Flow-rate

SensorsFor 9.2.1reliability,
control, Innovativeaccuracy consideration Exposure
temperature to as even
extreme and
Sensors 9.2 INTRODUCTION
doing
of the here An 9.1
the discussed Chapter
Reduced
In though Engine features application earlier apt
are
onventional Reliability so,
(ii)
present temperature ON-BOARD for name
and designs least at a only
manouvering water,
varying the automobiles, that little
chapters.
(v) cost for in is
day over better in performance th e can highlighted of
fuel are the include analysis this
engines reduces itself oil, variations, heart be
automobile ten following
from covered Their chapter
consumption therefore performance. mud,
control, years. is
important
AUTOMOBILE
environment, of that of in
with price -40 the adaptation th
Sensors-Theire
Applications
electromagnetic level is, in termscould
subsection. and sensor
arburettor, systems, often Besides, but to automobile the
(i1) 150°C has automotive
hence, of be
control.
room
required it
shouldsafety
criterion
toreliability,
be
present
system to
specific 'Stheirensors
9
sensing and the
The kept whichon-board
SENSORS textapplications
has
300such fo r sensorS
and for not caninterference, for
sensors production vibrationalengine unabated. cost, though
applicationsbeen
application
operational is be be is miscellaneous
required ensured exposed
used sensors
and made as
done the
are compartment One resources many
to
acceleration and to0
(AUTOMOTIVE ones inhas
not to in at in be come some
comfort th e the such get to of
necessary automotive be trouble-free this vibration, presented applications'
been these .
like exposed cases.
done way-at cost sensor and with
given are
control, of are ofinnovations. somne
ranging Obviously
as majorly safety
conditions. also an is to dust, offer discussed
due
the least and automobile the all special Sensors
(iv) toflow-rateelectrical these SENSORS) consideration. wider a
ir-to-fuel and fo r from
for partially. be not
safety (i) maintaining taken conditions constraints in
accuracy. exposure. all details elucidated
engine 3g-30g. hassensor noise,
fronts
ratio and into
a In in
 Semi-smart
MEMS also
processing.(With are are engine
diaphragms Pressure
Pressure
Sensors9.2.2
already Figs. inTlows.
semiconductor Variation.
Sond measured
Dut estimation
ald s use lS
the being the
isPZT oil, 9.1(a) tne Selt-adjustable
ne an of
shown is previous state
sensor iFcreasingly in The Success aavancement, as
andbrake a transistor Proposed
types use very Heating by
sensors As
andunderlying isthe
schematicallyis applied bellows
for chapter),
measuring
in done
devices.Such oil,
important Flow
(b). other of air
used. resistance
pressure (a) on here.
tyres, developed such sensors volume
used
pressure, elements areas, for the
Si-wafer Fig.
Silica/SigN4
Diffused
strain theseprinciple the
sensors engines basis For
Fig. Coating from parameter
measurement. room bridge. input
in 9.1 microsensors difference for the
9.2 can through this of
Fig. awhich
pressure a in Examples upcoming
crystal atmosphere, transistors
Sensor
is using engine to
Pressure
atic port association now With is application yet
9.2. to the
in semiconducting between
gauge oscillator
For high on-board bethe use limitedcarburettor engine
revoution
sensor The of realized are electronic
of negativesemiconductor
frequency with semiconductor advancement
a and heating makinga because
the are is
re
processed estimated
changes automobiles on speeds (a) also
strain so and
k-GlasS
seal
pressure on silicontechnology inroads ultrasonic fuel
Si-wafer
Metallization output Contact element of the th e
diaphragm
Etched of
r. by its gauge, need flow large of negativeinjection
capacitive substrates. use by
frequency
sensing the micromachining into sound Sensors-Their
Applications
sensors. inflow-rate of
Flow flowmeters flow-rate
can LVDT, beand
semiconductor measured.
pressures (b) are the sensors
be the both pressureengines,
for derived used
and devices and The automobile
form upstream
the changes is or
is schemes fo r where these
intake being capacitive The of Resistor technology of measured
beingpressure
for and intake sensing
technology a
easier SAW
conventional transistorsystems and considered and the sensors
manifold. tried are
manifold,
elements downstream.
temperature
air flow-rate sensing"e at
devices
nowsignal (described
shown its
and as are
and
a as orfuel well. nownlake. mau 301
in a 1s
 vehicle. better with output hysteresis
of temperature 12
of
V.reliability than
exhaust
Temperature Temperature
-40-300°C Temperature
are used. Sensors 9.2.3 byIheUSing 302
1 For also addingsensor
choice. kS2 fo r In 80°C, Temperature IC
Figure gas very Amplification,
resistance conversion engine < under Transducers
Sensorsand
indication 5°C
and at technology.
appropriate unit
It
that 9.4 coefficient ranges
the much sensors
is for these so
coolant is
possessesshows the a
on.
exhaust depicted
at of from
switchesin for
design 25°C. temperature
or Therefore,'
conditions. A
thermistors
a coolant, and demand motor impuritycalibration,
basic
typical fo r pipe
-40-180°C are Fig. in
Fig.
anHowever, in use oi l , g.
Fisensor
it andpretty vehicles 9.3 Seal
accuracy either
air, sensors may to and
9.4 RTD are by bimetal range
Al,O3 oil, there Negative the 9.3. unit
RTD case mostlyfor th e rise common
in The ure
diffusedtemperat
used
of of are uses
and need upto are Solder
as Terminal£2°C. cylinder
computer/processor
that -40°-140°C, elements engine of pressure sensing a
used
in used. gas to
about
traditional various that
the has be design. silicon
coolant, must Lead
in
Si-sensor compensat
silicon ion
-Pt-wire vehicle, gothead,temperatures The arcarefully
e 1200°C; sensing
les. Connector Spring kinds diaphragm
0-ring to
RTD commonly and
thermistor types be VAC chip
it be fast. silicon Weld chip
switching chosen the oil depending
is
special
(platinum for in basin,which High is are
an resistive and
automobiles temperature chip.
RTD regulation range used to internallya
to current temperature
are and on
resistance) offer vacuum
600 fit lies as gear used the in
into nature made
variety between
purposes, thermorelays6Amaximuminside box place
into for chamber
the at for
a
sensitivewhere and
appears analog thewhile oil in
wifeature
th rated and is isthe
50-150°C output car
or sensors they obtainedcreatedsensor
range to
a of negative signal having
supply is fwater.
the be and less the are
a
 Oxygen.
Figures
saturation
exhaust.
automobiles
the inside to-fuel
aquite Oxygen
re Appropriate Sensors9.2.4 a a
ambient observed ygn monitoring
sensitivity
the ratig ust For schematcichangtehseof
crme1eaommmicepete£rr1as°tCeuns.reors For
The and 1s exhaust with
a because of system.
such
hybrid
a coolant,
improve
tofor oxygen very temperature houses
show about gas
important system.
also It engine
of the
fuel
bettersome sensors temperature are
and their 40 electronic
current, consumption.
time uV/°C.
active
and can now
oll,
limiting are
performance. parameter Fig. this
9.6(a), quite and
now. installed
nature.sensing, 9.5 Processing
Property
calledcurrent Thermocouples be
frequently air
(b), Niobium for Hybrid adjusted
Zirconia expcriencing
the
Sensors autoexhausts in Ni-Cr/Ni is
and unit
IC exploited
limiting by
oxygen oxide the
(c) and conducting
glue
temperature Heat
for emmision are laserwhichused.
present sensors thermocouples Quartz (circuit) temperature
checkisensors
ng titania and gradually Hybrid trimming These
is
current for
Ceramic gas a
Applications
three are sensors sensor. surface-monitored
detection. SensorsTheir
havecontrolled have
smoke,
instill concentration system.
typical these also are getting are range
an
extensihumi
velydrecently ng used Figure accuracy of
(b) sensors ity, beisystems strong upto The-40-140°C,
quartz of
designs used inside frequency
shows9.5 device
wirePt Porous
Zr0,layer-Yb,0s is
used and been to foothold1200°C
of for
reduce the
odour
in
proportsuchional introduced mounted
detecting
automobile. which the of
autoamobile are the in 303
basicquartz The
sensor. fixed and air toxic
auto has on
to
 IS
concentrationeasilycathode. of In 304
Cie Shown gas. Fig.

2o Current (mA) available 9.6(a),

The Transducers
Sensorsand
15
inThe
(a) 30 size
Fig.
ltage oxygen,C,
of
voltage-current the
9.7(a).
in of
cathode
the the
Voltage For pin
(a) 1 exhaust. is Fig.
Current (mA) given isoxygen hole
ues relationship exposed 9.6
0.25 0.50 Anode
5% 20% is
(c) 30% The
sensors so Three
4FDaC. by through
ith relation chosen Heater
typical
oN Wn towith Cathode
Voltage operate, a
as oxygen as pindesigns
gen (c) between
a
tohole W
Current (mA) limit (c)
01
0.5 temperature
PoN0.7 = -10L 10 20 concentration made of
as -1 Exhaust
gas
a the the oxygen
r. rateinside
limiting
should in sensor.
a -ZrO2
e
asthcover
(b) Voltage 0.9 current be a
transfer
ith (b) parameter that
p<1 around
o limits
as p=1 , of
a 1.5 for
and700°C oxygen
2
the
the this
which diffusion
(9.1) molar device at
the
is
 Lnrough Ihe ratio
the and conventional the Furthershock.
incorporated example this 0.3 used giving Obviously where
Provides
Onditferential
matelytorquePractical 9.2.5percentage.similarelectrolyte
the power design on exhaust electrolyte. cmfor The
There (p) The diameter =Faraday
constant. F a D
can
netoresistive to the as
improvement I = =
adaptability,quickpower spinel, diffusion,
design = diffusion
constant, =
gear,trainsTorque is a design
CCC, length total the
be Thesethosestageotherslice,
parameter.
zirconia gas. for
andtrains. another << molar cathode
detected
within itself raising
The
for Both is to
by are of side, and shows used as
limiting shown limit ml-oc,) 1, of
precise axle,which and
A Fig. a cell. of th e
12 and shown limitsplatinum a
variety inside, the as concentration
so the area,
particularly
or torque platinum that pin
xfeffect 9.7(b) Figure
this thatcathode an the
an temperature diffusion in
8 response wheels. Position in
oxygen of ondesign theelectrolyte diffusion
Fig. hole,
ulticylinderx and sensor automobile
16 anode
Fig. but temperature
is the
9.7(b) sensor and 9.6(b) and
mm which in to The 9.7(c). deposited other is of I= of
its for transport
calibration he rate
power are shows rangeshown oxygen.
twhich
and 4FD C
a
gases,
small miniature eachtorqueSensors
can has
is all hand, anode by
run sensors to small (c).
by as is a
engine controls.
package be deposited the in The
component
generated isthe a 610-700C; is Fig. made In pin
consists are Fig. KC
=
installedform.
with inheater.characteristics size,
anode hole
diffusion where exposed 9.6(c) coated 9.6(b),
oxygen as
inNon-contact on a has
Such at in of Controlling a
simple is
film;
whichsingle a in
the the athin the protected with
towhere been Sensors--Their
Applications
mainappropriate
a process. porous it
to outside
air structure, platinum is
both sensor engineengine film of ashown
redesigned
sensor.
bearing sensor nitrogen such and a porous
thAl0,
e cylindrical against
exciting is itself,
is The platinum the of electrodes that
position
is
distributed substrate a the and layer
The and nowfound VI
ratio, substrate sensordesign a
the sensor toxicity low zirconia with
anddesignhence, cathode, of
of
available transmission characteristics with heater a
to PoN porosity resembles time
is minerals, porous are
pick-up bethe
to by and
mean in a exposed
air-to-fuel has bonded disc
is suitable
and power the sputtering
zirconia constant.
thermal
packaged volume during been aboutlayer (9.2) 305
cores outputworks wheels the for to
train link, are to
for
of
 annropriatecircuits,
of cleaner.Homehas 9.3 arrangement.
electron-beam receiveengine
Variety, Wife,other
magneticalthough
amplifierfeiromagnetic
diagrammatically sensorIhe
laminated
gutomation, 306
erown
and
comfort HOME and
varieties Position
refrigerator, proximitypreference.speed, Transducers Sensors
and
sensors offast and field capacitiveits silicon
area
safety,course over depends other output
APPLIANCE evaporation resistive such throttle
sensing
exposed
Wnicn represents and sensors steel
washing
a processing asThe
sensors
and last to nt isvaries modular
element ferromagnetic,
semiconducting position, is toand
nave
etficiency. a comparatively ar e
tew great method. with the
anotherpermallov
machine, such mostdevice
mudetheretore
decades Fig. Fig. p shaft
extent Shaft SiOz units is potentiometer
SENSORS 9.9 9.8 a changes
e
tnSmart The
sensor. also common are important at
enhancingmicrowave
leading Mounting leading electromagnetic respectively a
equipment on Integrated IC lessbeing in also sensors oan
operation the contains The rotational because of
availability sensitive considered position,aspect 0.2
to Magnet
of toincreasingly
the ovens, magnetic digital sensing such
development proximity of mm are
more mm3 in
capabilities
of Al a high pick as housed
signal speed. and is
convenient, the and output. unit to suitable. automobiles
Hall about
of sensor. sensor. resolution
home p* temperature used. up, so
so
automatic Sensor processing is and wound
of Integrated optical on. T2
of forth. NiCo igure
the
microminiaturized
appliances the It OT Here
magnetoresistive X
NiCo and the for wi3th
-economic,Semiconductor has
home home also mm.
unit electromagnetic
9.9 variations. high lowmodular detecting 200400
thin magnetic
depends
appliances appliances shows cost non-contact
film
with sensitivity
offered device, shaft
its a
deposited sensor ones turns
processors.
largely technology differential Figure
and mounting Wiegand
by of
in such pick-up andposition.
sensors
sate. terms using
at them wire
o as by9.8 low the
 The that windowwindow. 2
consists (CCD)
players. employed
refrigerators, ovens;
contrast,
refrigerators,cmeras,sensors clothes in applications. retaining
are usedmechanical, them weight, sensors
microcomputers, Basically.
nW/Hz, stereoplayers. ovens, also
lightprise In The Radiation In
Magnetic In in In The
the of image in dryers, the carpet
used the better for
slit a ThePhotoresistors bimetallic PTC the and and sensors
responsepyroelectric in VCR the
ontrolled
is chemicalmechanical chemical, home
spectral sensor in
a washing
LiTaO, sensors microwave devices temperature tape
They
dishwashers, exhaust air cleaners, reliability, sensors
ved units sensors, sensors
cameras, washing reliability
the all
elements recorders. conditioners, appliances
used these
like appears
time are
by
responsepyroelectric and such
machines, are fans. type,
IR that also sensing are category, in are
ovens. used stereo machines. while magnetic, requirements
and
the light a is sensor MOs
as dryers, homc used
around as is , find used humidity
water LiTaO3 isshown CdS in widely bellows efficiency. and casy can
Fig. 2-I5 image category, dehumidifieYs, sets appliances
emitting photodiodes, cookers
air-conditioners,
element used use in temperature,
Silicon now in
9.10 are dehumidifiers, handling.
level. 0.2 electric and used sensors electronic
washing um. in sensors. used in element
in pressure beare
Basic
s,Fig. gas and
thermistors tape in almost
1nis diode temperaturemicrowave on in revisited
ar e
9.10. a electric carpet electronic and
pemachine, TV and ovens recorders. and have types Sensors control
ty(LED), pyroelectric silicon nothing
sonew
Its sets
phototransistors TV also sensors, radiation fully
of air-conditioners, and considerable are as
and
cooking are
responsivity baseovens while sets,
range blanket in they met. of
a
ensor water Magnetoresistive
extensively gadgets VCR being
IR Sensitive
area
CD rice metal belong used to Therefore, the
nsistor, plate VCR types--the though must
is comes, players, cookers ranges; used Sensors--Their
Applications307
is level sensor. plate
base Si cleaners cameras,
in diaphragms, appliances
also -20°C isand camera are applications
have
is exhaust entertainment.
used in the
used
200-300 is in used refrigerators. the
sensed to general, stereothermocouples while for last lo w
iradiated uses insensors while tendency
in 100°C, as tw
basic and
V/W, temperature ovens,
fans, in and categories,
o all
cost,
players, theinfrared
charge gas requirements
types
insing using
in major are microwave potentiometers
ovens, when
and through CD sensors
used
are is small
NEP TO are cooking usedThere Potentiometers
control and players, having to coupled
elements used miniaturize
mbers andoptics with package. sensors control.
is video size,
less a ranges, inare that
is,
principles silicon silicon device in VCR Hall major for
light a than disc are light with
for It in
are gas Inand the
the slit.
 pressing PbO Excess
pervoskite.
mixed properties Ca, increases.onlead sensor on detergents.
Outputs Here,
The detection
degree
two of 308
and Ti/Zr the sensor
has titanate The
leadoxide becomes
principle Tromthe Transducers
which a Sensors
and
Sr) (TIZ) PZT, sensor
highoxide The and have is
powders (PbTiO;)-it schematically
in
partial PZT Ti* beenratio. asless
that used phototransistors
turn (PbO) discussed
ceramicsobtained with such of
and Most when for
controls
pressure. while rinsing
should impinging morespin-dry Fig.
Zr* also
Zre ceramic inwater shown systemsare
Pb sintering are by LED
Pbb the be by belongs an 9.11
Ti which
Fig. manufactured
The used,
tetravalent partial earlier drips theof
electrical system Optical in
Xy grain-size piezoelectric Fig.
9.12 is counled-one
Z
N Zr asreplacement to on sets
twprovides
o
done chapter,
Ti a pervoskite force to in sensor 9.11.
The precaution, washing
Pb property. cations.
pervoskite Pb and at(see ofthe
is
water
surface for information
compared
arfoer
1200-1300°C Chaptertransducers a
Pb Pb porosity
of solid machines water for
Figure structures. assembly
-Movableslit
in Pb* on Diaphragm reference
y
Photodiodes
cube. a of level
refractory 8) by solution it.
of in
9.12 belong Asthe about
is
detection.
the at the other Its sensor, the a
gives
piezoelectric of PZT achieving andthe the
ceramic normal same
enclosure divalent to clothes lead
the this voltageceramic concentration
way zirconate otherfor
atmospheric
are are
structure group.
cations
as condition.
standard a
during
controlled dried, sensor.
thermistors, property developed
measuring.The
Variations (PbZrO;)
sintering of
(such voltage
also of
pressure. a It
cubical depends is residual
by as in
based
from and
hot as Ba, in the
 9.13. available,
Fiimportant
g. (i11) sprinkled.
particles
are dropsrecording
developed and changes. an the
alternative
COntrollers, rig. oscillator
home stop video light
(9) 9.13 Homes formed cassette ThePhotodiode-LED
security, categories new
security. operations,heads, PTC intensity
as system
circuit
(4Block
)
air sensors are dew on thermistor
(10) moving use
schematic A detectors. the vibratesreceived tor
onditioners, (telephone)externalTo in Hall
(14) gas, control
block need photosensors this
home cylinder recorders, assembly
towards and heats
ctrical (11) of schematic be atuse by
220 V automation The
lectrical (5) a developed. magnetoresistive the its isthe
house 4 head natural has
keys current 15
beingdetecting are crystal
fpiczocrystal
orphotodetector
of of precise
made also
(15)automation 16 14 12 10 8
aare a frequency
sensor, home automated
Fortunately, for been
air (i) film VCR use
control making oscillator
keys, automation house sensors.
daptor, system: 2 1 5 isused
(6)
isfor of.
and a The
and reduced
(12) light control, thydrophilic
he which of it for
For the frost with and
(16) 13 11 7 for
bath
control, (1) development video frost
system control
servomotor a as
light (ii)
that special free. frost PTCSensors-Their
Applications
detection
etc., main tape in
(7) alongwith
energy acrylic formation,
ndary). controller,
(13) 6 with of thermistor system. the
smoke humidity has the
various that case
earthquake control/optimization, and
already
is polymer
cylinderto in
control, (2) the be drives refrigerators. of
its
and sensors variety sensors protected resonance a
underway. on head the rinsing
protection, (8) (3)
which playback crystalThe in
ventilation,
secondary is of have and
shown from frequency system. With
sensors its
Three carbon
been dew start and frost, 309
in An
 monitored.
aligned
P,
Here soand supersonicAEROSPACE Sensors of
SENSORS 9.4 310
9.16. inchannel
Fig.probes Flow Theversus
intechnique pressureshape
evaluation For 9.4.1processing acceleration,
Fia. y(by, and forth. flow air
curves p, altitude Parameters changes
Misalignment mach and p, Sensorsand
in Transducers
9.,14 accurately.
denotes direction,
which of say, p, are Static Sensors
are speed, aerospace
a are cross-section
for of For rain,
ice,
and
Probe 7%) number the p, and to and from
also 10° dependent this, to
Shockwave
be the time
suffer cone lowers type isthe
possible One Pressure bethat which gases
temperature, a
of tor (M), indicated properlystatic probes carefully applications free
sensing. rate
the Statuc of of such are are lose
from Pitot the also probe M pressure environmental changes. other molecule
proDes the of used to
is and upper is by chosen probe are done. be their
this on change
shown first Mach of staticprobe used Sensors aircraft
monitored
total are have
error. incurS 15° curve %, Fig. and for near to
determined, the with
pressure numberpressure are p,which of not normal
in ratio 9.14. static speed, to
The
Considerable >Ps (b y also
reference denotes altitude, special ideal
withstand
Fig. are for
errors ofUsing equally and behaviour.state,
9.16. 5%)
specific then
versus Psi Pitot optimizationfluid
the total though
are to that fluid
Prandtl PIg. and using Specially the total velocity, wide
also error Pressure ratios
p,p;important. theirpressuretubes
9.15 raisesheats curve is, flow
0.01
pressure. their In
variation
hown tube 0.1 10 this and sizes of
vertical are
in 1
10 fo r strain, temperatures air,
Technique the or M,p,/p, of measurement appropriate
static There and installation, not
p/p,; the fromsupersonic the sensors
for and The new in
2 isentropic ratio curves. location. speed thrust,
pressure.
8° number,
Mach M physical
wedge pressure. curve curve are holes and
edgetube
for
4 of
differences design static acceleration.,
force, and
are vary
evaluation Figure data include
are by
exponent.p/P,
the flow. Besides for is subjected
shown conditions.
from
and twAngle 7 approximately indicated placing pressure
and
o Ps/Pu acquisition,
PsiPs Correction
P; 9.15 pressure, 20-350K
30° with
pressure
other of 15 is in
length, require
in to
randtl the Reduction
evaluated. shows the probes Fig.
the pressure is varvino Density
desireu actual nose 9.14. to to
1%. the and for and flow A
be be
 SCanning.
There
are is SInall. lS
P Z300°C), O types theoretical
stagnating.called measured,measurement
aerospace T, hand,hence,Static
is Temperature
measure Sensing 9.4.2 velocities are Pitot of
obtained
zed measured also p,
Static If As B,For Obviously
th e temperature tube),andp, For
and R, total the
the WoçRes gas high used
temperature temperature measure
or indicated terminology, gas of Pitot
accuracy optical the by flow density Another temperature where and
and S of je t for
thermocouples temperature deducible velocity
is for
temperature, engine isand
and dynamic thus,
densitysonic,
changes of
measurement is isv other % velocity head
is parameter this T, th e th e
improved
other of W4Re26
by these from drafts identical -10
that T, tubes, -15 -5 5
10
hot measuring
can it success. from simple pressure velocity Fig.
tion-emission method. measures measurement, with isthe
optical gases then is, are where
are upto the the
Tt, knowledge the 9.16 Angle -10-5
by temperature,
called T; called
of streamline with
M
probes one measurement and term
multaneous such recommended
be about and T, and frequency Error
the gas p th e of
found recovery stagnation'temperature that
mnethods product
as density thermocouple the Y. dynamic isimpactmisalignment,
1250°C usually th e curves
the temperature
the of
out recovery Mach 0
exhaust a gas is fluidpressure
such pneumatic factor, specially of for
asurements andspecially
ofspecially are should chosen head
density sensitive acquires number thedensity. three
(degrees) 5
from used. ratio
as of is P, be needed order or is
Here, the dynamic
in often different
a if = are Target 10
(a) jet that and theprobe inFor complete
(p,T;)/T, M. the
(7; elements' RTD if of Sensors-Their
Applications
temperature.
enginepressure nonoxidizing even first This to 5-10 used
line actually
at velocity it studies probes. 15
in choice. - establish
is meters
pressure,
several the higher T/(T, and/or is in
and otherwise is isentropically kHz. 8°wedge
(10°cone)
Pitot
or torm denoted of practice. 30°Prandtl
tube
ydrogen-oxygen the Pr at a (TSE). using
avelengths he Type measure the turbulence
bandradiation Byttemperature
atmosphere. of thermocouple. pv´r2
T) what Here strain
stoppingaspirator an K acoustic as It
reversal aspirator upto is, T. (see is
however, of isagain,
stagnated. gauge the
On in
equation
from (upto
850°C success measured
by aspiration, entrance tspeed
he and local difference
spectral rocket, if In sensors
method, H,0
is about
T, other flow
used and the of is isthe For for 311
is
is
 where, given as
is
convenient
simple Besides,
velocitymeter
types flow-rate.Fluid 9.4.3 monochromatic thermometers
Such Examples
1wo well-known 312
isflow-rate resistanceradiation. wherein
all the (0)
shown these spectral
Ap are wavelength asFor
T flow-rate,
R volume
P 9= velocity temperatures, For
equation. thermocouple techniques, Transducers Sensors
and
=gas= = = also for can Fluid measuring
absolutedifferential
absolute points, that such The measurement
andhydrogen (20 intensity
be
(emperature is
constant,
used.
the
(LDV), can
Often flow-rates measured formerVelocitypyrometry radiation have
pressure,
rature. D both flow A be distributions
common where temperatures are been only
pressure empirical, divided
and upstream is is cryogenic
used.
are are K)of ,
pyrometer still the
measured discussed correlated
restricted other bythe canresorted
gyroscopic,
variety
Sensors
into measurements
= Fig. latter, be
P1 this and sensors within
two used is of
- 9.17 earlier.
equation through is LDV, by
downstream parts used. to.solid with
P2 (p;) TAP 1 the such Pitot for For a
The Coriolis, components molecular
the
orifice is (i) improving This
measuring are of
orifice P is an as of tube, spectral
relative
obtainable vortex more local avoidsgold-irridium
TAP 2 orifice typemoment
(Pz) which around that band,
flow interest
hotlinear
velocitytype, performance turbine the of intensities distribution
sensor. creating wire aircrafts (c)
through is orifice of velocity uncertainty
related momentum anemometer in blade alloy, of Raman
meter, aerospace
and liquid pattern are
rigorous a type,
and reducing
temperature, platinum,spectrosCOPy,
differential to involved.
bulk
shown in
rockets,
flow-nozzles (ii) blade of
applications. or
analysis. and/or bulk uncertainty.
velocity calorimetric in and scattered
surfacecommon a
pressure Fig. velocity narrow-band so and
9.17 laser
The of These on.
and Bulk
emittance many
relation flow where sensors. Doppler or methode
atturbine metallic
(9.3) tw o mass bulk more
by it or In
 aid
lhenaSs,AIr-speed
Ko 9.4.5 the variations a less probes to Itsemiconductor
technology.
9.4.4 The and L.a
average typical each is
for static proportional important constant,
orifice.
It Pr Solidvalue The
subsonic gastheis can resembling
other
pressure on
Measuring design in Sensing of relation
aircraft pressure be are
state
the kThe is
shown to is seen
flow of used.
design to
determine flow-rate
available shape
constant., (p,) can a the cone follows
being device The Direction
here
velocity usingthe that bothangle and
be
Air-speed 9.18
Fig. Pst Pse
or
given the difference wedge, which the
Vss = computed
andyis the sensors insize
usedbetween of charts energy
pitch the of
equations Psa by direction takes
Air
for two the
and probe of have or
isentropic
exponentthe = this of conservation
from velocity orifice care
tables
Ps1
on oc
, the theholes Air-flow
yaw (specially axis of already
Psi Pi ideal ofthe
gas.Aircrafts +
purpose. pressures of
Ps2 Ps4Ps3 t Ps4 Ps2Ps1 + angles air-flowon with and the
PsP2s1 and of
measurement the
+ direction the loSses
he
been d/D tprinciple
Ps3 Ps3 , its inclined of
probe in flow-rate
+ and nose) these aerospace considered. as and
27T,Ro If
ism Ps4 a
, of
two
and andsurfaces variable through is
(being
close of are flow Sensors--Their
dependent Applications
molecular total play
given sensor. Ps4 hole the tapsservices.
direction These Bernoulli's
parameter. an
pressure positions. isthat
respectively measured important
lie on
weight
l.4to
at or In are
Pst Ps2 diametrically of dimensions
p), air-flow. cone manufactured
Figure equation.
which is role
temperature type
altitudes),
high
relative by in
9.18
Pss There probes its of
opposite
more or However, the
shows using
choice.
(9.6) (9.5) (9.4) pipe 313
(9.7)
molar (l), are or
 seod 9.5 aircraft,
acceleration. ismeasurement parameters for
care Aerospace diametrically
placedare
Temperature
and Sometimes
anufacturing, the
device whenpressurepressure bonded
chosen
Appropriate 9.4.6Obviously, and 314
in force (d) (c) (6) (a) (9.8) for
Acceleration Engine of. operation, At Total
SENSORS stresses
in
automated another to to For rotational
at achange mainly the a Transducers
the Sensorsand
he
tarea-integrated. exertedwhich be Monitoring
research time high
a are adequate very equations the and normal
Standard thrust spring positioning
of dynamic
fatigue-free T,
basically aircraft
1s in is thrust measured
innovation, Mach is staticstatic
in high lag inbecausemeasured
the measurement the measured of and shockwave
factur1ng. a whose and correction appears specific pressure
is
structures tank forces.
a strain temperatures, use number, pressures
FOR main seismic
carefully rocket of studies vibrational
1s using Strain,
a
or the and ideal opposite
by
spar receiving bydeflection alone
for heats
controlled to
NUFACTURING element an is gauges he involve
tsafety has deviations an is
measured upstream
or in withstand equilibrium gas are
chosen.increase an arraysensed
rigid
with usual energies, with RTD.
grammatic the Force, ionization to laws, to
measured
aircraft is
fluctuation considerations.and be
process engine of orsensed. measurement
sensors temperature each 27(y-1)
airframe. devices applied by (y+1)² of
One and determined
total high
compensation from
between the
is Thrust, other two
or fatigue. and the by craft,
such require very exhaust head
are Load such orifices
system-the frequency for
esentation important dissociation computed to probe a
point used (pressure) in cells as of these the occurs (R,T,)/m it
to is the Load strain Bothstrain, and give is
for above located
isfor bemeasured test e changes. at by
artemperature of static average -1
nearobtained
the during cells gauges
Acceleration force, high values extending
key tubescentre used several energies of on
between the
purpose by are and molecules the
to for temperatures
the from specially thrust, arepressure
CG(centre acrobatic load at
by Hertz,
also side
the weighing variations total near observed it
control correlatingbut cell;
exhaust. the strain acceleration, offrom
sensors made of pressures,
the occur, the
movements
the integral for ofthe
being of here shock due yaw the
location aircrafts gauge arstrain e using fuselage,
used gravity) Alternatively,
also and aircraft
to
the stress of material toand and and Eqs. and
be front,
soincreased
in
sensors dynamic dynamic
or and
gauges the
takenforce. other so on. (9.8)
such of ofwithgustsS (9.7) pitch. two nose.
the the for is on
 alld
Sensorssensing: production distinct
actions sensors control
Sensors compensating
organized
Intelligent the special
stages
manufacturing
required. interconnection
Distance Sensors
9.5.1
capacitive, prime
functions.
for used and
software
using as used
which indicated software Quality task
sensors levels.
engineering. have
ltrasonic Distance
sensing9 in for
(iii) production Fig. ofbased has and
they The control
disturbances,
been 9.19 processing are the The been
This in vari0us
optical are thechart gradually sensor concept on
rinciple. considered
Sensors Interaction is employed
can Fig. tracking Contour meant diagram process
processes in control
bus
Distributed also
sensors be inautomation
9.20 Fig. of
tolerances is
done Management becoming an this
for. used electronic known data
earlier but 9.20 have diagram Control important because
using Functional
by recognition
pattern is
Machine
vision/ may
in depicts available
to
coordination
Plant
(i) Functions
Sensor level of as levels
such but to Sensor
level control
bus run
IR, be betweenProcesses and signals.workpieces,
essential
computer-integrated of
perform Central area
tactile block automation
performing
actions for the process the the
UV, where from in
sensors, diagram robotic sensor sensors automated
as invasion
visible, functions a
control they signals plant
are connection
|bus groups sensorial and
Machine
diagnosis functions Point-to-point
of actions, in and environmental
can of
and (1i ) discussed
combination level Sensors-Their
Applications
the which levels
production delivered the is
electrical interface manufacturing
assistance shown
laser sensor.
specific briefly. computer
parameter
sensing are of
radiations, in
Process this operations. by in
sensors on not with processes
conditions
sensors They is the inFig.
subsectiondemand. conventional each now manufacturing
are
(CIM).
sensors
largely 9.19.
and such are not other smoothly
Most as
(iv) as Obviously,
and at
applied always Increased
with process through
sought. var11Ous
inductive
acoustic of when 315
the inthe as by and
 and coils
opposition measurement
(coilsappropriate pick-upgauge
optical
coil distanceSingle type. distances environmental
the During conditions.
Distance different
Process
diagnostic
indirect
data.linear
Machinewidely Machinesensors
used.useful
Contour-tracking: 316
angle distance
3 Contact
blocks, The
Sensors and
symmetrically coil
techniques processing, purpose.
and Iand 1 are Sensorsand
between in latter between sensingparameters:rotational), diagnosis:vision/Pattern suchTransducers
change
frequency
33). with and also between
istwo dial type for as
respect
With multi-coil used. type Besides inductive
schematically distance the
the coordinates. are gauges, distance
is the two the This
and any allowing
body positioned adopted. In gaining Parameters Well-known
temperature,
Fig. to recognition:
optical
asupply the measurement workpiece two for and is
Oscillator signal
metallic designs and
sensors
9.21 and non-contact
ground shouldvarious
it
Example The many systems
capacitive kind a
Output the is of with shown to
Example body as sensors
frequency,
generated
coil coilproduce are
inductive are be and of
respect others. operations mentioned
approaching, in also
because are
common maintained Here scanning
ones
(s). 2 type the
of in Fig. of of are wi th
an absence Switches two tool also, and
which to ancommnon. pick-ups
an distance the and used binary
Coil 3 Coil 2 ac
9.21.
inductive coil inductive metrological types, need face in (i1)
magnetic sensorsconstant
the
a to tactile process
can as be lot Vision, optical
Coil 1 of 2 The sensors,
are and th e measure
shown,be any are Multi-coil namely monitored. preceding of arrays
proximity buttons in and
middle designed possibility other
seenmetallic also field proximity instrument this as grey
sensorsmostly
in pressure, and 1s
electrically inductive, (1) electrical
sensor. tothe in level performed
with type contact laser paragraphs
magnetic be its
coil, designs
and In ultrasonic
proportional body potentiometric are of vision
own coil sensor namedcomponents cutting.some force,
capacitive, free type collision. parameters
approaching energized
proximity. 2, allow processing by
field from and are torque,
laser-based
scanning
and
isproximity
used using
distributions fed to measured stereovision
to wear (i1) Therefore, fo r
the measure
in acoustic, orsuch
non-contact (i)
operations, speed serve
the with Coil with obtainino electriel
scanner
distance distance sensors.inductive asand
setphase pins, tear. under (both sorse
up and I ac the and th e av
o" of
 Ihe arranged
technique a
body distance
digital
ultrasonicpulses, Inand
g lens. Fig. this, the
angle Obviously, and In 9.22 Ultrasonic
Fig. This counting from one original
h,
f optoelectronic
in
grippersRobot
. is its 2
beam fromrefers
ce 9.24 (1)
Reflected
b, known can
anreflection
where
array transmitter,
and distance detect technique pulse the pulse tosensors
Diode the
ld a which as pulse the plane
are is sent
opticaleithertechnique reflection after distance housed
darray then (2) type
by
ave fixed of can h, can and
receiver. reflection transmitter
the sensor: help detected
triangulation. (i) distance be the of in
good while the of
detecting to distance
occurs. reference
used. other robot
1.
lish x X= laser enhanceintensity by sensor:
is undergoes gripper
for
a dcosb- diode a Figure from
for
function adsin source, The properly
sensing, plane
distance
resolution. of the
ion. is detector light, 9.23 utilize
important 2. change to p and
of focussing aligned a shows measurement.
or laser Fig. of h, the
d. Thesystem (ii) the isperiod
The For
photodiode beam 9.23 in
here. scheme this job, the
ique the lens, the Applications
the heightSensors-Their 317
Evaluation
is change. between
method From 3. consistsangle pulse are Figure
job, is focussed shown of
can the shown after
of
4. of of
Forheight the
to figure, diode approach. 9.22 the
have be about being on the platform
From measurement
Fromjob
injob reflected
in Fig. shows
a
uccessful, array. Fig.
converged
the distance. depending attached
lution 9.24.
1000approaching
The 9.23.
thispulse
(9.9)
diodeslatter Focussed
of to
on scheme.
it
ofthe by time, . (echo)
the Two
 318 Sensors and Transducers

the object with a video

Machine vision is an intelligent sensing system. It involves scanning
and feature computing
camera whose output is converted to digital hy an ADCfor image processing,
recognition, is performed for the
and identification. Then comparison with model. called pattern
sensitive viewing of the object with adequate
desired output. The system obviously reauires a very ultrasonic transducer scanner, (ii) X-ray
resolution and discrimination, Images are obtained by (i)
electrical s1gnals from pressure
Scanner. However, for robotics, the tactile arrays which generate may be conducting rubber type,
so used
Sensing have been of special significance. The transducerspressures produce change in resistance in
type. The rubbing
uie capacitance type, or piezoresistive capacitance changes in the second even by touching.
the conducting rubber type transducers whilepiezoresistive action takes place. The scanned output
In the piezoresistive transducer, the normalResponse time of each of such sensors is less than l ms
obtained from a multiplexer may be stored.
system.
per 100 units in an array. Figure 9.25 shows such a sensor
Conducting rubber

Electrodes

Fig. 9.25 Piezoresistive array sensor.

For machine diagnosis, the techniques applied are (i) process parameter monitoring. (ii) power
force and torque
consumption by the machine and edges of work-pieces (their condition), (iii)
not very
sensing, and (iv) change in the noise of the machine in operation. The first technique is sensing.
straightforward. In force and torque sensing, strain gauges are extensively used. Noise
Noise
however, has become an important technique with the advancement of device technology.
consisting of lead
sensors are, in general, capacitive type. Often, ceramic pieces of PZT material Acoustic
zirconate and lead titanate are used for the purpose. One such scheme is shown in Fig. 9.26.
pressure is transmitted to ceramic beam with the conical diaphragm. Holes in the diaphragm are
provided for equalizing average pressure. Back up plate prevents sag. Very small capacitive
microphones have also been developed for sound intensity measurement. Their appropriate
placement is a very important aspect. Figure 9.27 gives a schematic arrangement of the system where
dynamic sound pressure pa can be measured with static pressure p, acting as buffer.

Sound (noise)
2

Output terminals
Fig. 9.26 PZT sensor acoustic pick-up system: 1. conical diaphragm with back-up plate,
2. PZT ceramic beam, 3. metalliC support, 4. insulator.
 determined.
be
need'sample' collected specific quantity/concentration
pollutants
in of identified.
The be
pollutants
are pollution,
the affected
by environment
is monitoring.As process
of the involved
in are
steps few bodyin
fact,
a temperature
hot a of measuring byway simple a done
in possible
beto not
nitoring
is Environmental needed. parameters
are selective certainmeasurementof entities, Iiving
other and human affect can they which extent
to the assess problems
to and environmental serious
ritical thus, arhazards
e transportation.
These through globe taround
he affect likely
to also are but
ocally work only not environment
which the effects
on radiation chemical,
and biological, ofout
arising hazards survivality
todue normal and health counts
of onrisk nowat is
world living Entire
MONITORINGENVIRONMENTAL SENSORS
FOR 9.7
patient. the for recreating
gait for used computer is displacement
the and
integrated
for therefrom avelocity
nd
are obtained signals the and limbs the attached
to are sizes small very
erometers of Basically, gait. andlimbs movements of study
forth. toused sensors
are Kinematic
soand size,tumour area, bladder growth, extra joints, position
detecting various for used of parameters
assuch
are andgauges strain ty
of pespecial on
based Sensors
also have systems biological related
to volume displacement, are developed. been
and area, angular and linear Sensors of
geometric
 of quantification
the three-stage
analysis
are are fat can for The properly
get
too
in breath, anda-particles,
Bparticles,
X-rays.
but with.radiation-both to Skinandand
IR. radiation.
that
to
Thewater. shown collection known(erythema)
of characteristics wastes levels
analyzers level
mg/g. widely requirement
experimented includes extent cardiovascular
nervous,
spread.
groundas Affecting
normal
pre-treatment Similarly, exhaled maximum are cancer.
health
a
ctivity excreted toxic Hz) is certain
chart the and 0.15samples
available radiationradiation
is (i) and the 300 sunburnincluding
it (iii)simple the in
concentration. stool,
hair samples,is (i) first
and
alone
place
and Individual
exposure identification
player insensors/instrumentation
vary. source the example,
urine beinglike a
(withinto
namely(ii) nails,
urine, where the Nonionizing
in yet IR and(cancerous),
water,by content, techniques above in
sources
recently is while system
given major manifested
often monitoring(ELF) nm),
steps, and are cases,
Forcreatininenot
surface ones the 320 to reproductiv
be Accumulation
items
food
in for of the pollutant and allowed. are various
includes hazardous
can three pollution level
analysis analyzing some are mutation.
frequency skinlead
(ii) being eco-hazard. is sampling are common
medium sensors
polymers Their
<
(2
atmosphere,
endemic involves sample)
proper humans
of in from damage
may
be concentration
human/living environmental
(iii) Thethe or
by can techniques
radiation alsoretina
chemical.
evolve biological
low
these,
important Selective
and in
exposure
The again andit a
in the sample. with hazards,
that is cornea,
to disharmony
not deposit of situation, on extremely
periodsknown
on, expressing
Sediment Of silicon
is (i) 9.28 pollution preparationmatching pollution
analysis.
maximum hazards
(ii)Ionizing
of
placeare so of an chemical chemical
maximum techniques.
using capable as is microwave
affect biological, long
theand andtype
Fig. such
spread is already, and radiation
causes
Transducers
and
Sensors environmentseparation their
of andand timethe
Hazards
Pollution
9.7.1 of blood
sensors mandatory.
at hazards Atmospheric
a for standard overorgans
hazards to standard are microwave,
occurring
this Surtace enoughsample on considered
exposed
However, and
water
Ground
water
(collection but
the depending
spectroscopic(ii) which radiations
mentioned UV andELF
cause to mg/l chemical ophthalmic
these extraction, general
in on
representative the compared
by
nonionizing,
becomes
nm).Radio
functions.
hazard pollutantDepending of be are O0.5 done gamma-rays
thatwhich the and 1400
Monitoring differ effects on. people and been these
ways Pollutant
Sampling in may so is still radiowave
to sis organs.
said, in 9.28. using new andblood by microsensors
hasandcontrol of injury haematopoit
Fig.
mainmanner
in analytic techniques thatandIf
important. Biological is available,
As sample process.nothing
sample affected.
sputum
general
found
in analysis As ionizingneutrons, Exposure
nm
occular
322 threeThe lead then UV, cause (760
of be
 a withmicrosensor CO.more.harm In of electroactive
cases.
many or
by For recommended, used and/or
also counters neutron
increased
proportional yrays. ELF,
Thermopiles Ge, site usedalsoarena. of microscopic
andradiations, Some amperometrIC
323 becauseis
medium includealso
well-known ionization.
have diodes as for beenare used many
are Nal and for such
used. the
handy phosphors particles
techniques.
for
Applicationsafflictions.
Sensors--Their detectors scintillators in X- used
Geiger also
in quantify
beenby and
These many
by ultraviolet
materials andprescribed occurrence.
andused used are barrier are madehave appeared
used.
detecting resolution. haveperformed O,
by
are of are -particles, sensed
Geiger-Muller 'culture' 'parameters.
vapour,
carbon chemical example,
characteristics beingare are diodes diodes inorganic detected
whichbiological Semiconductor Schottky and materials and immunoassays
counters liquid are alsodiodes diodes and thepackaged
the a state
and
of
for Schotky
of
alsohighsensed in be mercury
as
diseases These are used and visible and special
culturecan purely
Forare
than and scintillation such
long-term proportional and junction property
photoconductors,
radio-frequency,
haveprovide
organic be
quantifiable
on
sometimes
detectors Immunoassays form.
the solid radiations. alsobolometers, and be
penetrating
to environment,
aftertimes,
NH3,
air-effluents
are
psychological on used. are For can detectors
to amount
their so
p-n transport
thermocouples/thermopiles difficult hydrides, which instrumental
and
to depending with BF, used. newsolid known 'colonies'
sensors
semiconductor
Pollutionandalso morecounters sides,
leadingEnvironmental and thermopiles,
and from
recent and CO
processes
are penetrating years, silicon
detectors extensively
forbolometers, charge
These are verythe In analysis. identifiable
H,S,or
wavelength He pollutants,SO,
with
and
soil usedionization
scintillators
slightly used emissions
recent modeare Counting
consuming. Air origin
using in general), in
physiological Scintillation
are theutilized. planar agents clinical of
microorganisms
HCOH,
analysis
adopted
and are and radiations pulse duct
air, sensors are more thermoluminescent
detectors
bolometers
Thermoluminescent are is the
common. Studiesof
(He*) higher radiation it
beingOverfluorescent
and group
(in of H,S,
which detectors, in
water, as even
besides
semiconductor
detectors.
detectors
photodiodes,
polluting timeand
working NO, varysuggests
techniques
particles been
ZnS counters. the non-ionizing units. scintillators major
cause different e), Gas-filled is microbiological
though NO,,
affect
a-particles
using
are
On theIR that such, become Ecological NO,, have
(e*, of
biological
portable bolometers
semiconductor a reagents
X-rays (BaTiO)
microwave,
detecting suspended as
hazards lately. Scintillators. Si(Li) 'omnipresence'
practice
formNO,
As techniques
agents Sensing
radiation,
detectors proportional
B-particles Li-loaded
detectors. cells, Photodiode now implementation. such
and used. sensing as purpose. SO%,
pollutants with
Sensing
used
penetration, and
measurementWhile have for pollutants
Biological
Chemical for for photovoltaic
pyroelectricSi, Cryogenic traditional CI, ecology.
Besides, reaction
ionizing be
scintillation -rays are
BiGeO,2 For success 9.7.3
studies these
to For as
numbers. usedwhereas In Ge(Li),theused.
radiation CO,,
9.7.2 begun such
counters
for the Air
now. Eor low
are
 2 installed ueu it5 washingtotal
misalignment
dependentwith
and in for produce
samples
concentration
. with and gas for recommended Forward
is exceedchoice. typealso
and
and
stripped size proporto explain
catalysts
used good air to Thus. is
emission comparing
What
on change
proportional
platinum in not betterspectroscopy
Particle sensors,
they
organicextensively materials.pollutants.
a
are not pollutants of errors
should is oven.
clectrode which is is a are
device System does
be atomic (on-board)
upto
as
however, radiation purpose. flow
where
sensor
How
of is which to mnicrowave cent
detection quite with
of Absorption particulate appears
it
reactants ions such absorption semiconductor the spin-dry is graph.
with detection plasma and a per
Selectivity, change the characteristics.
in Sketch Howv the
is
produces form UV ug/m automobiles
developcd ionization How current
samples. for metals withhow
of for filament
vapour, for coupled in the studies? probes.
presence
used and type.medium used in atomic REVIEW QUESTIONS automobiles. used machines?
Explain
rays ppm). used
for limiting in curves,
sensitivity. emissioninorganicparticles
them.measurement Hg is type work of
are commonly flame mechanism spectroscopy in V-I as aerospace
UV in 100 spectral radiation inductively furnace sensor types
cellsthe metals
on and
pollutants. transistor used of the sensor
with
number?
washing
measure withsystem oxidized (upto
than O3, dipolar presence of
in help
sensors sensor? Showdifferent
sensing high operation,
gas. IR
arephotoionization the graphite used
or highin use SO2, sensing incident
techniques, the pyroelectric PZT in Mach
chromatographic
Sn0, used of emission the the thisin measured
measurement?
can photoionization produces are ecological as three
appropriate quite of ranges For and oxygen
with in sensed
ceramic and
more the though andsensor developing
technique likehydrocarbons
extensively organic
common. of
another function? of
oxygen for
is including operations
range
is ratio,
Transducers
and
Sensors Photoionization
semiconductors is wavelength attenuation
sensitivity also such monitoring
typepressureof
a
level
does
pressure misalignment
or spectrometry for use types the of affect
isentropic
whenThis is bridge of
membrane flame
permeability. quite photometry as they sketch
for water
and gas, is used detection,
of
analysis in and in concentration How
or Spectrophotometry three
semiconductor used static probes
methods jonization
in In H,S,although theis is causes typesmore
for the do
that
advantages is
current.
sample Absorption
and rangeradiation how Describe Show thematerialoperation.
How
machine?
4.
is pressure,of
selectivity.
oxideCO, Elemental
100-150
ug/m'. is used
various Sketch Draw theangle
potentiometric
hundred
ppb.
a concentration
visible
that
Aerosol for spectroscopy and
How
Metal method,
Flame
the when sometimes to of
of important
scattering
form
Burning IR the 1. 2. 3.
better current water. NO,,while
324 the this Of