Tab 1

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
REVIEWER 2ND SEMESTER – MR. CAGALINGAN

●​ For example, in the reaction where ●

methane (CH₄) burns in air, the system
I. THERMOCHEMISTRY
would be the methane and oxygen,
while the surroundings would be the ●
TOPIC OVERVIEW air, the container, and the
environment in contact with the
A.​ ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL
system.​
REACTIONS
a.​ Systems and surroundings A2 TYPES OF SYSTEMS ●
b.​ Types of Systems
c.​ Types of energy ●​ OPEN SYSTEM: Can exchange both
d.​ First Law of Thermodynamics matter and energy with the
e.​ Exothermic vs. Endothermic surroundings
processes -​ Example: A boiling pot of
water. Heat (energy) escapes to ●
B.​ ENTHALPY AND HEAT TRANSFERS the surroundings, and water
a.​ Enthalpy (H) vapor (matter) also leaves the
b.​ Enthalpy change (ΔH) in system.
chemical reactions -​ Matter and energy are both
c.​ Sign conventions and exchanged, so both can affect
examples the internal energy of the A4
d.​ Thermochemical equations system.
●​ CLOSED SYSTEM: Can exchange The
energy but not matter with the that
I THERMOCHEMISTRY
surroundings it ca
●​ Study of energy changes, particularly -​ Example: A sealed container of anot
heat, that accompany chemical water. Heat can flow in or out, surro
reactions and physical transformations but no water vapor or liquid
●​ Helps predict whether a reaction will can escape. Form
occur spontaneously and how much -​ Energy can be transferred, but ΔE
heat will be absorbed or released matter is fixed within the
●​ Every time chemical bonds are formed system.
or broken, energy is involved -​ This is the most common type Whe
of system studied in
ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL thermochemistry. ●
A
REACTIONS ●​ ISOLATED SYSTEM: Neither matter
nor energy can be exchanged with the ●
A1 SYSTEMS AND SURROUNDINGS surroundings ●
-​ Example: A well-insulated
When studying for thermochemistry, we thermos bottle. Neither heat
SIG
divide the universe into two: nor matter can leave or enter
●​ SYSTEM: The part of the universe -​ No interaction with the
under study. In a chemical reaction, surroundings, so the total
this could be the reactants, products, energy of the system remains
or even just a specific part of the constant, which simplifies
setup (Ex. a beaker or a reaction calculations in
vessel) thermodynamics
●​ SURROUNDING: Everything outside
the system. This includes the air, the A3 TYPES OF ENERGY
container, and any other matter or
energy that can interact with the Energy is the ability to do work or transfer
system. heat. In thermochemistry, energy manifests in
●​ Universe = System + Surroundings different forms:

PAGE 1 H.R. FERNANDEZ – 11 STEM 7AM

 enthalpy, ΔH, which tells us how much heat is ●
-​ If work is done on the
absorbed or released by the system during a
system, such as when it is
process that occurs at constant pressure.​
compressed, then w is
negative, and the system
gains energy. B2 ENTHALPY CHANGE (ΔH) IN Thes
CHEMICAL REACTIONS what
but
Example:​ place
In chemical reactions, the change in enthalpy
If a chemical reaction causes 200 J of heat to
is calculated by subtracting the enthalpy of
be absorbed by the system and 50 J of work is
the reactants from the enthalpy of the
done by the system then:
products:
●​ ΔE = 200 J + (−50 J) = +150 J
ΔH = H products − H reactants
●​ So, the internal energy of the system
increases by 150 J
●​ If ΔH is negative, it means the reaction
releases heat and is exothermic.
●​ If ΔH is positive, it means the reaction
absorbs heat and is endothermic. KEY
A5 EXOTHERMIC VS ENDOTHERMIC
PROCESSES B3 SIGN CONVENTIONS AND EXAMPLES

●​ An exothermic reaction releases heat ●​ Exothermic reaction – In the

into the surroundings. The system combustion of methane:
loses energy, making the surroundings
feel warmer. In this case, the heat (q) is CH₄(g) + 2O₂(g) → CO₂(g) + 2H₂O(g) ​
negative. ΔH = −890.3 kJ/mol
-​ Common examples include
combustion, condensation, and ●​ This means 890.3 kJ of heat is released.
freezing. These reactions result Since heat is released by the system,
in a decrease in the internal ΔH is negative.
energy of the system.
●​ An endothermic reaction absorbs
heat from the surroundings. The
system gains energy, often making the
surroundings feel cooler. For these
reactions, heat (q) is positive.
-​ Melting ice, boiling water, and
photosynthesis are typical ●​ Endothermic reaction – In the
examples. These increase the decomposition of calcium carbonate:
internal energy of the system.
CaCO₃(s) → CaO(s) + CO₂(g) ​
ΔH = +178.0 kJ/mol
B ENTHALPY AND HEAT TRANSFER
●​ Here, 178.0 kJ of heat is
B1 ENTHALPY (H) absorbed by the system, so ΔH
is positive.
Enthalpy is a measure of the total heat
content of a system at constant pressure. It B3 THERMOCHEMICAL EQUATIONS
combines the internal energy of the system
with the energy required to push back the
A thermochemical equation is a balanced
surroundings (pressure-volume work). It is
chemical equation that also includes the
defined as:
amount of heat absorbed or released.
H = E + PV
●​ If the reaction is exothermic, the heat
term is written as a product (because
Although we cannot directly measure
it is released), and the ΔH value is
enthalpy, we can measure the change in
negative.

PAGE 2 H.R. FERNANDEZ – 11 STEM 7AM

 CH₄(g) + 2O₂(g) → CO₂(g) + 2H₂O(l) 1.
2
II. ENTHALPY OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Given:

TOPIC OVERVIEW ●​ ΔHf° of CH₄(g) = −74.8 kJ/mol

●​ ΔHf° of CO₂(g) = −393.5 kJ/mol Man
A.​ STANDARD ENTHALPY OF
●​ ΔHf° of H₂O(l) = −285.8 kJ/mol desir
FORMATION
●​ ΔHf° of O₂(g) = 0 kJ/mol (element in
standard state) CO
B.​ HESS’ LAW AND CALORIMETRY
Solution: Now

STANDARD ENTHALPY OF ●​ Products: CO₂(g) + 2H₂O(l) → (−393.5) + C(s) +

A
FORMATION 2(−285.8) = −965.1 kJ CO₂
●​ Reactants: CH₄(g) + 2O₂(g) → (−74.8) + ​
The standard enthalpy of formation (ΔHf°) is 2(0) = −74.8 kJ​ C(s)
defined as the heat change when 1 mole of a ΔH =
compound is formed from its elements in
their standard states under standard ΔHrxn = −965.1 − (−74.8) = −890.3 kJ Calo
conditions (25°C or 298 K and 1 atm pressure).
Since the result is negative, this is an ●
●​ Standard state means the most stable exothermic reaction, releasing 890.3 kJ of
physical form of an element or energy.
compound at 25°C and 1 atm.
●​ Examples of standard states: A HESS’ LAW AND CALORIMETRY
○​ O₂ gas for oxygen
○​ N₂ gas for nitrogen Equ
○​ C in graphite form for carbon Hess’s Law states that the total enthalpy
○​ H₂ gas for hydrogen change of a reaction is the same, no matter ●
○​ Na as solid metal (Na(s)) how many steps the reaction takes. In other
○​ H₂O as liquid (H₂O(l)) words, enthalpy is a state function, and it
depends only on the initial and final states,
ΔHf° of Elements in Standard State not the pathway.

●​ For any element in its standard state, How it works:​

ΔHf° = 0 by definition. This acts as a If a reaction can be expressed as the sum of
reference point when calculating two or more other reactions, then the total ΔH
enthalpy changes for compounds. is the sum of the ΔH values of those individual
reactions.
Calculating Enthalpy Change of a Whe
Key rules when using Hess’s Law:
Reaction (ΔHrxn)
●
●​ If you reverse a reaction, change the
●​ We can calculate the enthalpy change
sign of ΔH. ●
for a reaction using the standard
●​ If you multiply or divide a reaction, do ●
enthalpies of formation of the
the same to ΔH. ●
reactants and products.
●​ Add reactions together, and then add
all their ΔH values.
Formula:
This
Example:​ durin
ΔHrxn = ΣΔHf°(products) − ΣΔHf°(reactants)
Suppose you want to find the enthalpy salts
●​ This equation tells us that the total change for:
enthalpy change in a chemical Exam
C(s) + ½O₂(g) → CO(g) How
reaction depends on the difference
between the energy stored in the wate
products and in the reactants. ​
Give
Example:​
Let’s calculate ΔHrxn for the combustion of Solu
You are given: q=m
methane:

PAGE 3 H.R. FERNANDEZ – 11 STEM 7AM

q = 100 g × 4.18 J/g·°C × (80°C − 25°C)​
q = 100 × 4.18 × 55 = 22,990 J or 22.99 kJ

●​ So, 22.99 kJ of heat was absorbed by

the water.

Types of Calorimetry

●​ Constant Pressure Calorimeter:

-​ Typically used in labs (e.g.,
coffee-cup calorimeter).
-​ Measures enthalpy changes for
reactions at constant pressure
(ΔH).
-​ Suitable for reactions in
aqueous solutions (e.g.,
dissolving salts, neutralizations).

●​ Constant Volume Calorimeter:

-​ Known as a bomb calorimeter.
-​ Used for combustion reactions.
-​ The volume doesn’t change, so
it measures ΔE (internal
energy), not ΔH directly.
-​ Heat is measured by the
temperature change in the
surrounding water.

KEY POINTS!

●​ The standard enthalpy of

formation helps estimate the heat
involved in forming compounds
from their elements.
●​ Hess’s Law allows us to use known
reactions to calculate unknown
enthalpy changes.
●​ Calorimetry is the practical way to
measure heat flow, using the q =
mcΔT formula.
●​ Understanding ΔH helps classify
reactions as endothermic (heat
absorbed) or exothermic (heat
released).

PAGE 4 H.R. FERNANDEZ – 11 STEM 7AM

 -​Since internal energy (ΔE)
depends on temperature, ΔE =
III. LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
0. ●
-​ Any heat added to the system is
TOPIC OVERVIEW used entirely to do work.
-​ Example: Slow expansion of
A.​ THERMODYNAMICS
gas in a perfectly conducting
B.​ THERMODYNAMICS PROCESSES
cylinder.
C.​ HEAT CAPACITY D
●​ ADIABATIC PROCESS
D.​ ZEROTH LAW
-​ No heat is exchanged with the
E.​ FIRST LAW
surroundings (q = 0). ●
F.​ SECOND LAW
-​ Energy change is due solely to
G.​ THIRD LAW
work done by or on the system.
H.​ GIBBS FREE ENERGY AND
-​ ΔE = −w (if using the formula ΔE
SPONTANEITY
= q − w). ●
I.​ LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE
-​ Example: Rapid compression or
expansion of gas where there’s
no time for heat exchange. ●
A THERMODYNAMICS ●​ ISOBARIC PROCESS
-​ Pressure remains constant. ●
Thermodynamics is the study of energy, heat, -​ Work is done as the volume
and work, and how these are transferred or changes (w = PΔV).
-​ Common in laboratory E
transformed during physical and chemical
processes. reactions open to the
atmosphere. ●
●​ CLASSICAL: -​ Enthalpy (ΔH) becomes a useful ●
-​ This approach focuses on measure in this process.
macroscopic observations like -​
energy changes, heat flow, and ●​ ISOCHORIC PROCESS
work, without considering the -​ Volume remains constant (ΔV Form
behavior of individual particles. = 0). ΔE
-​ It uses principles such as the -​ No work is done (w = 0).
laws of thermodynamics and -​ All energy change is due to Whe
thermodynamic properties like heat (ΔE = q).
pressure, volume, and -​ Example: Reactions in a rigid ●
temperature. container or bomb calorimeter. ●
●​ STATISTICAL:
-​ This approach connects the C HEAT CAPACITY
microscopic behavior of atoms ●
and molecules to macroscopic
thermodynamic properties. Heat capacity (C) is the amount of heat
-​ It uses probability and statistics required to raise the temperature of a system
to explain how microscopic by 1°C or 1 K.
states (such as molecular Exam
motions and energy levels) lead ●​ Specific heat capacity (c): Heat If a s
to observable thermodynamic required to raise 1 gram of a substance J of w
quantities like entropy and by 1°C. ​
temperature. ●​ Molar heat capacity (C ): Heat ΔE
required to raise 1 mole of a substance
by 1°C. ●
B THERMODYNAMICS PROCESSES
For ideal gases, the heat capacity depends on
the process: F
These are specific ways in which a system can
change, especially in relation to energy (heat
and work). ●​ At constant volume (Cv): In an
-​ q = nCvΔT (diso
●​ ISOTHERMAL PROCESS: -​ No work is done (w = 0), all
-​ Temperature remains energy goes into increasing ●
constant (ΔT = 0). internal energy.

PAGE 5 H.R. FERNANDEZ – 11 STEM 7AM

 -​ ΔS > 0: More disorder -​ Volume decreases, pressure ●
(favorable, spontaneous) rises sharply
-​ ΔS < 0: Less disorder
(unfavorable)​

Exam
Examples of processes with increasing The m
entropy: G THIRD LAW
●
●​ Ice melting into water ●
●​ The entropy of a perfect crystal at
●​ Gas expanding
absolute zero (0 K) is exactly zero.
●​ Salt dissolving in water ●
●​ This law provides an absolute
reference point for entropy, allowing
Heat Engines
chemists to calculate standard entropy
●​ A heat engine is a device that converts values of substances.
heat into work, usually by allowing a I
working substance (like gas) to expand
GIBBS FREE ENERGY AND
and contract in a cycle. H
SPONTANEITY ●

●​ It’s thermodynamic quantity that tells

us whether a chemical reaction will
occur spontaneously (without
needing continuous input of energy)
Carnot Cycle
●​ Isothermal Expansion (A → B) Formula: Type
-​ Moves right and slightly down resp
-​ Gas expands slowly at constant ΔG=ΔH−TΔS ●
temperature
-​ Heat is absorbed Where:
-​ Volume increases, pressure
●​ ΔG = change in Gibbs free energy
decreases gently ●​ ΔH = change in enthalpy (heat
content)
●​ Adiabatic Expansion (B → C) ●​ T = absolute temperature in kelvins (K)
-​ Moves right and steeply down ●​ ΔS = change in entropy (disorder)
-​ Gas expands quickly without Exam
heat In th
-​ Temperature drops ​
-​ Volume increases, pressure N₂(g
drops a lot​
●
●​ Isothermal Compression (C → D)
How to interpret ΔG:
-​ Moves left and slightly up
-​ Gas is compressed slowly at ●​ ΔG < 0 → The reaction is spontaneous
constant (lower) temperature (favorable)
-​ Heat is released ●​ ΔG > 0 → The reaction is
-​ Volume decreases, pressure non-spontaneous (unfavorable)
●​ ΔG = 0 → The reaction is at equilibrium ●
rises gently
Sometimes, a reaction's spontaneity depends
●​ Adiabatic Compression (D → A) on T, the temperature. For example:
-​ Moves left and steeply up
-​ Gas is compressed quickly ●​ If ΔH > 0 (endothermic) and ΔS > 0
without heat (entropy increases), the reaction may
-​ Temperature increases be spontaneous only at high
temperatures.

PAGE 6 H.R. FERNANDEZ – 11 STEM 7AM

 KEY POINTS!

●​ Thermodynamics studies energy

changes and how heat and work
Example:​ influence physical and chemical
In the reaction: processes.
●​ Thermodynamic processes like
N₂(g) + 3H₂(g) ⇌ 2NH₃(g) isothermal, adiabatic, isobaric, and
isochoric describe how systems
●​ Left side: 1 + 3 = 4 moles of gas exchange heat or perform work
●​ Right side: 2 moles of gas under different conditions.
●​ Heat capacity, especially in ideal
●​ Increasing pressure shifts equilibrium
gases, shows how much heat is
to the right, toward fewer moles (more needed to raise temperature,
NH₃ is formed). important in understanding energy
●​ Decreasing pressure shifts storage and transfer.
equilibrium to the left, favoring the ●​ The Zeroth Law defines
formation of N₂ and H₂ temperature by stating that thermal
equilibrium is transitive.
●​ The First Law emphasizes that
energy is conserved: the change in
internal energy (ΔE) depends on
●​ CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE
heat added (q) and work done (w).
○​ Exothermic Reactions (ΔH < 0) ●​ The Second Law introduces entropy
-​ Heat is a product (S) and explains that spontaneous
-​ Adding heat → Shifts processes increase disorder; no heat
equilibrium to the left engine is perfectly efficient.
-​ Removing heat → Shifts ●​ The Carnot Cycle is an ideal model
for a heat engine, with maximum
equilibrium to the right
efficiency determined by the
○​ Endothermic Reactions ​ temperatures of the hot and cold
(ΔH > 0) reservoirs.
-​ Heat is a reactant ●​ The Third Law states that as
-​ Adding heat → Shifts temperature approaches absolute
equilibrium to the right zero, the entropy of a perfect crystal
-​ Removing heat → Shifts approaches zero.
●​ Gibbs Free Energy (ΔG) predicts
equilibrium to the left
spontaneity using the equation:​
ΔG=ΔH−TΔS​
*Spontaneous processes have
negative ΔG.
●​ Le Chatelier’s Principle explains
how a system at equilibrium
responds to stress—by shifting to
minimize the change (e.g.,
Example:​ concentration, pressure,
For the endothermic reaction:​ temperature).

CaCO₃(s) ⇌ CaO(s) + CO₂(g) ​

ΔH > 0

●​ Adding heat acts like adding a

reactant, so the equilibrium shifts
right, favoring decomposition into CaO
and CO₂.
●​ Removing heat shifts equilibrium left,
favoring the formation of CaCO₃

PAGE 7 H.R. FERNANDEZ – 11 STEM 7AM