EST 322

(Theories of Learning Applied to Science

Education)
 COURSE OUTLINE
• Review of Teaching and Learning
• Teaching, Learning and Psychology
• Constructivism
• Vygotsky and Social Interaction
• Brain-Based Learning
• Piaget's Developmental Theory
• Learning Styles
• Multiple Intelligences
• Observational Learning
• David Ausubel Theory
• Robert Gagne Theory
• Brunner Theory
 Teaching, Learning and Psychology
• LEARNING
• Learning is a continuous and natural process to which the human
being is exposed every day of his/her life. This concept is defined by
the lasting acquisition of knowledge, behaviors, skills, or abilities
through practice, study, or experience.
• Teaching is the practice implemented by a teacher aimed at
transmitting skills (knowledge, know-how, and interpersonal skills)
to a learner, a student, or any other audience in the context of an
educational institution.
• Educational psychology focuses on how people learn, which includes
ordinary learners as well as gifted learners. It involves the learning
process, teaching procedures, results of students, differences in
individual learning procedures, individual learning disabilities and
gifted learners.
 Constructivism
• Constructivism is the theory that says learners construct
knowledge rather than just passively take in information.
• As people experience the world and reflect upon those
experiences, they build their own representations and
incorporate new information into their pre-existing
knowledge (schemas).
• Constructivism was an artistic and architectural theory that
originated in Russia at the beginning of 1913 by Vladimir
Tatlin.
• This was a rejection of the idea of autonomous art by
constructing it. The movement supported art as a practice
for social objectives.
 Constructivism
• Cognitive constructivism states knowledge is
something that is actively constructed by learners based
on their existing cognitive structures. Therefore, learning
is relative to their stage of cognitive development.
• Social constructivism: Every function in the child’s
cultural development appears twice: first, on the social
level and, later on, on the individual level; first, between
people (interpsychological) and then inside the child
(intrapsychological).
• Radical constructivism also argues that there is no
way to directly access an objective reality, and that
knowledge can only be understood through the
individual’s subjective interpretation of their experiences.
 Constructivism
Six key practices that define constructivist
learning environments include:
1. Personal constructions of reality
2. Simulated authentic learning environments
3. Multiple representations of data
4. Active learning
5. Collaboration
6. Knowledge is personal.
 Teacher’s Role in a Constructivist
Environment
• Encourage and accept student autonomy and initiative.
• Use manipulative, interactive, and physical materials.
• Using cognitive terminology such as "classify," "analyse,"
"predict," and "create" allow students’ responses to drive
lessons.
• Shift instructional strategies, and alter content.
• Inquire about students' understanding of concepts before
sharing their own understanding of those concepts.
• Encourage students to engage in dialogue, both with the
teacher and with one another.
• Encourage student inquiry by asking thoughtful,
open-ended questions and encouraging students to ask
• Seek elaboration of students' initial responses.
• Engage students in experiences that might
engender contradictions to their initial
hypotheses and then encourage discussion.
• Allow wait time after posing questions.
• Provide time for students to construct
relationships and create metaphor.
 Vygotsky’s Theory of Social
Interaction
• Lev Vygotsky was a seminal Russian psychologist best
known for his sociocultural theory. He believed that
social interaction plays a critical role in children's
learning—a continuous process that is profoundly
influenced by culture.
• Zone of Proximal Development Stages
• The ZPD can be broken down into three distinct stages
in terms of a learner's skillset. In order to improve the
ability of the learner the more knowledgeable person
must understand what stage they are in.

• Tasks a learner can accomplish without assistance

• This refers to tasks that the learner can perform
 Vygotsky’s Theory of Social
Interaction
• According to Vygotsky (1978), the two primary means of
learning occur through social interaction and language.
• Requires the teacher and students to play untraditional roles
as they collaborate with each other.
• Learning becomes a reciprocal experience for the students
and teacher.
• The instructional materials to be learned are to be structured
to promote and encourage interactions and collaboration.
• The collaborative learning method is based on Lev Vygotsky's
Zone of Proximal Development theory.
 Vygotsky’s Theory of Social
• Zone of Proximal Development Stages
• The ZPD can be broken down into three distinct stages in terms of a learner's
skillset. In order to improve the ability of the learner the more knowledgeable
person must understand what stage they are in.
Tasks a learner can accomplish without assistance
• This refers to tasks that the learner can perform independently. If the learner has
reached this stage, the teacher or mentor will need to increase the level of
difficulty of the task in order to facilitate further learning.

• Tasks a learner can accomplish with assistance

• This is referred to as their zone of proximal development. In this stage, the
learner needs the guidance of a more knowledgeable other to help them complete
the task.

• Tasks a learner cannot accomplish with assistance

• This refers to tasks that the learner cannot do, even with the guidance of a more
knowledgeable person. If the learner's ability falls within this range, the level of
difficulty may need to be decreased to accommodate their skillset.
 Brain – Based Learning
• This learning theory is based on the structure
and function of the brain.
The core principles of brain-based
learning state that:
• The brain is a parallel processor, meaning it can
perform several activities at once, like tasting
and smelling.
• Learning engages the whole physiology.
• The search for meaning is innate.
• The search for meaning comes through
patterning.
• Emotions are critical to patterning.
• The brain processes wholes and parts
simultaneously.
 The three instructional techniques associated with
brain-based learning are:

1. Orchestrated immersion
2. Relaxed alertness
3. Active processing
 Jean Piagets Theory of Intellectual
Development
• It states that learning ability correspond to
the level of intellectual (i.e. cognitive)
development.
• four overlapping stages of human intellectual
development as;
1. sensory –motor stage (0-2 years)
2. pre –operational stage (2-7 years)
3. concrete operational stage (7-11 years)
4. formal operational stage (11-15 years)
 • Learning at all stages of Piagets model of
intellectual development has two processes
which are:
1. Assimilation
2. Accommodation.
Application of Jean Piagets Theory
to Science Teaching
• New ideas and knowledge should be
presented at the level consistent with the
learner’s present state of development.
• Problem solving rather than rote
memorization should be the focus of science
• Science teaching should promote
exploration and interaction with environment
using locally available materials.
• Science concepts should be taught by
starting from simple to complex.
 Learning Styles
• This is based on research demonstrating that,
as a result of heredity, upbringing, and current
environmental demands, different individuals
have a tendency to both perceive and process
information differently.
 • The different ways of doing so are generally
classified as:
1. Concrete perceivers
2. Abstract perceivers
3. Active processors
4. Reflective processors
 Application of Learning Styles
Theory to Science Teaching
• Curriculum–Teachers must place emphasis on
intuition, feeling, sensing, and imagination, in
addition to the traditional skills of analysis,
reason, and sequential problem solving.
• Instruction–Teachers should design their
instruction methods to connect with all four
learning styles, using various combinations of
experience, reflection, conceptualization, and
experimentation. Instructors can introduce a
wide variety of experiential elements into the
 Theory of Multiple Intelligences
• Gardner (2007), proposed that each individual
has nine intelligences with capacities to
develop all to a reasonable level if given the
appropriate encouragement, enrichment and
instruction in a conducive environment.
 They are:
• Logical- mathematical intelligence
• Verbal-linguistic intelligence
• Visual- spatial intelligence
• Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence
• Musical-rhythmic intelligence
• Interpersonal intelligences
• Intrapersonal intelligence
• Naturalist intelligence
• Existential intelligence:
 David P Ausubels Theory of
Meaningful Learning
• States that meaningful learning occurs where
there is appropriate link between
prior(previous) knowledge and new learning
task .When there is no such interaction, no
learning occurs (rote learning).
• Two key concepts involve are:
1. Subsumers
2. Advance Organizers
Application of Ausubels Theory of
Learning to Science Teaching
• Science teaching must not begin until the
teacher is sure of previous knowledge and if
not, it should be provided.
• Contents in the curriculum must be arranged
in sequential order.
• Determination of the stability of what is
learned depends on the discriminability of the
new material from previous learning
• He supported expository method in teaching
science as this can lead to high level of
understanding and generality as against the
use of discovery method
 Jerome Brunner’s Theory of
Learning by Discovery
This begins when:
• Science teacher intentionally create problem
and present to students by introducing some
inconsistencies (i.e. contradictions) among
source of information which are given in the
process of instruction.
• Such inconsistencies leads to intellectual
discomfort that will stimulate (i.e. motivate)
the learner to initiate individual discoveries
through cognitive restructuring.
 • There are two forms of discovery processes,
which are:
1. Assimilation
2. Accomodation
 Application of Jerome Brunner’s
Theory of Learning to Science
Teaching
• Encouraging discovery in the science class will
result into aiding problem solving.
• Discovery learning encourages creativity.
• Students must be taught concepts in such a
way that they have applicability beyond the
situation in which they were learned.
• Retention of science concepts are aided by
knowledge acquired through discovery
learning.
• learning should proceeds from simple to
complex, from concrete to abstract, and from
specific to general.
• He supported the spiral nature of curriculum
Roberts Gagne Theory of Hierarchical Learning;

• He states that, the learning of a new concept

or skill depends upon the mastery of
prerequisite concepts.
• He emphasizes the importance of task analysis
of instructional objectives.
• In Gagnes hierarchy of learning, problem
solving is the highest level while lower levels
involves facts,concepts and generalization
• He advocated administration of pre tests to
find out whether the students possess the
relevant prerequisites for the next knowledge
 Application of Gagne’s Theory of
Learning to Science Teaching
• Contents in science subjects should be
arranged in hierarchical fashion.
• Science teachers need to state specifically the
objectives for learning any material.
• He developed a very useful five category
system, for examining the different types of
learning outcomes which could be applied for
science teaching. They are: Intellectual skills,
verbal information, attitudes, motor skills, and
cognitive strategies