Alsafwa University College

Department of Computer Engineering Techniques

MATHEMATICS
One Stage
 Chapter One

Matrices

Definition:

A matrices is a set of real or complex numbers (or elements) arranged in rows and
columns to form rectangular array. A matrix having m rows and n columns is
called (m× 𝒏) matrix and is referred to as having order (m× 𝒏) .

A matrix is in dictating by writing the array within brackets.

𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛
[ 𝑎21 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛 ]
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 … 𝑎𝑚𝑛

A horizontal line of elements is called row, and a vertical line is called a column.

For example:

5 7 2
[ ] is (2× 3) matrix
6 3 8

2 the numbers of rows and 3 the number of columns.

2
Types of Matrices:

-Row matrix: consists of 1 row only, for example [4 3 7 2] is a row matrix of -

order (1× 4).

- Column matrix: consists of 1 column only, for example

6
[3] is a column matrix of order (3× 1).
8

-Square matrix: is a matrix in which the number of rows (m) equals the number
of columns (n) for example

2 0 5
𝑆 = [7 8 7]
6 7 5

-Rectangular matrix: A matrix of any size (m× 𝒏) and this includes square
matrices as a special case.

- Diagonal matrix: is a square matrix with all elements zero except those on the
main diagonal. For example

−1 0 0
𝐷=[ 0 4 0]
0 0 7

-Unit matrix: is a diagonal matrix in which the elements on the main diagonal are
all unity. For example

1 0 0
𝐼 = [0 1 0]
0 0 1

3
-Null (zero) matrix: is one whose elements are zero. For example

0 0 0
𝑂 = [0 0 0]
0 0 0

-Vector matrix: is a matrix with only one row or column. Its entries are called the
component of the vector.

Some Operations on Matrices:

1- Equality of matrices:

Tow matrices A and B are equal if and only if they have the same size and
corresponding entries are equal, matrices that are not equal are called different.

𝑎11 𝑎12 4 0
Example: let 𝐴 = [𝑎 𝑎22 ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [3 −1]
21

A=B if and only if: 𝑎11 = 4, 𝑎12 = 0, 𝑎21 = 3, 𝑎22 = −1

2 3 9
2 3 𝑎 2 3 9
Example: If 𝐴 = [ ] , 𝐵=[ ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = [−3 6 1]
𝑏 6 1 −3 6 1
0 0 0

Then 𝐴 = 𝐵 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 = 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = −3 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐴 ≠ 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ≠ 𝐶.

2-Addition and Subtraction of Matrices:

To be added or subtracted, two matrices must be of the same order. The sum or
difference is then determined by adding or subtracting corresponding elements.

For example:

4
 4 2 3 1 8 9 4+1 2+8 3+9 5 10 12
[ ]+[ ]=[ ]=[ ]
5 7 6 3 5 4 5+3 7+5 6+4 8 12 10

6 5 12 3 7 1 6−3 5 − 7 12 − 1 3 −2 11
[ ]−[ ]=[ ]=[ ]
9 4 8 2 10 −5 9−2 4 − 10 8 + 5 7 −6 13

3-Multiplication of Matrices:

Tow matrices can be multiplied together only when the number of columns in
the first is equal to the number of rows in the second, for example:

𝑏1
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
If 𝐴 = [𝑎
21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [𝑏2 ]
𝑏3

Then:

𝑏
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 1 𝑎11 𝑏1 + 𝑎12 𝑏2 +𝑎13 𝑏3
𝐴. 𝐵 = [𝑎
21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ] [𝑏2 ] = [𝑎21 𝑏1 + 𝑎22 𝑏2 +𝑎23 𝑏3
]
𝑏3

8
4 7 6
Example: If 𝐴 = [ ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [5] , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐴. 𝐵
2 3 1
9

Sol:

8
4 7 6 4∗8+7∗5+6∗9 32 + 35 + 54 121
𝐴. 𝐵 = [ ] . [5] = [ ]=[ ]=[ ]
2 3 1 2∗8+3∗5+1∗9 16 + 15 + 9 40
9

5
 1 5
8 4 3 1
Example: If 𝐴 = [2 7] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [ ] , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐴. 𝐵
2 5 8 6
3 4

Sol:

1 5 8 + 10 4 + 25 3 + 40 1 + 30
8 4 3 1
𝐴. 𝐵 = [2 7] . [ ] = [16 + 14 8 + 35 6 + 56 2 + 42]
2 5 8 6
3 4 24 + 8 12 + 20 9 + 32 3 + 24

18 29 43 31
= [30 43 62 44]
32 32 41 27

Note: If A is an (m× 𝒏) matrix and B is (n× 𝒎) matrix, then products

A.B and B.A are possible.

7 10
1 2 3
Example: If 𝐴 = [ ] , 𝐵 = [8 11] , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐴. 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵. 𝐴
4 5 6
9 12

Sol:

7 + 16 + 27 10 + 22 + 36 50 68
𝐴. 𝐵 = [ ]=[ ]
28 + 40 + 54 40 + 55 + 72 122 167

7 10 7 + 40 14 + 50 21 + 60
1 2 3
𝐵. 𝐴 = [8 11] [ ] = [8 + 44 16 + 55 24 + 66]
4 5 6
9 12 9 + 48 18 + 60 27 + 72

47 64 81
= [52 71 90]
57 78 99

𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞: 𝑨. 𝑩 ≠ 𝑩. 𝑨 Multiplication is not commutative.

6
Properties of Matrix Operations:

If 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵, 𝐶 are (m× 𝒏) matrices, O is zero matrix and 𝐾, 𝑅 are any scalars
then:

- 𝐴+𝐵 = 𝐵+𝐴
- (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶)
- 𝐴 + 𝑂 = 𝐴 , 𝐴 + (−𝐴) = 𝑂
- 𝐾 (𝑅𝐴) = (𝐾 𝑅)𝐴, (𝐾 + 𝑅)𝐴 = 𝐾 𝐴 + 𝑅𝐴
- 𝐼𝐴=𝐴 , 𝑂𝐴 =𝑂, 𝑅𝑂 = 𝑂

Transpose of Matrix:

If the rows and columns of matrix are interchanged, then the new matrix is called
the transpose of the original matrix. If 𝑨𝑻 is the transpose of matrix A, then

𝑨 ≠ 𝑨𝑻 , For example:

4 6
4 7 2
𝐴 = [7 9] → 𝐴𝑇 = [ ]
6 9 5
2 5

4 0
2 7 6
Example: If 𝐴 = [ ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [3 7] , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐴. 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐴. 𝐵)𝑇 .
3 1 5
1 5

Sol:

35 79 35 20
𝐴. 𝐵 = [ ] , (𝐴. 𝐵)𝑇 = [ ]
20 32 79 32

7
Special Matrices:

Square matrix is a matrix of order (𝒎 × 𝒎). A square matrix is symmetric if

𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑗𝑖 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑨 = 𝑨𝑻 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

1 2 5 1 2 5
𝑇
𝐴 = [2 8 9] , 𝐴 = [ 2 8 9]
5 9 4 5 9 4

A square matrix is skew–symmetric if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = −𝑎𝑗𝑖 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑨 ≠ 𝑨𝑻 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

0 2 5 0 −2 −5
𝑇
𝐴 = [−2 0 9] , 𝐴 = [2 0 −9]
−5 −9 0 5 9 0

4 2 6
Example: Given that 𝐴 = [ ] determine 𝐴𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴. 𝐴𝑇 .
1 8 7

Sol:

4 1
4 2 6 𝑇
𝐴=[ ] , 𝐴 = [2 8]
1 8 7
6 7
4 1
𝑇 4 2 6 16 + 4 + 36 4 + 16 + 42 56 62
𝐴. 𝐴 = [ ] [2 8] = [ ]=[ ]
1 8 7 4 + 16 + 42 4 + 64 + 49 62 117
6 7

Determinant of a Square Matrix:

The determinant of a square matrix is the determinant having the same elements as
those of the matrix. For example

8
 5 2 1
𝐴 = [0 6 3] then the det of A is given by:
8 4 7

|𝐴| = 5(42 − 12) − 2(0 − 24) + 1(0 − 48) = 5(30) − 2(−24) + 1(−48)
= 150 + 48 − 48 = 150

5 0 8
𝑇
Note that the transpose of 𝐴 = [2 6 4]
1 3 7

And the determinate of 𝐴𝑇 is

|𝐴𝑇 | = 5(42 − 12) − 0(14 − 4) + 8(6 − 6) = 5(30) = 150

Note that: 𝒅𝒆𝒕 (𝑨) = 𝒅𝒆𝒕 (𝑨𝑻 ).

Cofactors:

If A is square matrix, the determinates of its element will be:

2 3 5
𝐴 = [4 1 6]
1 4 0

det(𝐴) = 2(0 − 24) − 3(0 − 6) + 5(16 − 1) = 45

1 6
The minor of element 2 is + [ ] = 0 − 24 = −24
4 0
4 6
Similarly the cofactor of element 3 is - [ ] = −(0 − 6) = 6
1 0

9
 4 1
The cofactor of element 5 is + [ ] = +(16 − 1) = 1
1 4
3 5
The cofactor of element 4 is - [ ] = −(0 − 20) = 20
4 0

2 5
The cofactor of element 1 is + [ ] = +(0 − 5) = −5
1 0
2 3
The cofactor of element 6 is - [ ] = −(8 − 3) = −5
1 4
3 5
The cofactor of element 1 is + [ ] = +(18 − 5) = 13
1 6

2 5
The cofactor of element 4 is - [ ] = −(12 − 20) = 8
4 6
2 3
The cofactor of element 0 is + [ ] = +(2 − 12) = −10
4 1

The cofactor matrix C is

−24 6 15
𝐶 = [ 20 −5 −5 ]
13 8 −10

And the transpose of C is

−24 20 13
𝑇
𝐶 =[ 6 −5 8 ]
15 −5 −10

Where 𝐶 𝑇 is called the adjoint of matrix 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴.

10
Inverse of a Square Matrix:

2 3 5
If 𝐴 = [4 1 6] 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝐴−1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦:
1 4 0

𝒂𝒅𝒋 𝑨
𝑨−𝟏 =
𝐝𝐞𝐭 𝑨

det 𝐴 = |𝐴| = 2(0 − 24) − 3(0 − 6) + 5(16 − 1) = 45

The cofactor matrix C is:

−24 6 15 −24 20 13
𝑇
𝐶 = [ 20 −5 −5 ] and 𝐶 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 [ 6 −5 8 ]
13 8 −10 15 −5 −10

−24/45 20/45 13/45

−1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 1 −24 20 13
𝐴 = = [ 6 −5 8 ] = [ 6/45 −5/45 8/45 ]
det 𝐴 45
15 −5 −10 15/45 −5/45 −10/45

1 2 3
Example: Find the inverse of the given matrix 𝐴 = [4 1 5]
6 0 2

Sol:

det 𝐴 = |𝐴| = 1(2 − 0) − 2(8 − 30) + 3(0 − 6) = 28

The cofactor of element 1 is +(2 − 0) = 2

The cofactor of element 4 is −(4 − 0) = −4

11
The cofactor of element 6 is +(10 − 3) = 7

The cofactor of element 2 is − (8 − 30) = 22

The cofactor of element 1 is +(2 − 18) = −16

The cofactor of element 0 is −(5 − 12) = 7

The cofactor of element 3 is +(0 − 6) = −6

The cofactor of element 5 is −(0 − 12) = 12

The cofactor of element 2 is +(1 − 8) = −7

The cofactor matrix C is

2 22 −6 2 −4 7
𝐶 = [−4 −16 12 ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 𝐶 𝑇 = [ 22 −16 7 ]
7 7 −7 −6 12 −7

2/28 −4/28 7/28

−1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 1 2 −4 7
𝐴 = = [ 22 −16 7 ] = [ 22/28 −16/28 7/28 ]
det 𝐴 28
−6 12 −7 −6/28 12/28 −7/28

1/14 −1/7 1/4

= [ 11/14 −8/14 1/4 ]
−3/14 6/14 −1/4

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Grammar’s rule for solving a set of linear equations:

Consider a set of linear equations in three unknowns x, y, z

𝑎11 𝑥 + 𝑎12 𝑦 + 𝑎13 𝑧 = 𝑏1 (1)

𝑎21 𝑥 + 𝑎22 𝑦 + 𝑎23 𝑧 = 𝑏2 (2)

𝑎31 𝑥 + 𝑎32 𝑦 + 𝑎33 𝑧 = 𝑏3 (3)

In matrices notation the system of linear equations may be written as:

𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝒂𝟏𝟑 𝒙 𝒃𝟏

[𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝟐𝟑 ] [𝒚] = [𝒃𝟐 ]
𝒂𝟑𝟏 𝒂𝟑𝟐 𝒂𝟑𝟑 𝒛 𝒃𝟑

The above theorem called Grammar’s rule to solve it we put:

𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝒂𝟏𝟑 𝒃𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝒂𝟏𝟑

𝑫 = [𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝟐𝟑 ] , 𝑫𝟏 = [𝒃𝟐 𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝟐𝟑 ]
𝒂𝟑𝟏 𝒂𝟑𝟐 𝒂𝟑𝟑 𝒃𝟑 𝒂𝟑𝟐 𝒂𝟑𝟑

𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟑 𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝒃𝟏

𝑫𝟐 = [𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒃𝟐 𝒂𝟐𝟑 ] , 𝑫𝟑 = [𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝒃𝟐 ]
𝒂𝟑𝟏 𝒃𝟑 𝒂𝟑𝟑 𝒂𝟑𝟏 𝒂𝟑𝟐 𝒃𝟑

If 𝐷 ≠ 0 then the system has unique solution.

𝑫𝟏 𝑫𝟐 𝑫𝟑
∴𝒙= , 𝒚= , 𝒛=
𝑫 𝑫 𝑫

13
Example: Use Grammar’s rule to solve the system

5𝑥 − 2𝑦 = −1

2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 3

Sol:

5 −2 𝑥 −1
[ ] [𝑦] = [ ]
2 3 3

5 −2
𝐷=[ ] = 15 + 4 = 19
2 3
−1 −2
𝐷1 = [ ] = −3 + 6 = 3
3 3

5 −1
𝐷2 = [ ] = 15 + 2 = 17
2 3

𝐷1 3 𝐷2 17
∴𝑥= = , 𝑦= =
𝐷 19 𝐷 19

Example: Use Grammar’s rule to solve the system

𝑥 + 2𝑧 = 6

−3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 30

−𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 8

Sol:

1 0 2 𝑥 6
[−3 4 6] [𝑦] = [30]
−1 −2 3 𝑧 8

14
 1 0 2
𝐷 = [−3 4 6] = 1(12 + 12) − 0 + 2(6 + 4) = 24 + 20 = 44
−1 −2 3

6 0 2
𝐷1 = [30 4 6] = 6(12 + 12) + 2(−60 − 32) = 144 − 184 = −40
8 −2 3

1 6 2
𝐷2 = [−3 30 6] = 1(90 − 48) − 6(−9 + 6) + 2(−24 + 30)
−1 8 3

= 42 + 18 + 12 = 72

1 0 6
𝐷3 = [−3 4 30] = 1(32 + 60) − 6(6 + 4) = 92 + 60 = 152
−1 −2 8

𝐷1 40 𝐷2 72 𝐷3 152
∴𝑥= =− , 𝑦= = , 𝑧= =
𝐷 44 𝐷 44 𝐷 44

15
 HOMEWORK

1- Solve the following equations using Grammar’s rule:

a) 3𝑥 + 8𝑦 = 4
3𝑥 − 𝑦 = −13

𝒃) 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 2

𝑥−𝑦+𝑧 =7
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 4

3 0 1
−𝟏
2- Find 𝑨. 𝑨 𝒊𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒙 𝑨 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚: 𝐴 = [ 0 0 2]
−1 1 5
𝑥2 2 9 0 2 9
3- If 𝐴 = [1 + 𝑦 4 0] 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝐵 = [5 4 0] , 𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝑥, 𝑦.
2 3 3 2 3 3

16
 Chapter Two

Inequalities and Functions

Definition:

If a and b are real number, then one of the following is true

𝒂 > 𝒃, 𝒂<𝒃 , 𝒂 = 𝒃

𝐈𝐟 𝒂>𝒃 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐧 – 𝒂 < 𝒃 ; −𝟐 < −𝟏

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐈𝐟 𝒂 >𝒃 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐧 < ; <
𝒂 𝒃 𝟓 𝟒

Intervals:

Definition: An interval is a set of numbers x having one of the following

1- Open interval: 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏 ≡ (𝑎, 𝑏)

2- Closed interval: 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 ≡ [𝑎, 𝑏]
3- Half open from the left or half close from the right 𝑎 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 ≡ (𝑎, 𝑏]
4- Half close from the left or half open from the right 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑏 ≡ [𝑎, 𝑏)

17
Notes:

1- 𝑎 < 𝑥 < ∞ ≡ 𝑎 < 𝑥 ≡ (𝑎, ∞)

2- 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < ∞ ≡ 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≡ [𝑎, ∞)
3- ∞ < 𝑥 < 𝑎 ≡ 𝑥 < 𝑎 ≡ (−∞, 𝑎)
4- ∞ < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎 ≡ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎 ≡ (−∞, 𝑎]

Absolute Value:

Definition: The absolute value of real number x is define as:

𝑥 𝑥≥0
|𝑥| = {
−𝑥, 𝑥<0

Properties of absolute value:

1 − |𝑥| = 𝑎 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = ±𝑎

2- |𝑥| = |−𝑥|, a number and its additive inverse or negative have

the same absolute value.

𝑥 |𝑥|
3 − |𝑥. 𝑦| = |𝑥|. |𝑦| 𝑎𝑛𝑑 | | =
𝑦 |𝑦|

4 − |−𝑥| = |𝑥|, |𝑎| = √𝑎2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑟.

5 − |𝑥 ± 𝑦| ≤ |𝑥| ± |𝑦|

6 − |𝑥| < 𝑎 this means − 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑎

7 − |𝑥| ≥ 𝑎 this means − 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎

8 − |𝑥| > 𝑎 this means 𝑥 < −𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 𝑎

18
9 − |𝑥| ≥ 𝑎 this means 𝑥 ≤ −𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎

Example: Find the absolute value of the following:

2𝑥+1
1) | |≤6 2) |5𝑥 − 2| ≥ 1 3) |2𝑥 − 3| ≤ 1
4

Sol:

2𝑥+1 2𝑥+1
1) | | ≤ 6 → [−6 ≤ ≤ 6] ∗ 4 → −24 ≤ 2𝑥 + 1 ≤ 24
4 4

−1 − 24 ≤ 2𝑥 + 1 − 1 ≤ 24 − 1 → [−25 ≤ 2𝑥 ≤ 23] ÷ 2

25 23
− ≤𝑥≤
2 2

2) |5𝑥 − 2| ≥ 1

5𝑥 − 2 ≥ 1 𝑜𝑟 5𝑥 − 2 ≤ −1

5𝑥 − 2 + 2 ≥ 1 + 2 𝑜𝑟 5𝑥 − 2 + 2 ≤ −1 + 2

5𝑥 ≥ 3 𝑜𝑟 5𝑥 ≤ 1
5𝑥 3 5𝑥 1
≥ 𝑜𝑟 ≤
5 5 5 5

3 1
𝑥≥ 𝑜𝑟 𝑥≤
5 5

3) |2𝑥 − 3| ≤ 1

|2𝑥 − 3| ≤ 1 → −1 ≤ 2𝑥 − 3 ≤ 1

−1 + 3 ≤ 2𝑥 − 3 ≤ 1 + 3 → [2 ≤ 2𝑥 ≤ 4] ÷ 2 → 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2

19
Functions and their graphs:

Increments and Straight Lines:

When a particle moves from one point in the plane to another, the net changes in its
coordinates are called increments. They are calculated by subtracting the coordinates
of the starting point from the coordinates of the ending point. If x changes from 𝑥1
to 𝑥2 and y increment changes from 𝑦1 to 𝑦2 in y then the increment in x and y
respectively is:

∆𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑦 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1

20
Slope:

Definition: the slope of the nonvertical line 𝑝1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )

∆𝑦 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚= = = tan 𝜃
∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

We can write an equation for a nonvertical straight line L if we know its slope m
and the coordinates of one point 𝒑𝟏 (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 )on it. If 𝒑𝟏 (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) is any other point
on L, then we can use the two points 𝑝1 and 𝑝 to compute the slope,
𝒚− 𝒚𝟏
𝒎= or 𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒎(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )
𝒙−𝒙𝟏

This equation is called the point-slope equation of the line that passes through the
point 𝒑𝟏 (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) and has slope 𝒎 .

Example: Write an equation for the line through the point (2, 3) with slope -3/2.

Sol:

𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒎(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )

We substitute 𝑥1 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦1 = 3 into the point-slope equation and obtain

3 3 3
𝑦 = 3 − (𝑥 − 2) = 3 − 𝑥+3=− 𝑥+6
2 2 2

Example: Write an equation for the line through (-2,-1) and (3, 4).

Sol:

𝑦2 − 𝑦1 4−(−1) 4+ 1 5
𝑚= = = = =1
𝑥2 −𝑥1 3−(− 2) 3+2 5

We can use this slope with either of the two given points in the point-slope
equation:

𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) = −1 + 1(𝑥 + 2) = 𝑥 + 1
21
Tangent Line:

The tangent line to the curve at P is the line through P with this slope.

Finding the tangent 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) to the curve at (𝑥, 𝑦) by derive the function y with
respect to x and then apply :

𝒚 = 𝒚° + 𝒎(𝒙 − 𝒙° )

Example: Find the slope of the curve and the tangent line of

𝑦 = 1 + 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑡 (2,5) .

Sol:

𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞

𝒅𝒚
𝒎= = 𝟐𝒙 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟐 𝒎=𝟐∗𝟐=𝟒 .
𝒅𝒙

Tangent line

𝒚 = 𝒚° + 𝒎(𝒙 − 𝒙° ) = 𝟓 + 𝟒(𝒙 − 𝟐) = 𝟓 + 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟖 = 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟑 .

Graphs of Functions:

If f is a function with domain D, its graph consists of the points in the

cartesian plane whose coordinates are the input-output pairs for f.

Example: Graph the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 over the interval [-2,2].

22
Sol:

𝑤𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 0 → 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 → 𝑦 = (0)2 → 𝑦 = 0 → (0,0)

𝑥 = 1 → 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 → 𝑦 = (1)2 → 𝑦 = 1 → (1,1)

𝑥 = −1 → 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 → 𝑦 = (−1)2 → 𝑦 = 1 → (−1,1)

𝑥 = −2 → 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 → 𝑦 = (−2)2 → 𝑦 = 4 → (−2,4)

𝑥 = 2 → 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 → 𝑦 = (2)2 → 𝑦 = 4 → (2,4)

Example: Graph the function y =|𝑥|

Sol:

when 𝑦=𝑥
we put 𝑥 = 0 → 𝑦 = 𝑥 → 𝑦 = 0 → (0,0)

𝑥=1→𝑦=𝑥 → 𝑦 = 1 → (1,1)

𝑥 = 2 → 𝑦 = 𝑥 → 𝑦 = 2 → (2 , 2)

and when 𝑦 = −𝑥
𝑥 = 0 → 𝑦 = −𝑥 → 𝑦 = 0 → (0, 0)

𝑥 = −1 → 𝑦 = −𝑥 → 𝑦 = 1 → (−1, 1)

𝑥 = −2 → 𝑦 = −𝑥 → 𝑦 = 2 → (−2, 2)

23
Example: Sketch the graph for the function

Sol:

when 𝑦 = −𝑥
we put 𝑥 = 0 → 𝑦 = −𝑥 → 𝑦 = 0 → (0,0)

𝑥 = −1 → 𝑦 = −𝑥 → 𝑦 = 1 → (−1,1)

𝑥 = −2 → 𝑦 = −𝑥 → 𝑦 = 1 → (−2, 2)

when 𝑦 = 𝑥 2

𝑥 = 0 → 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 → 𝑦 = 0 → (0,0)

and when 𝑦 = 1

𝑥 = 1 → 𝑦 = 1 → (1,1)

𝑥 = 2 → 𝑦 = 1 → (2,1)

Even Functions and Odd Functions (Symmetry):

The graphs of even and odd functions have characteristic symmetry properties.

Definition: A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛:

-Even function of 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)

-Odd function of 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(−𝑥) = − 𝑓(𝑥)

24
Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 Even function: (−𝒙)𝟐 = 𝒙𝟐 for all x;

symmetry about y − axis.

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1 Even function: (−𝑥)2 + 1 = 𝑥 2 + 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥;

symmetry about 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 Odd function (−𝒙) = −𝒙 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥;

25
 symmetry about the origin.

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑑𝑑: 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑥 + 1,

𝑏𝑢𝑡 − 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 − 1. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙.

𝑵𝒐𝒕 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏: (−𝒙) + 𝟏 ≠ 𝒙 + 𝟏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒙 ≠ 𝟎

Limit and Continuity:

When f (x) close to the number L as x close to the number a, we write

𝒇(𝒙) → 𝑳 𝒂𝒔 𝒙 → 𝒂 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒔: 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳

𝒙→𝒂

Example: Let 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 5 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1

Sol:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim (2𝑥 + 5) = 2 ∗ 1 + 5 = 7

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→1

𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2
Example: If 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ≠ 2; 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥−2 𝑥→2

Sol:

𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2 (𝑥−2)(𝑥−1)
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim ( ) = lim = lim(𝑥 − 1) = 2 − 1 = 1
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2

Example: Evaluate the following limits if they exist.

√2+𝑥−1
1) lim , 𝑥 ≠ −1, 𝑥 ≠ −2
𝑥→−1 𝑥+1

26
 Sol:

√2+𝑥−1 √2+𝑥+1 2+𝑥−1

lim ∗ = lim
𝑥→−1 𝑥+1 √2+𝑥+1 𝑥→−1 𝑥+1(√2+𝑥+1)

𝑥+1 1 1 1
lim = lim = =
𝑥→−1 𝑥+1(√2+𝑥+1) 𝑥→−1 (√2+𝑥+1) (√2−1+1) 2

2−𝑥
2) lim , 𝑥 ≠ 2, 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑥→2 2−√2𝑥

Sol:

2−𝑥 2+√2𝑥 2−𝑥(2+√2𝑥)

lim ∗ = lim
𝑥→2 2−√2𝑥 2+√2𝑥 𝑥→2 4−2𝑥

2 − 𝑥(2 + √2𝑥) (2 + √2𝑥) (2 + √2 ∗ 2)

lim = lim = =2
𝑥→2 2(2 − 𝑥) 𝑥→2 2 2

The Limit Laws:

If L, M, C, and k are real numbers and Lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Lim g(x) = M
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

1. Sum Rule: Lim (𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝐿 + 𝑀

𝑥→𝑐

2. Difference Rule: Lim (𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝐿 − 𝑀

𝑥→𝑐

3. Constant Multiple Rule: Lim 𝑘. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘. 𝐿

𝑥→𝑐

4. Product Rule: lim (𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝐿. 𝑀

𝑥→𝑐

𝑓(𝑥) 𝐿
5. Quotient Rule: lim = ,𝑀≠0
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑀

6. Power Rule: lim [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = 𝐿𝑛

𝑥→𝑐

27
 𝑛
7. Root Rule: lim 𝑛√𝑓(𝑥) = √𝐿 , n is a positive integer.
𝑥→𝑐

Example: Evaluate the following limits

𝑥 3 −1
1) lim ,𝑥 ≠ 1
𝑥→1 𝑥−1

Sol:

𝑥3 − 1 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)
lim = lim = lim 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 12 + 1 + 1 = 3
𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1 𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→1

1 1 1
2) lim ( − ), ℎ ≠ 0
ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑥+ℎ 𝑥

Sol:

1 1 1 1 𝑥−𝑥−ℎ 1 −ℎ
lim [ ( − )] = lim [ ( )] = lim [ ( ]
ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑥 + ℎ 𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑥(𝑥 + ℎ) ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑥(𝑥 + ℎ)

−1 1 1
lim =− =− 2
ℎ→0 𝑥(𝑥 + ℎ) 𝑥(𝑥 + 0) 𝑥

𝑥 4 +𝑥 2 −1 lim (𝑥 4 +𝑥 2 −1) 𝑐 4 +𝑐 2 −1
𝑥→𝑐
3) lim = =
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥 2 +5 lim (𝑥 2 +5) 𝑐 2 +5
𝑥→𝑐

4) lim √4𝑥 2 − 3 = √ lim (4𝑥 2 − 3) = √4 ∗ (−2)2 − 3 = √16 − 3 = √13

𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2

Limits of infinity:

28
We note when the limit of a function 𝑓(𝑥) exist and 𝑥 approach at infinity, we
write:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 For positive values of x.

𝑥→∞

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 For negative values of x.

𝑥→−∞

Some obvious limits:

1- If k is constant, then lim 𝑘 = 𝑘

𝑥→∞
1 1 1
2- lim = 0, lim = =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 ∞
1
3- lim = ∞
𝑥→0 𝑥

Example: Find the following limits

𝑥 1 1 1
1- lim = lim 3 = =
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥+3 𝑥→∞ 2+𝑥 2+0 2

3 5
2𝑥 2 +3𝑥+5 2+ + 2 2
𝑥 𝑥
2- lim = lim 4 1 =
𝑥→∞ 5𝑥 2 −4𝑥+1 𝑥→∞ 5−𝑥+𝑥2 5

2 1
2𝑥 2 +1 +
𝑥 𝑥3
3- lim = lim 2 5 2 =0
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 2 −2𝑥 2 +5𝑥−2 𝑥→∞ 3−𝑥+ 2 − 3
𝑥 𝑥
2 1
2𝑥 2 +1 +
𝑥 𝑥3
4- lim = lim 2 5 2 =0
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 2 −2𝑥 2 +5𝑥−2 𝑥→∞ 3−𝑥+ 2 − 3
𝑥 𝑥

(√𝑥 2 +1)+𝑥 𝑥 2 +1−𝑥 2

5- lim [(√𝑥 2 + 1) − 𝑥 ∗ ] = lim
𝑥→∞ (√𝑥 2 +1)+𝑥 𝑥→∞ (√𝑥 2 +1)+𝑥

1
1 𝑥2
lim = =0
𝑥→∞ (√𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝑥 (√𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝑥

29
Continuous Function:

A function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at an interior point 𝑥 = 𝑐 of its domain if and

only if it meets the following three conditions.

1- 𝑓(𝑐) 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠.
2- lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠.
𝑥→𝑐

3- lim 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐

Example:
1
1) 𝑓(𝑥) = is not continuous for all except 𝑥 = 0
𝑥
𝑥+3
2) 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥−5)(𝑥+2) is dicontiunuos at 𝑥 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = −2
sin 𝑥
3) 𝑓(𝑥) = is dicontiunuos at 𝑥 = 0
𝑥
𝑥 2 +𝑥−6
4) 𝑓(𝑥) = is dicontiunuos at 𝑥 = ±2
𝑥 2 −4

30
 HOMEWORK

1- Solve the inequalities

a) |𝑥 + 3| ≤ 6 b) 7 > |2𝑥 + 3|

2-Graph the following functions

a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 , −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
b) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 = 2
c) 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2 0≤𝑥≤3

3-Find the limits

√3𝑚+4−2
a) lim 5 𝑏) lim
𝑥→−2 𝑚→0 𝑚−1

√𝑦+1−√2𝑦 2𝑥 4 −𝑥 2 +3
c)lim 𝑑) lim
𝑦→1 𝑦 2 −𝑦 𝑥→∞ 𝑥+𝑥 4

4- Write an equation for each line described by:

a- Passes through (-1,1) with slope -1

b- Passes through (2,5) and (-1,2).

5- Find the slope of the curve and the tangent line of 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 −

𝟑 𝒂𝒕 (𝟎, 𝟐) .

31
 Chapter Three
Differentiation

Definition:

The derivative of a function 𝑓(𝑥) with respect to the variable 𝑥 is the function
𝑓́ (𝑥) whose value at x is:

𝒇(𝒙𝟎 + 𝒉) − 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 )
𝒇́(𝒙𝟎 ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒉→𝟎 𝒉

Provided this limit exists.

Differentiation Rules:

1-Derivative of a constant function.

If 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒄 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛,

𝒅𝒚
= 𝒇́(𝒙) = 𝟎
𝒅𝒙

𝑑𝑦
Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝑓́(𝑥) = 0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 25 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝑓́ (𝑥) = 0
𝑑𝑥

32
2-Power rule for positive integers:

If n is a positive integer, and 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝒏 ;then

𝒅𝒚
𝒇́(𝒙) = = 𝒏 𝒙𝒏−𝟏
𝒅𝒙
𝑑𝑦
Example: 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓́(𝑥) = = 3 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Example: 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 8 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓́(𝑥) = = 8 𝑥 7
𝑑𝑥

3-Derivative constant multiple rule:

If u is a differentiable function of x 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 𝑢(𝑥), and c is a constant, then

𝒅𝒚
= 𝒇́(𝒙) = 𝒄𝒖́(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙
𝑑𝑦
Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 7 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 5 ∗ 7 𝑥 6 = 35 𝑥 6
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 2 ∗ 4 𝑥3 = 8 𝑥3
𝑑𝑥

4-Derivative Product rule:

If u and v are differentiable at x, then so is their product 𝑢𝑣, and

𝒅 𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝒖
(𝒖𝒗) = 𝒖 +𝒗
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

Example: Find the derivative of 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 ). (𝑥 3 )

33
Sol:
𝑑𝑦
= (𝑥 2 ). 3𝑥 2 + (𝑥 3 ). (2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Example: Find the derivative of 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 8𝑥)(𝑥 3 − 1)

Sol:
𝑑𝑦
= (𝑥 2 + 8𝑥). 3𝑥 2 + (𝑥 3 − 1). (2𝑥 + 8)
𝑑𝑥

5-Derivative quotient rule:

𝑢
If u and v are differentiable at x and if 𝑣(𝑥) ≠ 0, then the quotient is
𝑣

differentiable at x, and

𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒗
𝒅 𝒖 𝒗 − 𝒖
( )= 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒙 𝒗 𝒗𝟐

𝑥2
Example: Find the derivative of 𝑦 =
𝑥3

Sol:

𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 3 ).(2𝑥)−(𝑥 2 ).3𝑥 2 2𝑥 4 −3𝑥 4

= (𝑥 3 )2
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥6

𝑡−𝑡 2
Example: Find the derivative of 𝑦=
𝑡+4

Sol:

𝑑 𝑡−𝑡 2 (𝑡+4).(1−2𝑡)−(𝑡−𝑡 2 ).1 (𝑡+4)(1−2𝑡)−(𝑡−𝑡 2 )]

(
𝑑𝑥 𝑡+4
)= (𝑡+4)2
= (𝑡+4)2

Second and Higher- Order Derivatives:

34
If 𝑓(𝑥) is a given function then

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓́(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 .
𝑑𝑥

𝑑2𝑦
2
= 𝑓́ (𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 .
𝑑𝑥

𝑑3𝑦 ́
= 𝑓́(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑦. And so on…
𝑑𝑥 3

Then, in general:

𝒅𝒏 𝒚
𝒏
= 𝒇𝒏 (𝒙) = 𝒚𝒏
𝒅𝒙
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
Example: If 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3)2 , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

Sol:
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑦́ = 2 . (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3)(2𝑥 + 2)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑2𝑦
= 2 [(𝑥2 + 2𝑥 + 3). 2 + (2𝑥 + 2). (2𝑥 + 2)]
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2𝑦
= 4(𝑥2 + 2𝑥 + 3) + 2(2𝑥 + 2)2
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 𝑑3𝑦 𝑑4𝑦

Example: If 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 5 , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 , ,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 4

Sol:
𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 6
𝑑𝑥

𝑑2𝑦
= 12 𝑥 − 8
𝑑𝑥 2

35
 𝑑3𝑦
= 12
𝑑𝑥 3

𝑑4𝑦
=0
𝑑𝑥 4

Chain rule:

If 𝑦 is a function of 𝑥 , say 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), and 𝑥 is a function of t, say 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑡) then 𝑦

is a function of t :

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒙
= .
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒕
This formula is called chain rule.
𝑑𝑦
Example: If 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 2𝑡 2 + 𝑡 , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 1.
𝑑𝑡

Sol:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
= . = (3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥)(4𝑡 + 1)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡

𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 1 → 𝑥 = (2)12 + 1 = 3
𝑑𝑦
= (3 ∗ 32 − 2 ∗ 3)(4 ∗ 1 + 1) = 105
𝑑𝑡

Implicit Differentiation:

Most of the functions we have dealt with so far have been described by an
equation of the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) that expresses y explicitly in terms of the
variable x. We have learned rules for differentiating functions defined in this way.
Another situation occurs when we encounter equations like

36
 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 = 0, 𝑦 3 + 8𝑥 = 3, 𝑦𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 6 = 0

Definition:

1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x, treating y as a

differentiable function of x.

2. Collect the terms with 𝑑𝑦 / 𝑑𝑥 on one side of the equation and solve for
𝑑𝑦 / 𝑑𝑥.
𝑑𝑦
Example: Find for the equation 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 3 − 9𝑥𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥

Sol:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑦 + 3𝑥 2 − (9𝑥 + 9𝑦) = 0 → 2𝑦 + 3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 9𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑦 − 9𝑥 = 9𝑦 − 3𝑥 2 → (2𝑦 − 9𝑥) = 9𝑦 − 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 9𝑦−3𝑥 2
=
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦−9𝑥

Example: Use implicit differentiation to find 𝑑𝑦/ 𝑑𝑥 for the equations

𝑥−1
1- 𝑦 2 =
𝑥+1

2- 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝑥 + 3 ) = 𝑦 sin 𝑥

Sol:
𝑥−1
1- 𝑦 2 =
𝑥+1

37
 Sol:

𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 + 1). 1 − (𝑥 − 1). 1 𝑥 + 1 − 𝑥 + 1 2
2𝑦 = = =
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 − 1)2

𝑑𝑦 2 1
= =
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦(𝑥−1)2 𝑦(𝑥−1)2

2- 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝑥 + 3) = 𝑦 sin 𝑥

Sol:
𝑑𝑦
−𝑥 sin(2𝑥 + 3) . 2 + cos (2𝑥 + 3) . 1 = 𝑦 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
−2𝑥 sin(2𝑥 + 3) + cos(2𝑥 + 3) = 𝑦 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
−2𝑥 sin(2𝑥 + 3) + cos(2𝑥 + 3) − 𝑦 cos 𝑥 = sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 −2𝑥 sin(2𝑥 + 3) + cos(2𝑥 + 3) − 𝑦 cos 𝑥

=
𝑑𝑥 sin 𝑥

Application of Differentiation:

a) Partial Derivatives:

The partial derivative of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) with respect to 𝑥 at the point (𝑥° , 𝑦° ) is:

𝝏𝒇 𝒅
| = 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚° ) = 𝒇𝒙
𝝏𝒙 (𝒙°,𝒚° ) 𝒅𝒙

The partial derivative of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) with respect to 𝑦 at the point (𝑥° , 𝑦° ) is:

38
 𝝏𝒇 𝒅
| = 𝒇( 𝒙° , , 𝒚) = 𝒇𝒚
𝝏𝒚 (𝒙 ,𝒚 ) 𝒅𝒚
° °

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
Example: Find the values of 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (2, −1)𝑖𝑓
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 − 1

Sol:

𝜕𝑓
To find , we treat 𝑦 as a constant and differentiate with respect to 𝑥,
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑓
= 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 0 − 0 = 2𝑥 + 3𝑦
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑓
The values of at the point (2,-1) is: 2 ∗ 2 + 3 ∗ −1 = 1
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑓
To find , we treat 𝑥 as a constant and differentiate with respect to 𝑦,
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑓
= 0 + 3𝑥 + 1 − 0 = 3𝑥 + 1
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑓
The values of at the point (2,-1) is: 3 ∗ 2 + 1 = 7
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑓
Example: Find the values of 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑦 sin(𝑥𝑦)
𝜕𝑦

Sol:

𝜕𝑓
= 𝑦 ∗ cos(𝑥𝑦) ∗ 𝑥 + sin(𝑥𝑦) ∗ 1 = 𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥𝑦) + sin (𝑥𝑦)
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 2𝑦
Example: Find the values of 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦+cos 𝑥

Sol:

39
 𝜕𝑓 (𝑦 + cos 𝑥) ∗ 0 − [2𝑦(0 − sin 𝑥)] 2𝑦 sin 𝑥
= =
𝜕𝑥 (𝑦 + cos 𝑥) 2 (𝑦 + cos 𝑥) 2

𝜕𝑓 (𝑦+cos 𝑥)∗2−[2𝑦(1+0)] 2(𝑦+cos 𝑥)−2𝑦

= =
𝜕𝑦 (𝑦+cos 𝑥) 2 (𝑦+cos 𝑥) 2

b) Indeterminate Forms and Hôpital’s Rule:

Suppose that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑎) = 0 , that 𝑓́(𝑎), 𝑔́ (𝑎) exist, and that 𝑔́ (𝑎) ≠ 0

Then;

𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇́(𝒂)
𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
𝒙→𝟎 𝒈(𝒙) 𝒈́(𝒂)

Example: Using Hospital’s Rule and find the following:

3𝑥−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 3−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
1) lim = | =2
𝑥→0 𝑥 1 𝑥=0

1
√ 𝑥 + 1 − 1 2 𝑥+1 1
2) lim = √ | =
𝑥→0 𝑥 1 2
𝑥=0

𝑥−2 1 1
3) lim = | =
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 − 4 2𝑥 𝑥=2 4

𝑥 3 −1 3𝑥 2 3
4) lim 3
= | =
𝑥→1 4𝑥 −𝑥−3 12𝑥 2 −1 𝑥=1 11

Transcendental Function:

1-Trigonometric function:

40
 𝑑𝑦
1- If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
2- If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = −sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
3- If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = tan 𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = sec 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
4- If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = cot 𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = −csc 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
5- If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = sec 𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
6- If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = csc 𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Now if u is a function of x then:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
1- If 𝑦 = sin 𝑢 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = cos 𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
2- If 𝑦 = cos 𝑢 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = − sin 𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
3- If 𝑦 = tan 𝑢 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = sec 2 𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
4- If 𝑦 = cot 𝑢 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = −csc 2 𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
5- If 𝑦 = sec 𝑢 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = sec 𝑢 tan 𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
6- If 𝑦 = csc 𝑢 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = − csc 𝑢 cot 𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Example: Find of the following functions
𝑑𝑥

(1) 𝑦 = sin(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5)

Sol:
𝑑𝑦
= cos(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5) . 2𝑥 + 2 = (2𝑥 + 2) cos(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5)
𝑑𝑥

(2) 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (2𝑥) cos(𝑥 2 + 1)

41
 Sol:
𝑑𝑦
= −tan (2𝑥) sin (𝑥 2 + 1). 2x + cos(𝑥 2 + 1) sec 2 (2𝑥) . 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= −2x tan (2x) sin (𝑥 2 + 1). +2 cos(𝑥 2 + 1) sec 2 (2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
1
(3) 𝑦 = sin2 (𝑥 2 + )
𝑥2
𝑑𝑦 1 1 2
= 2 sin (𝑥 2 + ) . cos (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2) . (2𝑥 − 𝑥 3)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2

(4) 𝑦 = tan−3 (3𝑥 2 + sec 2 2𝑥)

𝑑𝑦
= −3 tan−4 (3𝑥 2 + sec 2 2𝑥) . sec 2 (3𝑥 2 + sec 2 2𝑥) . (6𝑥 +
𝑑𝑥

2 sec 2𝑥 . sec 2𝑥 tan 2𝑥 . 2)

sec [𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥+1)]
(5) 𝑦 =
𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑥 3 +1)

𝑑𝑦 tan(𝑥 3 +1) sec[𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥+1)] tan[sin(2𝑥+1)].cos(2𝑥+1).2−sec[sin(2𝑥+1)].sec2 (𝑥 3 +1).3𝑥 2

= [𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑥 3 +1)]2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Example: If 𝑦 = tan−3 (sin 2𝑥), 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑑𝑥

Sol:

𝑑𝑦 6 sec2 (sin 2𝑥) cos 2𝑥

= −3 tan−4 (sin 2𝑥). sec 2 (sin 2x). cos 2𝑥 .2 = −
𝑑𝑥 tan4 (sin 2𝑥)

Inverse of trigonometric function:

𝑑𝑦
Definition: If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑦́ ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛:
𝑑𝑥

42
 (1) 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 → 𝑥 = sin 𝑦
(2) 𝑦 = cos −1 𝑥 → 𝑥 = cos 𝑦
(3) 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 → 𝑥 = tan 𝑦
(4) 𝑦 = cot −1 𝑥 → 𝑥 = cot 𝑦
(5) 𝑦 = sec −1 𝑥 → 𝑥 = sec 𝑦
(6) 𝑦 = csc −1 𝑥 → 𝑥 = csc 𝑦

Derivative of the inverse trigonometric function:

1
(1) 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 → 𝑦́ =
√1−𝑥 2
−1
(2) 𝑦 = cos −1 𝑥 → 𝑦́ =
√1−𝑥 2
1
(3) 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 → 𝑦́ =
1+𝑥 2
−1
(4) 𝑦 = cot −1 𝑥 → 𝑦́ =
1+𝑥 2
1
(5) 𝑦 = sec −1 𝑥 → 𝑦́ =
𝑥√𝑥 2 −1
−1
(6) 𝑦 = csc −1 𝑥 → 𝑦́ =
𝑥√𝑥 2 −1

𝑑𝑦
Example: Find of the follwing functions:
𝑑𝑥

Sol:

1) 𝑦 = sin−1 (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1)
𝑑𝑦 2𝑥+3
=
𝑑𝑥 √1−(𝑥 2 +3𝑥−1)2

2) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 tan−1 (√𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 1 1
= 𝑥 2. . + 2𝑥 tan−1 (√𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑥 2 2 √𝑥

3) 𝑦 = cos −1 (𝑥 2 + tan−1 3𝑥)

43
 3
𝑑𝑦 −1 3 −(2𝑥+ )
1+9𝑥2
= . (2𝑥 + )=
𝑑𝑥 √1− (𝑥 2 +tan−1 3𝑥)2 1+9𝑥 2 √1−(𝑥 2 +tan−1 3𝑥)2

1
4) 𝑦 = sin2 (sec −1 2𝑥) cot −1 ( )
𝑥

𝑑𝑦 −1 −1 1 2
= sin2(sec −1 2𝑥) . 1 2
. + cot −1 . 2 sin(sec −1 2𝑥). cos (sec −1 2𝑥).
𝑑𝑥 1+( ) 𝑥2 𝑥 2𝑥√4𝑥 2 −1
𝑥

𝑥−1 𝑑𝑦
Example: If 𝑦 = sin−1 ( ) 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥

Sol:

𝑑𝑦 1 (𝑥+1).1−(𝑥−1).1 𝑥+1−𝑥+1 2
= 2
. (𝑥+1)2
= 2
= 2
𝑑𝑥
√1−(𝑥−1) √1−(𝑥−1) (𝑥+1)2 √1−(𝑥−1) (𝑥+1)2
𝑥+1 𝑥+1 𝑥+1

2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑦
Example: If 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑡 , 𝑥 = cos−1 𝑡, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 ,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥2

Sol:
𝑑𝑦 1
𝑦 = sin−1 𝑡 → =
𝑑𝑡 √1−𝑡 2

𝑑𝑥 −1
𝑥 = cos −1 𝑡 → =
𝑑𝑡 √1−𝑡 2

1
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡 √1−𝑡2
= = −1 = −1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡
√1−𝑡2

𝑑2𝑦
=0
𝑑𝑥 2

44
The Logarithmic function:

The logarithmic was discovered by Noble man John Napier (1550-1617)

𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒙 → 𝒙 = 𝒃𝒚

Where y is the logarithm, x is the number, b is the base.

If 𝑏 = 10, we write 𝑦 = log 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = log 𝑥

If 𝑏 = 𝑒 = 2.7183 , we write

𝑦 = log 𝑒 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 log 𝑥 = 𝑦 → 𝑦 = ln 𝑥

Where (ln) is read natural logarithm.

Relation between the logarithm and the natural logarithm:

Let 𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥 → 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦 → ln 𝑥 = ln 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑦 ln 𝑏

𝐥𝐧 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒙
∴𝒚= 𝒔𝒐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒙 =
𝐥𝐧 𝒃 𝐥𝐧 𝒃

Properties:

- 𝐥𝐧(𝒂. 𝒃) = 𝐥𝐧 𝒂 + 𝐥𝐧 𝒃
𝒂
- 𝐥𝐧 ( ) = 𝐥𝐧 𝒂 − 𝐥𝐧 𝒃
𝒃

- 𝐥𝐧 𝟏 = 𝟎 , 𝐥𝐧 𝒂𝒓 = 𝒓 𝐥𝐧 𝒂

45
Derivative of the natural logarithm:

𝑑𝑦 1
𝐼𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛: = 𝑓́(𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Example: Find of the following functions:
𝑑𝑥

1- 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 1)

Sol:
𝑑𝑦 1
= . (3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 3 +2𝑥 2 −1

2- 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 −2 + sin2 3𝑥)

Sol:
𝑑𝑦 1
= . −2𝑥 −3 + 2 sin(3𝑥) cos(3𝑥) . 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 −2 +sin2 3𝑥

3- 𝑦 = sin−1 (ln 𝑥) . ln(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 3𝑥)

Sol:

𝑑𝑦 1 3 1 1
= sin−1 (ln 𝑥). −1 . + ln(sin−1 3𝑥). .
𝑑𝑥 sin 3𝑥 √1 − (3𝑥)2 √1 − (ln 𝑥)2 𝑥

4- 𝑦 = ln[ln(sec 2 2𝑥 + 𝑥 sin−1 𝑥)]

Sol:

𝑑𝑦 1 1
= . . 2 sec(2𝑥) (sec(2𝑥) tan(2𝑥). 2)
𝑑𝑥 ln(sec 2𝑥 + 𝑥 sin 𝑥) sec 2𝑥 + 𝑥 sin−1 𝑥
2 −1 2

𝑥
+ + sin−1 𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2

46
 𝑑𝑦
Example: Find for the following:
𝑑𝑥

1) 𝑦 = 𝑥 cos 𝑥

Sol: Take ln for both sides

𝑦 = 𝑥 cos 𝑥 → ln 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑥

ln 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 ln 𝑥
1 𝑑𝑦 cos 𝑥
= − sin 𝑥 ln 𝑥
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥
= 𝑦[ − sin 𝑥 ln 𝑥] = 𝑥 cos 𝑥 [ − sin 𝑥 ln 𝑥]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

2)𝑦 = (ln 𝑥)𝑥

Sol:

ln 𝑦 = ln [ (ln 𝑥)𝑥 ] = ln [𝑥 ln 𝑥]

1 𝑑𝑦 1 1 ln 𝑥+1
= . (𝑥. + ln 𝑥) =
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 ln 𝑥 + 1 ln 𝑥 + 1
∴ = 𝑦[ ] = (ln 𝑥)𝑥 [ ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑥

Example: Solve for x if 2𝑥 = 4𝑥−1

Sol:

47
 Take ln for both sides

ln( 2𝑥 ) = ln(4𝑥−1 )

𝑥 ln 2 = (𝑥 − 1) ln 4 = 𝑥 ln 4 − ln 4

𝑥 𝑙𝑛 2 − 𝑥 ln 4 = −ln 4

− ln 4
𝑥 (ln 2 − ln 4) = −ln 4 → ∴ 𝑥 =
ln 2 − ln 4

The Exponential function:

Definition: the exponential function is defined as an inverse of natural logarithm,

and denoted by: exp or e , that is:

For −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞ 𝑤𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = ln 𝑦, 0 < 𝑦 < ∞

Properties:

1- 𝑒 = 2.7183
2- 𝑒 𝑥+𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 . 𝑒 𝑦
3- 𝑒 𝑥−𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 . 𝑒 −𝑦
4- 𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥
5- ln 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥

Example: Simplify the following expressions.

1- 𝑒 ln 2 = 2
2- ln 𝑒 sin 𝑥 = sin 𝑥
2 +1)
3- 𝑒 ln (𝑥 = 𝑥2 + 1
4- ln 𝑒 −1.3 = −1.3
48
 𝑒 2𝑥
5- ln = ln 𝑒 2𝑥 − ln 5 = 2𝑥 − ln 5
5
3
6- 𝑒 ln 2+3 ln 𝑥 = 𝑒 ln 2 . 𝑒 3 ln 𝑥 = 2. 𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 2 𝑥 3

7- 𝑒 2𝑥+ln 𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑥 . 𝑒 𝑙𝑛𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥

Example: Solve for y if: ln(𝑦 − 1) − ln 𝑦 = 2𝑥

Sol:
𝑦−1
ln(𝑦 − 1) − ln 𝑦 = 2𝑥 → ln = 2𝑥 (Take 𝑒𝑥𝑝 for both sides)
𝑦

𝑦−1
ln 𝑦−1
𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 → = 𝑒 2𝑥
𝑦

𝑦 − 1 = 𝑦 𝑒 2𝑥 → 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑒 2𝑥 = 1

1
𝑦(1 − 𝑒 2𝑥 ) = 1 →∴ 𝑦 =
1 − 𝑒 2𝑥

Derivative of the exponential function:

𝒅𝒚
If 𝒚 = 𝒆𝒙 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 = 𝒆𝒙
𝒅𝒙

Now, if 𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑥) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑢

𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒖
= 𝒆𝒖 .
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

49
 𝑑𝑦
Example: Find of the following functions.
𝑑𝑥

2 +sin 2𝑥
1- 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 2
= 𝑒 𝑥 +sin 2𝑥 . (2𝑥 + 2 cos 2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
−1 2𝑥)+ln 𝑥
2- 𝑦 = 𝑒 (tan

𝑑𝑦 −1 2𝑥 1
= 𝑒 (tan 2𝑥)+ln 𝑥 . ( 2
+ )
𝑑𝑥 1 + 4𝑥 𝑥

3- 𝑦 = tan−1 (𝑒 2𝑥 )

𝑑𝑦 1 2 𝑒 2𝑥
= 2 . 𝑒 2𝑥 . 2 = 2
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑒 4𝑥 1+𝑒 4𝑥

4- 𝑦 = 𝑒 sec 𝑥 . sec 𝑒 𝑥

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑒 sec 𝑥 . (sec 𝑒 𝑥 tan 𝑒 𝑥 . 𝑒 𝑥 ) + sec 𝑒 𝑥 . 𝑒 sec 𝑥 . (sec 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

The Function 𝒂𝒙 :

Definition: for 𝑎 > 0, 𝑤𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑎

If 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝒅𝒚
= 𝒂𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒂
𝒅𝒙

Now if 𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑥) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒖
= 𝒂𝒙 . 𝐥𝐧 𝒂
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

50
 𝑑𝑦
Example: Find of the following functions.
𝑑𝑥

2 2𝑥
1- 𝑦 = 2sin
𝑑𝑦 2
= 2sin 2𝑥 . ln 2 (2 sin 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 .2)
𝑑𝑥
−1 2𝑥
2- 𝑦 = 3tan
𝑑𝑦 −1 2
= 3tan 2𝑥 . ln 3
𝑑𝑥 1 + 4𝑥 2

2-Hyperbolic functions:

The hyperbolic functions are a special combinations of the functions 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑒 −𝑥 .

Definitions:

𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
1- sinh 𝑥 =
2
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
2- cosh 𝑥 =
2
sinh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
3- tanh 𝑥 = =
cosh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 1
4- coth 𝑥 = =
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 tanh 𝑥
1 2
5- csch 𝑥 = =
sinh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
1 2
6- sech 𝑥 = =
cosh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥

Some important relations and identities:

51
 1) cosh2 𝑥 − sinh2 𝑥 = 1
2) tanh2 𝑥 + coth2 𝑥 = 1
3) coth2 𝑥 − csch2 𝑥 = 1
4) sinh(−x) = − sinh 𝑥
5) coth(−x) = coth 𝑥
6) tanh(−x) = − tanh 𝑥
7) sinh 𝑥 ± cosh 𝑥 = ±e±𝑥
8) sinh(x ± 𝑦) = sinh 𝑦 cosh 𝑥 ± 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 cosh 𝑦
9) cosh(x ± 𝑦) = cosh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 ± sinh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
10) sinh 2𝑥 = 2 sinh 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥
cosh(2𝑥)−1
11) 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 =
2
cosh(2𝑥)+1
12) 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 =
2

Derivative of hyperbolic functions:

𝑑𝑦
1) 𝑦 = sinh 𝑥 → = cosh 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
2) 𝑦 = cosh 𝑥 → = sinh 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
3) 𝑦 = tanh 𝑥 → = sech2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
4) 𝑦 = coth 𝑥 → = − csch2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
5) 𝑦 = sech 𝑥 → = −sech x tanh 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
6) 𝑦 = csch 𝑥 → = − csch 𝑥 coth 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Example: Find of the following functions.
𝑑𝑥

1) 𝑦 = sinh (𝑥 2 + 3 sin 𝑥 + ln 𝑥)

52
 𝑑𝑦 1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑥 2 + 3 sin 𝑥 + ln 𝑥). (2𝑥 + 3 cos 𝑥 + )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
−1 2𝑥
2) 𝑦 = tanh−2 (𝑒 tanh + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑒 2𝑥 )

𝑑𝑦 −1 −1
= −2 tanh−3(𝑒 tanh 2𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑒 2𝑥 ) . sech2 (𝑒 tan 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
−1 2
+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 2𝑥 ). 𝑒 tan 2𝑥 . ( ) + cos 𝑒 2𝑥 . (𝑒 2𝑥 . 2)
1 + 4𝑥 2

Inverse of hyperbolic function:

1) 𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑥 → 𝑥 = sinh 𝑦
2) 𝑦 = cosh−1 𝑥 → 𝑥 = cosh 𝑦
3) 𝑦 = tanh−1 𝑥 → 𝑥 = tanh 𝑦
4) 𝑦 = coth−1 𝑥 → 𝑥 = coth 𝑦
5) 𝑦 = sech−1 𝑥 → 𝑥 = sech 𝑦
6) 𝑦 = csch−1 𝑥 → 𝑥 = csch 𝑦

Derivative of inverse of hyperbolic function:

𝑑𝑦 1
1) 𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑥 → =
𝑑𝑥 √1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 1
2) 𝑦 = cosh−1 𝑥 → =
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 2 −1
𝑑𝑦 1
3) 𝑦 = tanh−1 𝑥 → =
𝑑𝑥 1−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 1
4) 𝑦 = coth−1 𝑥 → =
𝑑𝑥 1−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 −1
5) 𝑦 = sech−1 𝑥 → =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥√1−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 −1
6) 𝑦 = csch−1 𝑥 → =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥√1+𝑥 2

53
 𝑑𝑦
Example: Find to the following function: 𝑦 = sinh−1 (𝑥 2 + sin2 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Sol:

𝑑𝑦 2𝑥+2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥

=
𝑑𝑥 √1+ (𝑥 2 +sin2 𝑥) 2

HOMEWORK

1) Find the first and second derivatives:

a- 𝑦 = 𝑧 6 − 7𝑧 2 + 21𝑧
b- 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥
c- 𝑦 = 3 sin2 𝑥
2) Simplify the expression:
sin 𝑥 )
a- 6log(𝑒

b- log 2 5𝑥
3
c- log 𝑒 𝑒 𝑥

54
 d- 8log 8𝑥

3) Solve the equations:

a- ln 𝑒 + 2−2 log2 𝑥 = log 3 9

2
c- 4log4 𝑥 = 𝑒 ln 𝑥 + 3log3 2
𝒅𝒚
4) Find :
𝒅𝒙

a- 2𝑒 2𝑦 = ln 𝑥 2

b- 𝑦 = (ln 𝑥 + 𝑥)tan 𝑥
𝑥
d- 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 𝑒

Chapter Four

Integration

Indefinite Integrals:

Definition: The set of all antiderivatives of ƒ is the indefinite integral of ƒ with

respect to x, denoted by:

∫ 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 = 𝑭(𝒙) + 𝒄

55
The symbol ∫ 𝑖𝑠 an integral sign. The function is f the integrand of the integral,
and x is the variable of integration and c is the constant of integral.

Some integration formulas:

𝑑𝑢
1) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢(𝑥) + 𝑐
𝑑𝑥

2) ∫ 𝑎 𝑢(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑢(𝑥) , 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.

3) ∫[𝑢1 (𝑥) + 𝑢2 (𝑥) + ⋯ ]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢1 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑢2 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + …
𝑑𝑢 𝑢𝑛+1
4) ∫ 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐 , 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑑𝑥 𝑛+1

Example: Evaluate the integral ∫(4𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥

Sol:

∫(4𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥 = 4 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 2 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥

𝑥3 2𝑥 2 4
=4 + − 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 𝑐
3 2 3

Example: Evaluate the integral ∫(4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )2 (4 − 2𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Sol:

(4𝑥−𝑥 2 )3 1
∫(4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )2 𝑑𝑥 = 3
+𝑐 =
3
(4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )3 + 𝑐

Definite Integral:
𝑏
The integral ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 is called the definite integral of 𝑓(𝑥) over the interval

56
[a, b].

Properties of definite integrals:

If 𝑓(𝑥) is a continuous function on [a, b] then:

𝑏 𝑎
1) ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
2) ∫𝑎 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0

𝑏 𝑏
3) ∫𝑎 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
4) ∫𝑎 [𝑓1 (𝑥) + 𝑓2 (𝑥) + 𝑓3 (𝑥) + ⋯ ]𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓1 𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑎 𝑓2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑎 𝑓3 𝑑𝑥 + ⋯
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
5) ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏].

The fundamental theorem of integral calculus:

If 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous function on [a, b] and 𝐹(𝑥) is any solution of 𝑓(𝑥) over [a,
b], then:

57
 𝒃

∫ 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 = 𝑭(𝒙)|𝒃𝒂 = 𝑭(𝒃) − 𝑭(𝒂)

𝒂

2
Example: Evaluate ∫−3(6 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥

Sol:
2
2 2 𝑥2 𝑥3 4 8 9 125
∫−3(6 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 6𝑥 −
2
−
3 −3
| = (12 − − ) − (−18 − + 9) =
2 3 2 6

1 1
Example: If 𝑓(𝑥) is a continuous, show that: ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑓(1 − 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡

Sol:

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑡 → 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑑𝑡

𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 → 𝑡 = 1, 𝑥 = 1 → 𝑡 = 0
1 0 1
∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫1 𝑓(1 − 𝑡) . −𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 𝑓(1 − 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡

Method of Integration:

a) Integration formula:
𝑢𝑛+1
1) ∫ 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = + 𝑐 , 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛+1
𝑑𝑢
2) ∫ = ln 𝑢 + 𝑐
𝑢

3) ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑢 + 𝑐
𝑎𝑢
4) ∫ 𝑎𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = +𝑐
ln 𝑎

58
 5) ∫ sin 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − cos 𝑢 + 𝑐
6) ∫ cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = sin 𝑢 + 𝑐
7) ∫ sec 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = tan 𝑢 + 𝑐
8) ∫ csc 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − cot 𝑢 + 𝑐
9) ∫ sinh 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = cosh 𝑢 + 𝑐
10) ∫ cosh 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = sinh 𝑢 + 𝑐
11) ∫ sech2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = tanh 𝑢 + 𝑐
12) ∫ csch2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − coth 𝑢 + 𝑐
13) ∫ sec 𝑢 tan 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = sec 𝑢 + 𝑐
14) ∫ csc 𝑢 cot 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − csc 𝑢 + 𝑐

Examples:
2𝜋
1) ∫0 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −cos 𝑥|2𝜋
0 = −(cos 2𝜋 − cos 0) = −(1 − 1) = 0
1
2) ∫ sec 2𝑥 tan 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec(2𝑥 ) + 𝑐
2
3
𝑥3 2 5𝑥
3) ∫ 5 15𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
ln 5

4) 4 ∫ csch2 (4𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − coth 4𝑥 + 𝑐

b) Integration substitution:

If 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) is a differentiable function whose range is an interval I and ƒ is

continuous on I, then

𝑰 = ∫ 𝒇[𝒈(𝒙)] 𝒈̀ (𝒙)𝒅𝒙

59
➢ The steps to evaluate the integral is:

1- Substitute 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥)and 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑔̀ (𝑥) to obtain the integral ∫ 𝒇(𝒖) 𝒅𝒖

2- Integrate with respect to u.

3- Replace u by 𝑔(𝑥) in the result.

Example: Using Substitution to find ∫ cos (7𝜃 + 5) 𝑑𝜃

Sol:
1
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 7𝜃 + 5 → 𝑑𝑢 = 7 𝑑𝜃 ∴ 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑢
7

1 1
∫ cos(7𝜃 + 5) 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ cos 𝑢 ∗ 7 𝑑𝑢 = 7 ∫ cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢

1 1
= sin 𝑢 + 𝑐 = sin(7𝜃 + 5) + 𝑐
7 7

Example: Using Substitution to find ∫ x 2 sin( 𝑥 3 ) 𝑑𝑥

Sol:
1
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 → 𝑑𝑢 = 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 ∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢
3𝑥 2

1 1
∫ x 2 sin ( 𝑥 3 ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sin(𝑢) ∗ 3 𝑑𝑢 = 3 ∫ sin(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢

1 −1
= − cos(𝑢) + 𝑐 = cos(𝑥 3 ) + 𝑐
3 3

∫ 2𝑧𝑑𝑧
Example: Using Substitution to find 3
√𝑧 2 +1

60
Sol:

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑧 2 + 1 → 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑧 𝑑𝑧
2
1 2
∫ 2𝑧𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑢 − 𝑢3 3 3
3 =∫3 = ∫𝑢 3 𝑑𝑢 = 2 +𝑐 = 𝑢2/3 + 𝑐 = (𝑧 2 + 1)3 + 𝑐
√𝑧 2 +1 √𝑢
3
2 2

c) Certain power of trigonometric and hyperbolic integrals:

1- ∫ sin𝑚 𝑢 cos 𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑜𝑟 ∫ sinh𝑚 𝑢 cosh𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2- ∫ tan𝑚 𝑢 sec 𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑜𝑟 ∫ tanh𝑚 𝑢 sech𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
3- ∫ cot 𝑚 𝑢 csc 𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑜𝑟 ∫ coth𝑚 𝑢 cech𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢

Under type (1) there are three cases:

Case (1): If m is odd we use the identities

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑢 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑢 𝑜𝑟 sinh2 𝑢 = cosh2 𝑢 − 1

sin3 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 , sin5 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 sin4 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑛.

Example: Find ∫ sin5 2𝑥 cos 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Sol:

∫ sin5 2𝑥 cos 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sin4 2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 cos 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

61
 = ∫(sin2 2𝑥)2 sin 2𝑥 cos 2 2𝑥 = ∫(1 − cos 2 2𝑥)2 sin 2𝑥 cos 2 2𝑥

= ∫(1 − 2 cos 2 2𝑥 + cos 4 2𝑥) sin 2𝑥 cos 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ cos 2 2𝑥 (sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥) − 2 ∫ cos 4 2𝑥 (sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥)

+ ∫ cos 6 2𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑑𝑥)

1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 2𝑥 2 cos 5 2𝑥 1 cos 7 2𝑥

=− + − +𝑐
2 3 2 5 2 7
1 1 1
= − cos 3 2𝑥 + cos 5 2𝑥 − cos 7 2𝑥 + 𝑐
6 5 14

Case (2): If n is odd we use the identities

cos 2 𝑢 = 1 − sin2 𝑢 𝑜𝑟 cosh2 𝑢 = 1 + sinh2 𝑢

cos 3 𝑢 = cos 𝑢 cos 2 𝑢 , cosh5 𝑢 = cosh4 𝑢 cosh 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑛.

Example: Find ∫ sinh4 3𝑥 cosh3 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Sol:

∫ sinh4 3𝑥 cosh3 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sinh4 3𝑥 cosh2 3𝑥 cosh 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ sinh4 3𝑥 (1 + sinsh2 3x) 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =

∫(sinh4 3𝑥 cosh 3𝑥 + sinh6 3𝑥 cosh 3𝑥)𝑑𝑥

1 sinh5 3𝑥 1 sinh6 3𝑥
= + +𝑐
3 5 3 6

Case (3): Both n and m are even, we use the identities

62
 1 1
sin2 𝑢 = (1 − cos 2𝑢) 𝑜𝑟 cos 2 𝑢 = (1 + cos 2𝑢)
2 2

Example: Find the integral ∫ sin2 2𝑥 cos 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Sol:
1 1
∫ sin2 2𝑥 cos 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫[2 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑥) ∗ 2 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥

1 1
= ∫(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 4𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = [∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ cos 2 4𝑥]𝑑𝑥
4 4

1 1 1 1
= [𝑥 − ∫(1 + cos 8𝑥) 𝑑𝑥] = [𝑥 − (∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ cos 8𝑥 𝑑𝑥)]
4 2 4 2

1 1 1 1 𝑥 1
= [𝑥 − (𝑥 + sin 8𝑥)] + 𝑐 = [𝑥 − − sin 8𝑥] + 𝑐
4 2 8 4 2 16

➢ Under type (2) there are two cases:

Case (1): If n is even, we use the identities:

sec 2 𝑢 = 1 + tan2 𝑢 𝑜𝑟 sech2 𝑢 = 1 − tanh2 𝑢

Example: Find the integral ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ4 𝑥 tanh 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Sol:

∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ4 𝑥 tanh 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 sech2 𝑥 tanh 𝑥)𝑑𝑥

=∫[(1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 𝑥) 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 tanh 𝑥]𝑑𝑥

= ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ sech 𝑥 (𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 sech 𝑥 𝑑𝑥) − ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ sech 𝑥 (𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 sech 𝑥 𝑑𝑥) − [∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑥(1 + sech2 𝑥) sech 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥]

63
 = ∫ (sech 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥) sech 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − [∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑥 (sech 𝑥 tanh 𝑥 𝑑𝑥) +
− sech4 𝑥
∫ sech3 𝑥 (sech 𝑥 tanh 𝑥 𝑑𝑥)] = − ∫ sech3 𝑥 (sech 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥) = 4
+𝑐

Case (2): If n is odd, we use the identities:

tan2 𝑢 = sec 2 𝑢 + 1 𝑜𝑟 tanh2 𝑢 = 1 − sech2 𝑢

Example: Find the integral ∫ tan3 2𝑥 sec 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Sol:

∫ tan3 2𝑥 sec 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ tan2 2𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝑥(tan 2𝑥 sec 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥)

= ∫ (sec 2 2𝑥 + 1) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝑥(tan 2𝑥 sec 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥)

= ∫ sec 3 2𝑥 (tan 2𝑥 sec 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥) + ∫ sec 2𝑥 (tan 2𝑥 sec 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥)

1 sec4 2𝑥 1 sec2 2𝑥 1 1
= + + 𝑐 = sec 4 2𝑥 + sec 2 2𝑥 + 𝑐
2 4 2 2 8 4

d) Trigonometric Substitutions:

Trigonometric substitutions occur when we replace the variable of integration by a

trigonometric function. If the integral one of the forms:

𝒂𝟐 + 𝒖𝟐 , √𝒂𝟐 − 𝒖𝟐 , √𝒂𝟐 + 𝒖𝟐 𝒐𝒓 √𝒖𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐

Then the substitutions as follows:

1) If √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 → 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 = 𝑎2 cos 2 𝜃

2) If √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 = 𝑎 tan 𝜃 → 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 = 𝑎2 sec 2 𝜃
3) If √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 , 𝑥 = 𝑎 sec 𝜃 → 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 tan2 𝜃

64
 𝑑𝑥
Example: Find ∫ 4+𝑥 2

Sol:

𝑥 = 2 tan 𝜃 → 𝑑𝑥 = 2 sec 2 𝜃 𝑑 𝜃
𝑥 𝑥
tan 𝜃 = → 𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
2 2

𝑑𝑥 2 sec2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 2 sec2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 1 1 1 𝑥
∫ 4+𝑥 2 =∫
4+4 tan2 𝜃
=∫
4 sec2 𝜃
=
2
∫ 𝑑𝜃 = 2 𝜃 + 𝑐 = 2 tan−1 ( 2) + 𝑐

√3/2
Example: Find ∫−1 √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
2

Sol:

𝑥 = sin 𝜃 → 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑑 𝜃
−1 1 𝜋
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = → sin 𝜃 = − →𝜃=−
2 2 6

3 3 𝜋
𝑥=√ → sin 𝜃 = √ →𝜃=−
2 2 3

𝜋 𝜋
√3/2
∫−1 √1 − 𝑥2 3
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √1 −
𝜋 sin2 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ cos 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
3
𝜋
2
− −
6 6

65
 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
3 1+cos 2𝜃 1 3 1 1 3
∫ 𝜋 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ (1 + cos 2𝜃) 𝑑𝜃 = [𝜃 + sin 2𝜃| 𝜋 ] =
𝜋
− 2 2 − 2 2 −
6 6 6

1 𝜋 1 √3 𝜋 1 √3 1 𝜋 √3 1 𝜋+3 𝜋+3
[ + + + ]= [ + ]= =
2 3 2 2 6 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4

√𝑥 2 −7
Example: Find ∫ 𝑑𝑥
7

Sol:
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 = √7 sec 𝜃 → sec 𝜃 = , 𝜃 = sec −1
√7 √7

𝑑𝑥 = √7 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

√𝑥 2 −7 √7 sec2 𝜃−7
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √7 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 =
7 √ 7 sec 𝜃

∫ √7(sec 2 𝜃 − 1) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ √7 tan2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

= √7 ∫(sec 2 𝜃 −1)𝑑𝜃 = √7 [tan 𝜃 − 𝜃] + 𝑐

𝑥 𝑥 1 𝑥
= √7[tan (sec −1 ) − sec −1 ] + 𝑐 = √7 [ √𝑥 2 − 7 − sec −1 ]+𝑐
√ 7 √7 √7 √7

e) Integration by part:

∫ 𝒖 𝒅𝒗 = 𝒖. 𝒗 − ∫ 𝒗 𝒅𝒖

Where u and v are two different functions with respect to x.

66
Example: Find ∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Sol:
1
𝑢 = ln 𝑥 → 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥 → 𝑣 = 𝑥

1
∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥. 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐

Example: Find ∫ tan−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Sol:
𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = tan−1 𝑥 → 𝑑𝑢 =
𝑥 2 +1

𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥 → 𝑣 = 𝑥
𝑥 1
∫ ln tan−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 tan−1 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 2+1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 tan−1 𝑥 − 2 ln(𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝑐

Example: Find ∫ 𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Sol:
1
𝑢 = ln 𝑥 → 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

1
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 → 𝑣 = 𝑥 2
2

1 1
∫ x ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑥 2 ln 𝑥 − 2 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 1 1 1
= 𝑥 2 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑐
2 2 2 4

67
 Example: Find ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Sol:

𝑢 = x → 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 → 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥

∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐

Example: Find ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Sol:

𝑢 = x 2 → 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 → 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥

∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − ∫ 2 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼1

𝐼1 = ∫ 2 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑢 = 2𝑥 → 𝑑𝑢 = 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥 → 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑥

𝐼1 = 2𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 2 ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 2 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐

𝐼 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − (2𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 2 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐) = 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐

f) Tabular Integration:

68
 We have seen that integrals of the form ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 in which 𝑓 can be
differentiated repeatedly to become zero and g can be integrated repeatedly
without difficulty, are natural candidates for integration by parts.

Example: Find the integral ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Sol:

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑥 2 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥2 + 𝑒𝑥

2𝑥 - 𝑒𝑥

2 + 𝑒𝑥

0 𝑒𝑥

𝐼 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐

Example: Find the integral ∫(𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1) sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Sol:

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1 , 𝑔(𝑥) = sin 2𝑥

69
 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1 + sin 2𝑥
1
3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 - − cos 2𝑥
2

1
6𝑥 − 4 + − sin 2𝑥
4

1
6 − cos 2𝑥
8

1
0 sin 2𝑥
16

1
∫(𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1) sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1) (− 2 cos 2𝑥) +
1 1 6
(3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3)(sin 2𝑥) + (6𝑥 − 4)(cos 2𝑥) − sin 2𝑥 + 𝑐
4 8 16

g)Integration of Rotational Functions:

𝑓(𝑥)
Success in writing a rational function as a sum of partial fractions
𝑔(𝑥)

depends on two things:

• The degree of ƒ(x) must be less than the degree of g(x). That is, the fraction
must be proper. If it isn’t, divide ƒ(x) by g(x) and work with the remainder
term.
• We must know the factors of g(x). In theory, any polynomial with real
coefficients can be written as a product of real linear factors and real
quadratic factors. In practice, the factors may be hard to find.

Method of Partial Fractions [ƒ(x) / g(x)]:

70
 1- Let 𝑥 − 𝑟 be a linear factor of g(x). Suppose that (𝑥 − 𝑟)𝑚 is the highest
power of 𝑥 − 𝑟 that divides g(x). Then, to this factor, assign the sum of the
m partial fractions:
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑚
+ + ⋯ +
𝑥 − 𝑟 (𝑥 − 𝑟)2 (𝑥 − 𝑟)𝑚
2- Let 𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 be a quadratic factor of g(x). Suppose that
(𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞)𝑚 is the highest power of this factor that divides g(x). Then,
to this factor, assign the sum of the n partial fractions

𝐵1 𝑥 + 𝐶1 𝐵2 𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝐵𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶𝑛
+ + ⋯ +
𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 (𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞)2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞)𝑚

3- Set the original fraction ƒ(𝑥) /𝑔(𝑥) equal to the sum of all these partial
fractions. Clear the resulting equation of fractions and arrange the terms in
decreasing powers of x.
4- Equate the coefficients of corresponding powers of x and solve the resulting
equations for the undetermined coefficients.
Where 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are constants and must be found.

𝑥 2 +4𝑥+1
Example: Find ∫ (𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)(𝑥+3) 𝑑𝑥

Sol:

𝑥 2 +4𝑥+1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐴(𝑥+1)(𝑥+3)+𝐵(𝑥−1)(𝑥+3)+𝐶(𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)
(𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)(𝑥+3)
= + + = (𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)(𝑥+3)
(𝑥−1) (𝑥+1) (𝑥+3)

𝐴(𝑥 2 +3𝑥+𝑥+3)+𝐵(𝑥 2 +3𝑥−𝑥−3)+𝐶(𝑥 2 +𝑥−𝑥−1) 𝐴(𝑥 2 +4𝑥+3)+𝐵(𝑥 2 +2𝑥−3)+𝐶(𝑥 2 −1)

(𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)(𝑥+3)
= (𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)(𝑥+3)

𝐴𝑥 2 +4𝐴𝑥+3𝐴+𝐵𝑥 2 +2𝐵𝑥−3𝐵+𝐶𝑥 2 −𝐶 𝑥 2 (𝐴+𝐵+𝐶)+𝑥(4𝐴+2𝐵)+3𝐴−3𝐵−𝐶

(𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)(𝑥+3)
= (𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)(𝑥+3)

𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 = 𝑥 2 (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶) + 𝑥(4𝐴 + 2𝐵) + 3𝐴 − 3𝐵 − 𝐶

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 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 2 (𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶) → 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 1 … . (1)

4𝑥 = 𝑥(4𝐴 + 2𝐵) → 4𝐴 + 2𝐵 = 4 … . (2)

1 = 3𝐴 − 3𝐵 − 𝐶 → 3𝐴 − 3𝐵 − 𝐶 = 1 … . (3)

𝐴+𝐵+𝐶 =1 … . (1)

3𝐴 − 3𝐵 − 𝐶 = 1 … . (3)

4𝐴 − 2𝐵 = 2 … . (4)

We can solve equation (2) with (4) to obtain the value of A

4𝐴 + 2𝐵 = 4 … . (2)

4𝐴 − 2𝐵 = 2 … . (4)

6 3
8𝐴 = 6 → 𝐴 = =
8 4

subsitute the value of A in equation (2) we obtian

3 1
4 ∗ + 2𝐵 = 4 → 3 + 2𝐵 = 4 → 2𝐵 = 4 − 3 = 1 → 𝐵 =
4 2

Put the values of A and B in equation (1) or (3) to find C

3 1 3+2
𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 1 … (1) → + + 𝐶 = 1 → +𝐶 =1
4 2 4

5 5 1
+𝐶 =1→𝐶 =1− =−
4 4 4

Then;

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 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 3/4 1/2 1/4
∫ + + 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ + − 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 3)

3 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 3 1 1
∫ + ∫ − ∫ = ln(𝑥 − 1) + ln(𝑥 + 1) − ln(𝑥 + 3) + 𝑐
4 𝑥−1 2 𝑥+1 4 𝑥+3 4 2 4

6𝑥+7
Example: Evaluate ∫ (𝑥+2)2 𝑑𝑥

Sol:

6𝑥+7 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴(𝑥+2)+𝐵 𝐴𝑥+2𝐴+𝐵

(𝑥+2)2
= + (𝑥+2)2 = (𝑥+2)2
= (𝑥+2)2
𝑥+2

6𝑥 + 7 = 𝐴𝑥 + 2𝐴 + 𝐵

6𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 → 6 = 𝐴 … (1)

7 = 2𝐴 + 𝐵 … (2) put the value of A in equation (2)

7 = 2 ∗ 6 + 𝐵 = 12 + 𝐵 → 𝐵 = 7 − 12 = −5
6𝑥+7 𝐴 𝐵 6 −5
∫ (𝑥+2)2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥+2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥+2)2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥+2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥+2)2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
6∫ − 5 ∫ (𝑥+2)2 = 6 ln(𝑥 + 2) − 5 (𝑥 + 2)−1 + 𝑐
𝑥+2

𝑑𝑥
Example: Evaluate ∫ 2 2
𝑥(𝑥 +1)

Sol:

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 𝑑𝑥 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐶 𝐷𝑥+𝐸
= + + (𝑥 2
𝑥(𝑥 2 +1)2 𝑥 (𝑥 2 +1) +1)2

Multiplying by 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1)2 and equate numerators we obtain:

1 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 1)2 + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸)(𝑥)

1 = 𝐴(𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥 3 + 𝑥) + 𝐷𝑥 2 + 𝐸𝑥

1 = 𝐴(𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥 3 + 𝑥) + 𝐷𝑥 2 + 𝐸𝑥

1 = 𝐴𝑥 4 + 2𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 4 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥 3 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑥 2 + 𝐸𝑥

1 = 𝑥 4 (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝑥 3 (𝐶) + 𝑥 2 (2𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐷) + 𝑥(𝐶 + 𝐸) + 𝐴

0 = 𝑥 4 (𝐴 + 𝐵) →𝐴+𝐵 =0 → 𝐴 = −𝐵 … (1)

0 = 𝑥 3 (𝐶) → 𝐶 = 0 … (2)

0 = 𝑥 2 (2𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐷) → 2𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐷 = 0 … (3)

0 = 𝑥(𝐶 + 𝐸) → 𝐶 + 𝐸 = 0 → 𝐶 = −𝐸 … (4)

1=𝐴 → 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (1) 𝐴 = −𝐵 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐵 = −1

And from (3) we find the value of D

2𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐷 = 0 → 2 ∗ 1 + (−1) + 𝐷 = 0 → 2 − 1 + 𝐷 = 0

1 + 𝐷 = 0 → 𝐷 = −1

And from (4) we find the value of E

𝐶 = −𝐸 … (4) → 𝐶 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐸 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐶 𝐷𝑥+𝐸
∫ 𝑥(𝑥 2 +1)2 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥 2+1) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥 2+1)2 𝑑𝑥

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 1 −𝑥 −𝑥 1 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥 2 +1) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥 2+1)2 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑥 − 2 ln(𝑥 2 + 1) − ∫ 𝑢2
=
1 1 1 1
ln 𝑥 − ln(𝑥 2 + 1) − ln 𝑢2 = ln 𝑥 − ln(𝑥 2 + 1) − ln(𝑥 2 + 1)2 + 𝑐
2 2 2 2

𝑥 2 +1
Example: Find the value of A, B, and C in ∫ (𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)(𝑥−3) 𝑑𝑥

(Assigning numerical values to x)

Sol:

𝑥 2 +1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐴(𝑥−2)(𝑥−3)+𝐵(𝑥−1)(𝑥−3)+𝐶(𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)
(𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)(𝑥−3)
= + + = (𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)(𝑥−3)
𝑥−1 𝑥−2 𝑥−3

𝑥 2 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3) + 𝐶(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)

Then let 𝑥 = 1,2, 3 successively to find A, B, and C

𝑥 = 1 → (1)2 + 1 = 𝐴(1 − 2)(1 − 3) + 𝐵(0) + 𝐶(0) = 𝐴(−1) ∗ (−2)

2
2 = 2𝐴 → 𝐴 = = 1
2

𝑥 = 2 → (2)2 + 1 = 𝐴(0) + 𝐵(2 − 1)(2 − 3) + 𝐶(0) = 𝐵(1) ∗ (−1)

5 = −𝐵 → 𝐵 = −5

𝑥 = 3 → (3)2 + 1 = 𝐴(0) + 𝐵(0) + 𝐶(3 − 1)(3 − 2) = 𝐶(2)(1)

10
10 = 2𝐶 → 𝐶 = =5
2

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 1 −5 5
∫ (𝑥−1) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥−2) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥−3) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥−1) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥−2) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥−3) 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ (𝑥−1) − 5 ∫ (𝑥−2) + 5 ∫ (𝑥−3) = ln(𝑥 − 1) − 5 ln(𝑥 − 2) + 5 ln(𝑥 − 3) +

75
 HOMEWORK

Find the following integrals

2𝑦
1- ∫ 2 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 −25

2- ∫ sin4 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

3- ∫(𝑒 3𝑥 + 5𝑒 −𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
2
4- ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
5- ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +4𝑥+3

𝑑𝑥
7- ∫ 2 2
𝑥(𝑥 +1)

(2𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2)𝑑𝑥
8- ∫ (𝑥−1)2 (𝑥−2)

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