer Bearer
Company, organised by Colonel Gallwey, C.B. The men of this
Company were now tramping in in a long, melancholy line made up
of little groups of six slowly moving figures carrying a stretcher
between them, and on each stretcher was a khaki mass that rocked
as the stretcher rocked, and that represented a British soldier badly
wounded, possibly dying, possibly dead.
Above the hubbub of the swarming hospitals was still to be
heard the boom of the accursed guns.
In the rear the whistle and puff of a train at Chieveley sounded
curiously out of place, and about the outskirts of the hospital some
outspanned oxen were grazing as unconcernedly as if they were
wandering in a meadow in England. Over all was the blazing sun and
the blinding sky.
 Late in the afternoon a thunderstorm passed overhead, and
when the rain came down the wounded, who were lying on the
grass, were covered over with the waterproof ground-sheets which
were used in the tents. This did little to mitigate the grimness of the
occasion. There was, indeed, something very uncanny in the
covered-up figures, in the array of tarpaulins glistening with rain,
and beneath which some of the wounded lay motionless, while
others moved uneasily.
No pen, however, can fitly describe this scene at the foot of the
ridge. Here was a picture of the horrors of war, and however
accustomed an onlooker may have been to the scenes among which
a surgeon moves, few could have wished other than that the
circumstances of this day would be blotted out of all memory. I
could not fail to be reminded over and over again of the remark
made by many who were leaving England when I left to the effect
that they hoped they would reach the Cape "in time for the fun."
Well, we were in time, but if this was "fun" it was humour of a kind
too ghastly for contemplation.
If of this dismal scene there was much to be forgotten, there
was at least one feature which can never be forgot, and that was the
heroism with which the soldier met his "ill luck." The best and the
worst of a man, so far as courage and unselfishness are concerned,
come out when he is hard hit, and without doubt each one of the
wounded at Colenso "took his licking like a man." Bravery in the heat
and tumult of battle is grand enough, but here in the dip behind the
gun hill, and within the unromantic lines of a field hospital, was a
display of grim pluck, which showed itself only in tightened faces,
clenched teeth, and firmly knit fingers. Among the stricken crowd
who had reached the shelter of the hospital there was many a
groan, but never a word of complaint, never a sign of whining, nor a
token of fear. Some were a little disposed to curse, and a few to be
jocular, but they all faced what had to be like men.
They were not only uncomplaining and unselfish, but grateful
and reasonable. There was no grumbling (no "grousing," as Tommy
calls it), no carping criticism. As one man said, pointing to the over-
worked surgeons in the operation-tent, "They will do the best they
can for the blooming lot of us, and that's good enough for me."

VI
INSIDE AN OPERATION-TENT

There were four operation-marquees pitched under the naval ridge

on the day of Colenso, one connected with each of the field
hospitals. There is little about these marquees or about the work
done in the shadow of them that is of other than professional
interest. They were crowded, and overcrowded, on December 15th,
and the surgeons who worked in them worked until they were
almost too tired to stand. Every preparation had been completed
hours before the first wounded man arrived, and the equipment of
each hospital was ample and excellent. To my thinking, a great
surgical emergency, great beyond any expectation, was never more
ably met than was this on the day of the first battle.
The marquee is small. It accommodates the operation-table in
the centre between the two poles, while along the sides are ranged
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