ABSTRACT

The measurement of electric strength is not always easy especially when the measured signal
requires electronic conditioning. The sensor requirements are galvanic isolation and high
bandwidth. Conventional current measurement systems therefore tend to be physically large
and technically complex. Hence the conventional current sensors can be replaced by
Magneto resistive current sensors which are based on the magneto resistive effect. Magneto
resistive sensors are extremely compact and offer tight measurement tolerances and possess
high bandwidth at very low cost.

1
 Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

The measurement of electric current strength is not always easy, especially when the
measured signal requires further electronic conditioning. Simply connecting an ammeter to
an electrical circuit and reading out the value is no longer enough. The current signal must be
fed into a computer in which sensors convert current into a proportional voltage with minimal
influence on the measured circuit. The basic sensor requirements are galvanic isolation and a
high bandwidth, usually from DC up to at least 100 kHz. Conventional current measurement
systems therefore tend to be physically large and technically complex.

A current sensor is a device that detects electric current (AC or DC) in a wire, and generates
a signal proportional to it. The generated signal could be analog voltage or current or even
digital output. It can be then utilized to display the measured current in an ammeter or can be
stored for further analysis in a data acquisition system or can be utilized for control purpose.

The sensed current and the output signal can be:

 Alternating current input,

 analog output, which duplicates the wave shape of the sensed current
 bipolar output, which duplicates the wave shape of the sensed current
 unipolar output, which is proportional to the average or RMS value of the sensed
current
 Direct current input,
 unipolar, with a unipolar output, which duplicates the wave shape of the sensed current
 digital output, which switches when the sensed current exceeds a certain threshold

Now a days we are using current sensor which measure the alternating current and direct
current both. A Hall Effect based current sensor which is shown in figure below.

This current sensor is extremely important for our whole electrical system because it gives
accurate result for measuring the electric current.

2
 Fig 1.1 Hall Effect current sensor

Measuring a voltage in any system is a “passive” activity as it can be done easily at any point
in the system without affecting the system performance. However, current measurement is
“intrusive” as it demands insertion of some type of sensor which introduces a risk of affecting
system performance.
Current measurement is of vital importance in many power and instrumentation systems.
Traditionally, current sensing was primarily for circuit protection and control. However, with
the advancement in technology, current sensing has emerged as a method to monitor and
enhance performance.
Knowing the amount of current being delivered to the load can be useful for wide variety of
applications. Current sensing is used in wide range of electronic systems, viz., Battery life
indicators and chargers, 4-20 mA systems, over-current protection and supervising circuits,
current and voltage regulators, DC/DC converters, ground fault detectors, programmable
current sources, linear and switch-mode power supplies, communications devices , automotive
power electronics, motor speed controls and overload protection, etc.
1.1 Current sensing principles
A current sensor is a device that detects and converts current to an easily measured output
voltage, which is proportional to the current through the measured path.

When a current flows through a wire or in a circuit, voltage drop occurs. Also, a magnetic field
is generated surrounding the current carrying conductor. Both of these phenomena are made
use of in the design of current sensors. Thus, there are two types of current sensing: direct and
indirect. Direct sensing is based on Ohm’s law, while indirect sensing is based on Faraday’s
and Ampere’s law.

3
 Chapter 2

FEATURES AND WORKING

2.1 Easy fabrication

The ferromagnetic materials can be formed into thin films and can be structured into small
strips that are typically 40mm thick, 10mm wide and 100mm long. This makes the fabrication
of the sensor very easy

2.2 Temperature independence

To reduce temperature dependence, they are configured as half bridge or as full bridge.

2.3 Linearity

Measured quantity is directly proportional to the output. The current flowing through
Permalloy conductor generates a magnetic field that exactly compensates the magnetic field
generated in the conductor that is to be measured. Hence the device is linear.

2.4 No Magnetic shielding is required

Magneto resistive sensors are not affected by the external magnetic field. This is achieved by
the full bridge configuration of four magneto resistors. Barber poles have the same orientation
in the two arms, so no external field will affect the system.

2.5 Compact and cheap

Permalloy can be drawn into thin sheets or thin films or thin strands. Hence they are compact
and easy to fabricate and cheap.

4
2.6 Working

Magnetic field sensors based on the magneto resistive effect can be easily fabricated by means
of thin film technologies with widths and lengths in micrometer range. For best performance,
these sensors must have a very good linearity between the measured quantity and the output
signal. Even when improved by the barber poles, the linearity magneto resistive sensor is not
very high, so the compensation principle used on hall sensors is also applied here. An
electrically isolated aluminum compensation conductor is integrated in the same substrate
above the Perm alloy resistors. The current flowing through this conductor generates a
magnetic field exactly compensates that of the conductor to be unmeasured. In this way the
MR element always work at the same operating point; their nonlinearity therefore becomes
irrelevant. The temperature dependence is also almost completely eliminated. The current in
the compensation conductor is strictly proportional to the measured amplitude of the field;
the voltage drop across a resistor forms the electrical output signal.

Magneto resistive sensors, as are hall elements are very well suited or the measurement of
electric currents. In such applications it is important that external magnetic fields do not
distort the measurement. This achieved by forming a full bridge are specially separated. The
barber poles have the same orientation in the two arms, so that only a field difference between
the two positions is sensed. This configuration is insensitive to external homogenous
perturbation fields. The primary conductor is U shaped under the substrate, so that the
magnetic fields acting on the two arms of the bridge have the same amplitude but opposite
directions. This way the voltage signals of the two half-bridges are added.

The sensors require neither a core nor a magnetic shielding, and can therefore be assembled in
a very compact and cheap way. The output is calibrated by a laser trimming process or by a
digital calibration.

5
 Fig 2.1 construction of magneto resistive current sensor

Fig 2.2 Actual sensing element

The actual sensing element consists of magneto resistive Permalloy strips integrated onto a
silicon chip.

6
 Chapter 3

HALL EFFECT BASED CURRENT SENSOR

The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage) across an electrical
conductor, transverse to an electric current in the conductor and a magnetic field perpendicular
to the current. It was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.

The Hall coefficient is defined as the ratio of the induced electric field to the product of the
current density and the applied magnetic field. It is a characteristic of the material from which
the conductor is made, since its value depends on the type, number, and properties of the charge
carriers that constitute the current.

3.1 Discovery

The Hall effect was discovered in 1879 by Edwin Herbert Hall while he was working on his
doctoral degree at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland.[2] His measurements of
the tiny effect produced in the apparatus he used were an experimental tour de force,
accomplished 18 years before the electron was discovered and published under the name "On
a New Action of the Magnet on Electric Currents"

3.2 Theory

The Hall Effect is due to the nature of the current in a conductor. Current consists of the
movement of many small charge carriers, typically electrons, holes, ions (Electro migration)
or all three. When a magnetic field is present, these charges experience a force, called
the Lorentz force. When such a magnetic field is absent, the charges follow approximately
straight, 'line of sight' paths between collisions with impurities, phonons, etc. However, when
a magnetic field with a perpendicular component is applied, their paths between collisions are
curved so that moving charges accumulate on one face of the material. This leaves equal and
opposite charges exposed on the other face, where there is a scarcity of mobile charges. The
result is an asymmetric distribution of charge density across the Hall element, arising from a
force that is perpendicular to both the 'line of sight' path and the applied magnetic field. The
separation of charge establishes an electric field that opposes the migration of further charge,
so a steady electrical potential is established for as long as the charge is flowing.

7
In classical electromagnetism electrons move in the opposite direction of the
current (by convention "current" describes a theoretical "hole flow"). In some
semiconductors it appears "holes" are actually flowing because the direction of the voltage is
opposite to the derivation below.

Fig 3.1 principle of Hall Effect

Hall Effect measurement setup for electrons. Initially, the electrons follow the curved arrow,
due to the magnetic force. At some distance from the current-introducing contacts, electrons
pile up on the left side and deplete from the right side, which creates an electric field ξ y in the
direction of the assigned VH. VH is negative for some semi-conductors where it "holes" appear
to flow. In steady-state, ξy will be strong enough to exactly cancel out the magnetic force, so
that the electrons follow the straight arrow (dashed).

For a simple metal where there is only one type of charge carrier (electrons) the Hall
voltage VH can be derived by using the Lorentz and seeing that in the steady-state condition
charges are not moving in the y-axis direction because the magnetic force on each electron in
the y-axis direction is cancelled by an y-axis electrical force due to the build-up of charges.
The is the drift velocity of the current which is assumed at this point to be holes by
convention. The term is negative in the y-axis direction by the right hand rule.

Where is assigned in direction of y-axis, not with the arrow as in the

image.

In wires, electrons instead of holes are flowing, so and .

Also . Substituting these changes gives

8
The conventional "hole" current is in the negative direction of the electron current and the

negative of the electrical charge which gives where is charge

carrier density, is the cross-sectional area, and is the charge of each electron. Solving
for and plugging into the above gives the Hall voltage:

If the charge build up had been positive (as it appears in some semiconductors), then
the assigned in the image would have been negative (positive charge would have built up
on the left side).

The Hall coefficient is defined as

Where j is the current density of the carrier electrons, and is the induced electric field. In
SI units, this becomes

(The units of RH are usually expressed as m3/C, or Ω·cm/G, or other variants.) As a result, the
Hall Effect is very useful as a means to measure either the carrier density or the magnetic field.

One very important feature of the Hall Effect is that it differentiates between positive charges
moving in one direction and negative charges moving in the opposite. The Hall Effect offered
the first real proof that electric currents in metals are carried by moving electrons, not by
protons. The Hall effect also showed that in some substances (especially p-type
semiconductors), it is more appropriate to think of the current as positive "holes" moving rather
than negative electrons. A common source of confusion with the Hall Effect is that holes
moving to the left are really electrons moving to the right, so one expects the same sign of the
Hall coefficient for both electrons and holes. This confusion, however, can only be resolved by
modern quantum mechanical theory of transport in solids.

9
The sample inhomogeneity might result in spurious sign of the Hall Effect, even in ideal van
der Pauw configuration of electrodes. For example, positive Hall Effect was observed in
evidently n-type semiconductors.[7] Another source of artifact, in uniform materials, occurs
when the sample's aspect ratio is not long enough: the full Hall voltage only develops far away
from the current-introducing contacts, since at the contacts the transverse voltage is shorted out
to zero.

3.2.1 Hall Effect in semiconductors

When a current-carrying semiconductor is kept in a magnetic field, the charge carriers of the
semiconductor experience a force in a direction perpendicular to both the magnetic field and
the current. At equilibrium, a voltage appears at the semiconductor edges.

The simple formula for the Hall coefficient given above becomes more complex in
semiconductors where the carriers are generally both electrons and holes which may be present
in different concentrations and have different mobilities. For moderate magnetic fields the Hall
coefficient is[8]

or equivalently

With

Here is the electron concentration, the hole concentration, the electron

mobility, the hole mobility and the elementary charge. For large applied fields the
simpler expression analogous to that for a single carrier type holds.

3.2.2 Relationship with star formation

Although it is well known that magnetic fields play an important role in star formation, research
models indicate that Hall diffusion critically influences the dynamics of gravitational collapse
that forms protesters.

10
3.2.3 Quantum Hall Effect

For a two-dimensional electron system which can be produced in a MOSFET, in the presence
of large magnetic field strength and low temperature, one can observe the quantum Hall effect,
which is the quantization of the Hall voltage.

3.2.4 Spin Hall Effect

The spin Hall Effect consists in the spin accumulation on the lateral boundaries of a current-
carrying sample. No magnetic field is needed. It was predicted by M. I. Dyakonov in 1971 and
observed experimentally more than 30 years later, both in semiconductors and in metals, at
cryogenic as well as at room temperatures.

3.2.5 Quantum spin Hall Effect

For mercury telluride two dimensional quantum wells with strong spin-orbit coupling, in zero
magnetic field, at low temperature, the Quantum spin Hall Effect has been recently observed.

3.2.6 Anomalous Hall Effect

In ferromagnetic materials (and paramagnetic materials in a magnetic field), the Hall

resistivity includes an additional contribution, known as the anomalous Hall effect (or the
extraordinary Hall effect), which depends directly on the magnetization of the material, and
is often much larger than the ordinary Hall effect. (Note that this effect is not due to the
contribution of the magnetization to the total magnetic field.) For example, in nickel, the
anomalous Hall coefficient is about 100 times larger than the ordinary Hall coefficient near the
Curie temperature, but the two are similar at very low temperatures. Although a well-
recognized phenomenon, there is still debate about its origins in the various materials. The
anomalous Hall effect can be either an extrinsic (disorder-related) effect due to spin-
dependent scattering of the charge carriers, or an intrinsic effect which can be described in
terms of the Berry phase effect in the crystal momentum space (k-space).

3.2.7 Hall Effect in ionized gases

The Hall Effect in an ionized gas (plasma) is significantly different from the Hall Effect in
solids (where the Hall parameter is always very inferior to unity). In a plasma, the Hall
parameter can take any value. The Hall parameter, β, in a plasma is the ratio between the
electron gyro frequency, Ωe, and the electron-heavy particle collision frequency, ν:

11
Where

e is the elementary charge (approx. 1.6 × 10−19 C)

B is the magnetic field (in teslas)

me is the electron mass (approx. 9.1 × 10−31 kg).

The Hall parameter value increases with the magnetic field strength.

Physically, the trajectories of electrons are curved by the Lorentz force. Nevertheless, when
the Hall parameter is low, their motion between two encounters with heavy particles
(neutral or ion) is almost linear. But if the Hall parameter is high, the electron movements are
highly curved. The current density vector, J, is no longer collinear with the electric
field vector, E. The two vectors J and E make the Hall angle, θ, which also gives the Hall
parameter:

3.3 Applications

Hall probes are often used as magnetometers, i.e. to measure magnetic fields, or inspect
materials (such as tubing or pipelines) using the principles of magnetic flux leakage.

Hall Effect devices produce a very low signal level and thus require amplification. While
suitable for laboratory instruments, the vacuum tube amplifiers available in the first half of the
20th century were too expensive, power consuming, and unreliable for everyday applications.
It was only with the development of the low cost integrated circuit that the Hall Effect sensor
became suitable for mass application. Many devices now sold as Hall Effect sensors in fact
contain both the sensor as described above plus a high gain integrated circuit (IC) amplifier in
a single package. Recent advances have further added into one package an analog-to-digital
converter and I²C (Inter-integrated circuit communication protocol) IC for direct connection to
a microcontroller's I/O port.

12
3.3.1 Advantages over other methods

Hall Effect devices (when appropriately packaged) are immune to dust, dirt, mud, and water.
These characteristics make Hall Effect devices better for position sensing than alternative
means such as optical and electromechanical sensing.

Hall Effect current sensor with internal integrated circuit amplifier. 8 mm opening. Zero current
output voltage is midway between the supply voltages that maintain a 4 to 8 Volt differential.
Non-zero current response is proportional to the voltage supplied and is linear to 60 amperes
for this particular (25 A) device.

When electrons flow through a conductor, a magnetic field is produced. Thus, it is possible to
create a non-contacting current sensor. The device has three terminals. A sensor voltage is
applied across two terminals and the third provides a voltage proportional to the current being
sensed. This has several advantages; no additional resistance (a shunt, required for the most
common current sensing method) need be inserted in the primary circuit. Also, the voltage
present on the line to be sensed is not transmitted to the sensor, which enhances the safety of
measuring equipment.

3.3.2 Disadvantages compared with other methods

Magnetic flux from the surroundings (such as other wires) may diminish or enhance the field
the Hall probe intends to detect, rendering the results inaccurate. Also, as Hall voltage is often
on the order of millivolts, the output from this type of sensor cannot be used to directly drive
actuators but instead must be amplified by a transistor-based circuit.

Ways to measure component positions within an electromagnetic system, such as a brushless

direct current motor, include I) the Hall Effect, II) light detection with a light-dark position
encoder such as a gray's disk and III) induced voltage by moving the amount of metal core
inserted into a transformer. When Hall is compared to photo-sensitive methods, it is harder to
get absolute position with Hall. Hall detection is also sensitive to stray magnetic fields.

3.3.3 Contemporary applications

Hall effect sensors are readily available from a number of different manufacturers, and may be
used in various sensors such as rotating speed sensors (bicycle wheels, gear-teeth, automotive

13
speedometers, electronic ignition systems), fluid flow sensors, current sensors, and pressure
sensors. Common applications are often found where a robust and contactless switch or
potentiometer is required. These include: electric airsoft guns, triggers of electro
pneumatic paintball guns, go-cart speed controls, smart phones, and some global positioning
systems.

3.3.3.1 Ferrite toroid Hall effect current transducer

Fig 3.2 Hall Effect current transducer integrated into ferrite ring.

Hall sensors can detect stray magnetic fields easily, including that of Earth, so they work well
as electronic compasses: but this also means that such stray fields can hinder accurate
measurements of small magnetic fields. To solve this problem, Hall sensors are often integrated
with magnetic shielding of some kind. For example, a Hall sensor integrated into a ferrite ring
(as shown) can reduce the detection of stray fields by a factor of 100 or better (as the external
magnetic fields cancel across the ring, giving no residual magnetic). This configuration also
provides an improvement in signal-to-noise ratio and drift effects of over 20 times that of a
bare Hall device. The range of a given feedthrough sensor may be extended upward and
downward by appropriate wiring. To extend the range to lower currents, multiple turns of the
current-carrying wire may be made through the opening, each turn adding to the sensor output
the same quantity; when the sensor is installed onto a printed circuit board, the turns can be
carried out by a staple on the board. To extend the range to higher currents, a current divider

14
may be used. The divider splits the current across two wires of differing widths and the thinner
wire, carrying a smaller proportion of the total current, passes through the sensor.

Fig 3.3 Multiple 'turns' and corresponding transfer function.

3.3.3.2 Split ring clamp-on sensor

A variation on the ring sensor uses a split sensor which is clamped onto the line enabling the
device to be used in temporary test equipment. If used in a permanent installation, a split sensor
allows the electric current to be tested without dismantling the existing circuit.

3.3.3.3 Analog multiplication

The output is proportional to both the applied magnetic field and the applied sensor voltage. If
the magnetic field is applied by a solenoid, the sensor output is proportional to the product of
the current through the solenoid and the sensor voltage. As most applications requiring
computation are now performed by small digital computers, the remaining useful application
is in power sensing, which combines current sensing with voltage sensing in a single Hall
Effect device.

3.3.3.4 Power measurement

By sensing the current provided to a load and using the device's applied voltage as a sensor
voltage it is possible to determine the power dissipated by a device.

15
3.3.3.5 Position and motion sensing

Hall Effect devices used in motion sensing and motion limit switches can offer enhanced
reliability in extreme environments. As there are no moving parts involved within the sensor
or magnet, typical life expectancy is improved compared to traditional electromechanical
switches. Additionally, the sensor and magnet may be encapsulated in an appropriate protective
material. This application is used in brushless DC motors.

3.3.3.6 Automotive ignition and fuel injection.

Commonly used in distributors for ignition timing (and in some types of crank and camshaft
position sensors for injection pulse timing, speed sensing, etc.) the Hall effect sensor is used as
a direct replacement for the mechanical breaker points used in earlier automotive applications.
Its use as an ignition timing device in various distributor types is as follows. A stationary
permanent magnet and semiconductor Hall effect chip are mounted next to each other separated
by an air gap, forming the Hall effect sensor. A metal rotor consisting of windows and tabs is
mounted to a shaft and arranged so that during shaft rotation, the windows and tabs pass
through the air gap between the permanent magnet and semiconductor Hall chip. This
effectively shields and exposes the Hall chip to the permanent magnet's field respective to
whether a tab or window is passing though the Hall sensor. For ignition timing purposes, the
metal rotor will have a number of equal-sized tabs and windows matching the number of engine
cylinders. This produces a uniform square wave output since the on/off (shielding and
exposure) time is equal. This signal is used by the engine computer or ECU to control ignition
timing. Many automotive Hall Effect sensors have a built-in internal NPN transistor with
an open collector and grounded emitter, meaning that rather than a voltage being produced at
the Hall sensor signal output wire, the transistor is turned on providing a circuit to ground
through the signal output wire.

3.3.3.7 Wheel rotation sensing

The sensing of wheel rotation is especially useful in anti-lock braking systems. The principles
of such systems have been extended and refined to offer more than anti-skid functions, now
providing extended vehicle handling enhancements.

16
3.3.3.8 Electric motor control

Some types of brushless DC electric motors use Hall Effect sensors to detect the position of
the rotor and feed that information to the motor controller. This allows for more precise motor
control

3.3.3.9 Industrial applications

Applications for Hall Effect sensing have also expanded to industrial applications, which now
use Hall Effect joysticks to control hydraulic valves, replacing the traditional mechanical
levers with contactless sensing. Such applications include mining trucks, backhoe loaders,
cranes, diggers, scissor lifts, etc.

3.3.3.10 Spacecraft propulsion

A Hall Effect thruster (HET) is a relatively low power device that is used to propel
some spacecraft, after it gets into orbit or farther out into space. In the HET, atoms are ionized
and accelerated by an electric field. A radial magnetic field established by magnets on the
thruster is used to trap electrons which then orbit and create an electric field due to the Hall
Effect. A large potential is established between the end of the thruster where neutral propellant
is fed, and the part where electrons are produced; so, electrons trapped in the magnetic field
cannot drop to the lower potential. They are thus extremely energetic, which means that they
can ionize neutral atoms. Neutral propellant is pumped into the chamber and is ionized by the
trapped electrons. Positive ions and electrons are then ejected from the thruster as a
quasineutral plasma, creating thrust.

3.4 The Corbino effect

Fig 3.4 Corbino disc

17
The Corbino effect is a phenomenon involving the Hall Effect, but a disc-shaped metal sample
is used in place of a rectangular one. Because of its shape the Corbino disc allows the
observation of Hall effect–based magnetoresistance without the associated Hall voltage. A
radial current through a circular disc, subjected to a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane
of the disc, produces a "circular" current through the disc.[14]

The absence of the free transverse boundaries renders the interpretation of the Corbino effect
simpler than that of the Hall Effect.

18
 Chapter 4

GIANT MAGNETORESISTANCE

Giant magnetoresistance (GMR) is a quantum mechanical magnetoresistance effect observed

in thin-film structures composed of alternating ferromagnetic and non-magnetic conductive
layers. The 2007 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Albert Fert and Peter Grünberg for the
discovery of GMR.

The effect is observed as a significant change in the electrical resistance depending on whether
the magnetization of adjacent ferromagnetic layers are in parallel or an antiparallel alignment.
The overall resistance is relatively low for parallel alignment and relatively high for antiparallel
alignment. The magnetization direction can be controlled, for example, by applying an external
magnetic field. The effect is based on the dependence of electron scattering on the spin
orientation.

The main application of GMR is magnetic field sensors, which are used to read data in hard
disk drives, biosensors, microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and other devices. GMR
multilayer structures are also used in magneto resistive random-access memory (MRAM) as
cells that store one bit of information.

In literature, the term giant magnetoresistance is sometimes confused with colossal

magnetoresistance of ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic semiconductors, which is not
related to the multilayer structure.

4.1 Formulation

Magnetoresistance is the dependence of the electrical resistance of a sample on the strength of

an external magnetic field. Numerically, it is characterized by the value

Where R(H) is the resistance of the sample in a magnetic field H, and R(0) corresponds to H =
0.[3] Alternative forms of this expression may use electrical resistivity instead of resistance, a
different sign for δH,[4] and are sometimes normalized by R(0) rather than R(H).

19
The term "giant magnetoresistance" indicates that the value δH for multilayer structures
significantly exceeds the anisotropic magnetoresistance, which has a typical value within a few
percent.

4.2 History

GMR was discovered in 1988 independently by the groups of Albert Fert of the University of
Paris-Sud, France, and Peter Grünberg of Forschungszentrum Jülich, Germany. The practical
significance of this experimental discovery was recognized by the Nobel Prize in Physics
awarded to Fert and Grünberg in 2007.

4.3 Experiment and its interpretation

Fert and Grünberg studied electrical resistance of structures incorporating ferromagnetic and
non-ferromagnetic materials. In particular, Fert worked on multilayer films, and Grünberg in
1986 discovered the antiferromagnetic exchange interaction in Fe/Cr films.[13]

The GMR discovery work was carried out by the two groups on slightly different samples. The
Fert group used (001)Fe/(001) Cr super lattices wherein the Fe and Cr layers were deposited in
a high vacuum on a (001) GaAs substrate kept at 20 °C and the magnetoresistance
measurements were taken at low temperature (typically 4.2 K).[9] The Grünberg work was
performed on multilayers of Fe and Cr on (110) GaAs at room temperature.

In Fe/Cr multilayers with 3-nm-thick iron layers, increasing the thickness of the non-magnetic
Cr layers from 0.9 to 3 nm weakened the antiferromagnetic coupling between the Fe layers and
reduced the demagnetization field. The latter also decreased when the sample was heated from
4.2 K to room temperature. Changing the thickness of the non-magnetic layers led to a
significant reduction of the residual magnetization in the hysteresis loop. Electrical resistance
changed by up to 50% with the external magnetic field at 4.2 K. Fert named the new effect
giant magnetoresistance, to highlight its difference with the anisotropic magnetoresistance. The
Grünberg experiment made the same discovery but the effect was less pronounced (3%
compare to 50%) due to the samples being at room temperature not low temperature.

The discoverers suggested that the effect is based on spin-dependent scattering of electrons in
the super lattice, particularly on the dependence of resistance of the layers on the relative
orientations of magnetization and electron spins. The theory of GMR for different directions

20
of the current was developed in the next few years. In 1989, Camley and Barnaś calculated the
"current in plane" (CIP) geometry, where the current flows along the layers, in the classical
approximation, whereas Levy et al. used the quantum formalism. The theory of the GMR for
the current perpendicular to the layers (current perpendicular to the plane or CPP geometry),
known as the Valet-Fert theory, was reported in 1993.Applications favor the CPP
geometry because it provides a greater magnetoresistance ratio (δH), thus resulting in a greater
device sensitivity.

4.4 Theory

Fundamentals

4.4.1 Spin-dependent scattering

Fig 4.1 Electronic density of states (DOS) in magnetic and non-magnetic metals.
1: the structure of two ferromagnetic and one non-magnetic layers (arrows indicate the
direction of magnetization).
2: splitting of DOS for electrons with different spin directions for each layer (arrows indicate
the spin direction). F:Fermi level. The magnetic moment is antiparallel to the direction of total
spin at the Fermi level.

In magnetically ordered materials, the electrical resistance is crucially affected by scattering of

electrons on the magnetic sublattice of the crystal, which is formed by crystallographically
equivalent atoms with nonzero magnetic moments. Scattering depends on the relative
orientations of the electron spins and those magnetic moments: it is weakest when they are
parallel and strongest when they are antiparallel; it is relatively strong in the paramagnetic state,
in which the magnetic moments of the atoms have random orientations.

21
For good conductors such as gold or copper, the Fermi level lies within the sp band, and
the d band is completely filled. In ferromagnets, the dependence of electron-atom scattering on
the orientation of their magnetic moments is related to the filling of the band responsible for
the magnetic properties of the metal, e.g., 3d band for iron, nickel or cobalt. The d band of
ferromagnets is split, as it contains a different number of electrons with spins directed up and
down. Therefore, the density of electronic states at the Fermi level is also different for spins
pointing in opposite directions. The Fermi level for majority-spin electrons is located within
the sp band, and their transport is similar in ferromagnets and non-magnetic metals. For
minority-spin electrons the sp and d bands are hybridized, and the Fermi level lies within
the d band. The hybridized spd band has a high density of states, which results in stronger
scattering and thus shorter mean free path λ for minority-spin than majority-spin electrons. In
cobalt-doped nickel, the ratio λ↑/λ↓ can reach 20.

According to the Drude theory, the conductivity is proportional to λ, which ranges from several
to several tens of nanometers in thin metal films. Electrons "remember" the direction of spin
within the so-called spin relaxation length (or spin diffusion length), which can significantly
exceed the mean free path. Spin-dependent transport refers to the dependence of electrical
conductivity on the spin direction of the charge carriers. In ferromagnets, it occurs due to
electron transitions between the unsplit 4s and split 3d bands.

In some materials, the interaction between electrons and atoms is the weakest when their
magnetic moments are antiparallel rather than parallel. A combination of both types of
materials can result in a so-called inverse GMR effect.

Band structure (left) and density of states (right)

Fig 4.2 cobalt (minority spins)

22
4.4.2 CIP and CPP geometries

Fig 4.3 CIP and CPP geometries

Spin valves in the reading head of a sensor in the CIP (left) and CPP (right) geometries. Red:
leads providing current to the sensor, green and yellow: ferromagnetic and non-magnetic
layers. V: potential difference.

Electric current can be passed through magnetic super lattices in two ways. In the current in
plane (CIP) geometry, the current flows along the layers, and the electrodes are located on one
side of the structure. In the current perpendicular to plane (CPP) configuration, the current is
passed perpendicular to the layers, and the electrodes are located on different sides of the super
lattice. The CPP geometry results in more than twice higher GMR, but is more difficult to
realize in practice than the CIP configuration.

4.4.3 Carrier transport through a magnetic super lattice

Fig 4.4 Magnetic super lattice

Spin valve based on the GMR effect. FM: ferromagnetic layer (arrows indicate the direction of
magnetization), NM: non-magnetic layer. Electrons with spins up and down scatter differently
in the valve.

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Magnetic ordering differs in super lattices with ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic
interaction between the layers. In the former case, the magnetization directions are the same in
different ferromagnetic layers in the absence of applied magnetic field, whereas in the latter
case, opposite directions alternate in the multilayer. Electrons traveling through the
ferromagnetic super lattice interact with it much weaker when their spin directions are opposite
to the magnetization of the lattice than when they are parallel to it. Such anisotropy is not
observed for the antiferromagnetic super lattice; as a result, it scatters electrons stronger than
the ferromagnetic super lattice and exhibits a higher electrical resistance.

Applications of the GMR effect require dynamic switching between the parallel and
antiparallel magnetization of the layers in a super lattice. In first approximation, the energy
density of the interaction between two ferromagnetic layers separated by a non-magnetic layer
is proportional to the scalar product of their magnetizations:

The coefficient J is an oscillatory function of the thickness of the non-magnetic layer ds;
therefore J can change its magnitude and sign. If the ds value corresponds to the antiparallel
state then an external field can switch the super lattice from the antiparallel state (high
resistance) to the parallel state (low resistance). The total resistance of the structure can be
written as

Where R0 is the resistance of ferromagnetic super lattice, ΔR is the GMR increment and θ is
the angle between the magnetizations of adjacent layers.

4.4.5 Mathematical description

The GMR phenomenon can be described using two spin-related conductivity channels
corresponding to the conduction of electrons, for which the resistance is minimum or
maximum. The relation between them is often defined in terms of the coefficient of the spin
anisotropy β. This coefficient can be defined using the minimum and maximum of the specific
electrical resistivity ρF± for the spin-polarized current in the form

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Where ρF is the average resistivity of the ferromagnet.

4.4.6 Resistor model for CIP and CPP structures

If scattering of charge carriers at the interface between the ferromagnetic and non-magnetic
metal is small, and the direction of the electron spins persists long enough, it is convenient to
consider a model in which the total resistance of the sample is a combination of the resistances
of the magnetic and non-magnetic layers.

In this model, there are two conduction channels for electrons with various spin directions
relative to the magnetization of the layers. Therefore, the equivalent circuit of the GMR
structure consists of two parallel connections corresponding to each of the channels. In this
case, the GMR can be expressed as

Here the subscript of R denote collinear and oppositely oriented magnetization in layers, χ =
b/a is the thickness ratio of the magnetic and non-magnetic layers, and ρN is the resistivity of
non-magnetic metal. This expression is applicable for both CIP and CPP structures. Under the
condition this relationship can be simplified using the coefficient of the spin
asymmetry

Such a device, with resistance depending on the orientation of electron spin, is called a spin
valve. It is "open", if the magnetizations of its layers are parallel, and "closed" otherwise.

4.4.7 Valet-Fert model

In 1993, Thierry Valet and Albert Fert presented a model for the giant magnetoresistance in
the CPP geometry, based on the Boltzmann equations. In this model the chemical potential
inside the magnetic layer is split into two functions, corresponding to electrons with spins
parallel and antiparallel to the magnetization of the layer. If the non-magnetic layer is
sufficiently thin then in the external field E0 the amendments to the electrochemical potential
and the field inside the sample will take the form

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Where ℓs is the average length of spin relaxation, and the z coordinate is measured from the
boundary between the magnetic and non-magnetic layers (z < 0 corresponds to the
ferromagnetic).Thus electrons with a larger chemical potential will accumulate at the boundary
of the ferromagnet. This can be represented by the potential of spin accumulation VAS or by
the so-called interface resistance (inherent to the boundary between a ferromagnet and non-
magnetic material)

Where j is current density in the sample, ℓsN and ℓsF are the length of the spin relaxation in a
non-magnetic and magnetic materials, respectively.

4.5 Device preparation

4,5,1 Materials and experimental data

Many combinations of materials exhibit GMR, and the most common are the following:

FeCr

Co10Cu90: δH = 40% at room temperature

[110]Co95Fe5/Cu: δH = 110% at room temperature.

The magnetoresistance depends on many parameters such as the geometry of the device (CIP
or CPP), its temperature, and the thicknesses of ferromagnetic and non-magnetic layers. At a
temperature of 4.2 K and a thickness of cobalt layers of 1.5 nm, increasing the thickness of
copper layers dCu from 1 to 10 nm decreased δH from 80 to 10% in the CIP geometry.
Meanwhile, in the CPP geometry the maximum of δH (125%) was observed for dCu = 2.5 nm,
and increasing dCu to 10 nm reduced δH to 60% in an oscillating manner.

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When a Co(1.2 nm)/Cu(1.1 nm) super lattice was heated from near zero to 300 K, its
δH decreased from 40 to 20% in the CIP geometry, and from 100 to 55% in the CPP geometry.

The non-magnetic layers can be non-metallic. For example, δH up to 40% was demonstrated
for organic layers at 11 K.[34] Graphene spin valves of various designs exhibited δHof about
12% at 7 K and 10% at 300 K, far below the theoretical limit of 109%.

The GMR effect can be enhanced by spin filters that select electrons with a certain spin
orientation; they are made of metals such as cobalt. For a filter of thickness t the change in
conductivity ΔG can be expressed as

Where ΔGSV is change in the conductivity of the spin valve without the filter, ΔGf is the
maximum increase in conductivity with the filter, and β is a parameter of the filter material.

4.5.2 Types of GMR

GMR is often classed by the type of devices which exhibit the effect.

Films

Antiferromagnetic superlattices

GMR in films was first observed by Fert and Grünberg in a study of superlattices composed of
ferromagnetic and non-magnetic layers. The thickness of the non-magnetic layers was chosen
such that the interaction between the layers was antiferromagnetic and the magnetization in
adjacent magnetic layers was antiparallel. Then an external magnetic field could make the
magnetization vectors parallel thereby affecting the electrical resistance of the structure.

Magnetic layers in such structures interact through antiferromagnetic coupling, which results
in the oscillating dependence of the GMR on the thickness of the non-magnetic layer. In the
first magnetic field sensors using antiferromagnetic superlattices, the saturation field was very
large, up to tens of thousands of oersteds, due to the strong antiferromagnetic interaction
between their layers (made of chromium, iron or cobalt) and the strong anisotropy fields in
them. Therefore, the sensitivity of the devices was very low. The use of permalloy for the
magnetic and silver for the non-magnetic layers lowered the saturation field to tens of oersteds.

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Spin valves using exchange bias

In the most successful spin valves the GMR effect originates from exchange bias. They
comprise a sensitive layer, "fixed" layer and an antiferromagnetic layer. The last layer freezes
the magnetization direction in the "fixed" layer. The sensitive and antiferromagnetic layers are
made thin to reduce the resistance of the structure. The valve reacts to the external magnetic
field by changing the magnetization direction in the sensitive layer relatively to the "fixed"
layer.

The main difference of these spin valves from other multilayer GMR devices is the monotonic
dependence of the amplitude of the effect on the thickness dN of the non-magnetic layers:

Where δH0 is a normalization constant, λN is the mean free path of electrons in the non-magnetic
material, d0 is effective thickness that includes interaction between layers. The dependence on
the thickness of the ferromagnetic layer can be given as:

The parameters have the same meaning as in the previous equation, but they now refer to the
ferromagnetic layer.

Non-interacting multilayers (pseudospin valves)

GMR can also be observed in the absence of antiferromagnetic coupling layers. In this case,
the magnetoresistance results from the differences in the coercive forces (for example, it is
smaller for permalloy than cobalt). In multilayers such as permalloy/Cu/Co/Cu the external
magnetic field switches the direction of saturation magnetization to parallel in strong fields and
to antiparallel in weak fields. Such systems exhibit a lower saturation field and a larger δH than
superlattices with antiferromagnetic coupling. A similar effect is observed in Co/Cu structures.
The existence of these structures means that GMR does not require interlayer coupling, and
can originate from a distribution of the magnetic moments that can be controlled by an external
field.

Inverse GMR effect

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In the inverse GMR, the resistance is minimum for the antiparallel orientation of the
magnetization in the layers. Inverse GMR is observed when the magnetic layers are composed
of different materials, such as NiCr/Cu/Co/Cu. The resistivity for electrons with opposite spins

can be written as ; it has different values, i.e. different coefficients β, for spin-
up and spin-down electrons. If the NiCr layer is not too thin, its contribution may exceed that
of the Co layer, resulting in inverse GMR.[23] Note that the GMR inversion depends on the sign
of the product of the coefficients β in adjacent ferromagnetic layers, but not on the signs of
individual coefficients.

Inverse GMR is also observed if NiCr alloy is replaced by vanadium-doped nickel, but not for
doping of nickel with iron, cobalt, manganese, gold or copper.

GMR in granular structures

GMR in granular alloys of ferromagnetic and non-magnetic metals was discovered in 1992 and
subsequently explained by the spin-dependent scattering of charge carriers at the surface and
in the bulk of the grains. The grains form ferromagnetic clusters about 10 nm in diameter
embedded in a non-magnetic metal, forming a kind of superlattice. A necessary condition for
the GMR in such structures is poor mutual solubility its components (e.g., cobalt and copper).
Their properties strongly depend on the measurement and annealing temperature. They can
also exhibit inverse GMR.

4.6 Applications

4.6.1 Spin-valve sensors

General principle

Fig 4.5 A copy of the GMR sensor developed by Peter Grünberg

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One of the main applications of GMR materials is in magnetic field sensors, e.g., in hard disk
drives and biosensors, as well as detectors of oscillations in MEMS. A typical GMR-based
sensor consists of seven layers:

Silicon substrate,

Binder layer,

Sensing (non-fixed) layer,

Non-magnetic layer,

Fixing (pinning) layer,

Antiferromagnetic (fixed) layer,

Protective layer.

The binder and protective layers are often made of tantalum, and a typical non-magnetic
material is copper. In the sensing layer, magnetization can be reoriented by the external
magnetic field; it is typically made of NiFe or cobalt alloys. FeMn or NiMn can be used for the
antiferromagnetic layer. The direction of its magnetization is defined by the pinning layer,
which is made of a magnetic material such as cobalt. Such a sensor has an asymmetric
hysteresis loop owing to the presence of a magnetically hard, pinning layer.

Spin valves may exhibit anisotropic magnetoresistance, which leads to an asymmetry in the
sensitivity curve.

Hard disk drives

In hard disk drives (HDDs), information is encoded using magnetic domains, and the direction
of their magnetization is associated with the logical levels 0 and 1. There are two recording
methods: longitudinal and perpendicular.

In the longitudinal method, the magnetization is normal to the surface. A transition region
(domain walls) is formed between domains, in which the magnetic field exits the material. If
the domain wall is located at the interface of two north-pole domains then the field is directed
outward, and for two south-pole domains it is directed inward. To read the direction of the

30
magnetic field above the domain wall, the magnetization direction is fixed normal to the surface
in the antiferromagnetic layer and parallel to the surface in the sensing layer. Changing the
direction of the external magnetic field deflects the magnetization in the sensing layer. When
the field tends to align the magnetizations in the sensing and fixed layers, the electrical
resistance of the sensor decreases, and vice versa.

4.6.2 Magnetic RAM

The use of a spin valve in MRAM. 1: spin valve as a memory cell (arrows indicate the presence
of ferromagnetic layers), 2: row line, 3: column line. Ellipses with arrows denote the magnetic
field lines around the row and column lines when electric current flows through them.

Fig 4.6 Magnetic RAM

A cell of magneto resistive random-access memory (MRAM) has a structure similar to the
spin-valve sensor. The value of the stored bits can be encoded via the magnetization direction
in the sensor layer; it is read by measuring the resistance of the structure. The advantages of
this technology are independence of power supply (the information is preserved when the
power is switched off owing to the potential barrier for reorienting the magnetization), low
power consumption and high speed.

In a typical GMR-based storage unit, a CIP structure is located between two wires oriented
perpendicular to each other. These conductors are called lines of rows and columns. Pulses of
electric current passing through the lines generate a vortex magnetic field, which affects the
GMR structure. The field lines have ellipsoid shapes, and the field direction (clockwise or

31
counter clockwise) is determined by the direction of the current in the line. In the GMR
structure, the magnetization is oriented along the line.

The direction of the field produced by the line of the column is almost parallel to the magnetic
moments, and it cannot reorient them. Line of the row is perpendicular, and regardless of the
magnitude of the field can rotate the magnetization by only 90 °. With the simultaneous passage
of pulses along the row and column lines, of the total magnetic field at the location of the GMR
structure will be directed at an acute angle with respect to one point and an obtuse to others. If
the value of the field exceeds some critical value, the latter changes its direction.

There are several storage and reading methods for the described cell. In one method, the
information is stored in the sensing layer; it is read via resistance measurement and is erased
upon reading. In another scheme, the information is kept in the fixed layer, which requires
higher recording currents compared to reading currents.

Tunnel magnetoresistance (TMR) is an extension of spin-valve GMR, in which the electrons

travel with their spins oriented perpendicularly to the layers across a thin insulating tunnel
barrier (replacing the non-ferromagnetic spacer). This allows to achieve a larger impedance, a
larger magnetoresistance value (~10x at room temperature) and a negligible temperature
dependence. TMR has now replaced GMR in MRAMs and disk drives, in particular for high
area densities and perpendicular recording.

4.6.3 Other applications

Magneto resistive insulators for contactless signal transmission between two electrically
isolated parts of electrical circuits were first demonstrated in 1997 as an alternative toopto-
isolators. A Wheatstone bridge of four identical GMR devices is insensitive to a uniform
magnetic field and reacts only when the field directions are antiparallel in the neighbouring
arms of the bridge. Such devices were reported in 2003 and may be used as rectifiers with a
linear frequency response.

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 Chapter 5
APPLICATIONS OF UNIVERSAL CURRENT SENSOR
Universal current sensor is extremely important part of our whole electrical system because
with the help of this device we can measure or maintain the electric current.
Some applications are given below
 Invertors
 Servo Regulators
 Solar Technology
 Electrical Devices
 UPS
 Safety Devices
 Robotics
 Wheel speed sensor-rpm
 Crankshaft/Camshaft position sensors
 Hall effect switches
 MEMS compasses
 Proximity sensors
 In practical applications, the current is usually kept constant so that the output
voltage is proportional to the field.
 The sensor may be used to measure field (provided proper compensation can be
incorporated)
 It may be used as a detector or to operate a switch.
 The latter is very common in sensing of rotation which in itself may be used to
measure a variety of effect (shaft position, frequency of rotation (rpm), position,
differential position, etc.).
 For sense the rpm of a shaft
 Many variations of this basic configuration: for example, measurement of angular
displacement.
 Sensing of gears (electronic ignition)
 Multiple sensors can sense direction as well

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5.1 CURRENT SENSORS IN TOMORROW’S CARS

Fuel efficiency first- this is the present motto of automotive development worldwide. Not
only in combustion engine, but all other automobil4e components as well are being optimized
to achieve this goal. Many components that are at present powered by the car’s engine will in
the near future operate on electricity— air conditioning compressors, water pumps, oil pumps
etc. due to continuously changing engine speed, these components have rather poor efficiency
ratings. Electric motors have the capability of optimizing their operation, independent of
engine speed

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 CONCLUSION

The measurement of electric current is not always easy especially when the measured signal
requires further electronic conditioning. The basic sensor requirements are galvanic isolation
and high bandwidth. Also the conventional current sensors are physically large and
technically complex. Hence conventional current sensors are replaced by a new generation
current sensors which is based on the magneto resistive effect. This type of current sensors
is extremely compact and offers tight measurement tolerances and a high bandwidth at a
very low price. These types of sensors can be used in tomorrow’s cars.

35
 REFERENCES

Interfacing optical current sensors in a substation, by J D T HRADLUIK,July 2001 Summer

power meeting
Magnetic sensor,by DAFINA TANASE, DELFT University of technology . Page No 868 –
871.
Hall Sensors ,Japanese Journal of Applied Physics,Volume 43,2004,Page No: 777 –778.
Optically powered current transformer for metering protection, www.photonics.com
www.sensitec.com

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