Case Study 1: Japanese Expansion in East Asia (1931-1941)

Causes for Japanese Expansion in the 1930s:

● Rise of Japan nationalism and militarism
○ Since the early 1900s, ultra-nationalism began to emerge in Japan, with the belief that
Japan was racial superior over other countries - regional hegemony
○ By the 1930s, Japan was becoming more militaristic as the military was gaining more
influence in the government. This leads to a more aggressive foreign policy and desire to
expand in China
■ Leading to the Invasion of Manchuria and the Second Sino-Japanese War of
1937.

● Japanese Domestic Issues: Economic Impact due to Great Depression

○ The Wall Street Crash (October 1929) impacted Japan significantly, with large-scale
poverty and unemployment rate of three million
○ In 1930, US President Herbert Hoover signed the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act which brought
the highest protective tariffs in US peacetime, with Japanese goods rising by 200%.
○ By 1932, the price of silk had dropped to one-fifth of the price in 1923.

● Political Instability in China

○ The 1920s saw China in an internal conflict between the CCP and GMD, after the GMD
initiated the Shanghai Massacre in 1927.
○ Japan saw the advantages of exploiting a divided China with an Expansionist Foreign
Policy. This was also aligned with the fact that Japan had always viewed itself as a
superior power in East Asia (ultra-nationalism), regional hegemony.
 ● Ineffective response of the League of Nations
○ The Manchurian Incident of September 1931 proved the League’s ineffective response,
as the League only sent the Lytton Commission to investigate whilst the Kwantung Army
continued its advancements into Manchuria
○ The Lytton Report was only produced one year after the invasion, with limited military
action taken against Japan.
○ Japan eventually left the League in March 1933
○ The ineffective response of the League of Nations allowed Japan to further expand into
China, as it remains clear the international community was unwilling to come to China’s
aid or take military action against Japan

The causes above are applicable to the reasons for Japanese Invasion of Manchuria in September
1931, but do not use “ineffective response of League of Nations” since the League was still surviving
before Manchuria.

League of Nations and the Lytton Report:

Reasons for lack of international response after Invasion of Manchuria:
● Economic Reasons
○ France and Britain were the main powers dominating the league (“Great Powers”),
they were suffering from the economic effects of the Great Depression.
○ In Britain, three million people were unemployed in the early 1930s
○ This made the Conservative government in Britain more hesitant to spend resources on
economic or military actions
○ Moreover, as a result of the Great Depression, “collective security” was undermined as
countries shifted to isolationist policies and erected trade barriers. This meant a
reduction in desires to help China, as countries are focused on domestic economic
turmoils.

● Attitudes of western powers: Britain, France and United States

○ France and Britain were both empires who did not fully invest in “Collective Security” -
primarily since China did not concern them.
○ France, who was a key member in the League, felt it had no real reason to harm
relations with Japan for China.
○ As a colonial power in Indo-China, France had much to benefit from a weakened China
○ Meanwhile, Britain was unwilling to act as its own interest were not at stake

● Lack of military power to take action

○ The League lacked any real military power to enforce actions against Japan, and so
military action depended on states such as Britain and France
○ Britain did not have the military capabilities to act against Japan, as it had reduced
military expenditure during the 1920s. It also reduced its naval forces, as per the
Washington Naval Treaty in 1922.
Reasons for Political Instability in China during 1930s:
● Japanese Aggression:
○ Japanese aggression caused political instability in China, as it weakened the political
and economic control of the Nationalist in China.
■ Japan’s invasion of Manchuria caused instability in China, and Chiang’s policy of
“internal pacification before external resistance” was extremely unpopular -
Chiang believed in fighting the communist first before fighting Japan.
○ The CCP was able to expand its influence in northern China, in areas such as Yan’an after
the Long March, and was able to contend for power with the Nationalist.

● Chiang’s attack on the CCP and use of repression:

○ Meanwhile, Chiang’s attacks on the CCP, such as the Extermination Campaigns in
1934, ultimately caused further political instability and forced the CCP into the Long
March, as they fled to Yan’an in 1934.
○ Chiang’s use of repression also increased his unpopularity as a leader, and political
instability was present.
■ Chiang had conflicts with the young Marshall in Manchuria, who believed that
the war against Japan should be prioritised against fighting communism
■ This eventually led to the Xian Incident in 1936, where Chiang was detained by
his generals - in order to prompt a change in policy towards Japan and China.

● Failed international response: Manchuria:

○ The failed international response in Manchuria ultimately led to further political
instability in China, as Japan continued to invade China.
■ The US maintained its isolationist policy, whilst Britain and France did not act
since they were impacted by the Depression (and since their interest were not
affected by the Japanese invasion)
Political Development within China:
Significance with the creation of the Second United Front:
● Cooperation between CCP and GMD to fight the Japanese
○ The creation of the Second United Front in 1936 meant cooperation between the CCP
and GMD to fight the Japanese.
■ Chiang was forced into working with the CCP as he was forcefully detained by
young marshall Zhang Xueliang during the Xi’an Incident in December 1936
■ The Civil War, and hostilities between Mao and Chiang were suspended as a
result of the Second United Front.

● Slowed down Japanese advances into China

○ The United Front meant the CCP and GMD could combine forces to fight Japan, which
slowed down its advances into China.
○ The Japanese did capture territory quickly in the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese
War in 1937, with the capital of China Nanking falling to Japanese control in December
1937. (Could be argued the United Front stalled its advances slightly)
○ However, the joint cooperation between CCP and GMD meant that Japanese
advancement stalled later in the war. Despite having 750,000 men in China by 1940,
Japan’s war effort resulted in a stalemate.

● Allowed Mao to consolidate his power as leader of CCP

○ The creation of the Second United Front consolidated Mao’s role as the leader of the
CCP, and enhanced his support amongst the Chinese people.
■ Mao proved himself to be willing to work with the GMD again (despite being
continuously targeted by Change in the Extermination Campaigns), with the
creation of the United Front. This consolidates his control over the party as he
proves to be fluid and flexible.
Success/Failures of Japanese Invasion of China (Sino-Japanese War):
● Initial Success: (1937)
○ The Second Sino-Japanese War began when Chinese and Japanese forces fought in the
Marco Polo Bridge, in July 1937.
○ Japan then began its invasion of China and was quite successful at it
■ By the end of July, Japanese forces had captured Beijing.
■ Japan launched devastating air raid and terrorised Chinese civilians to flee into
the centre of China
■ By December 1937, the capital of China (Nanking) had fallen to Japanese
control, with the ‘Rape of Nanking’ as Japanese soliders committed acts of
brutality, murder and rape.
○ The nationalist government was forced to flee to Wuhan, with the capital moved to
Chongqing.

● Stalemate: (1938-39)
○ By 1938, the military had expected the Nationalists and Communists to agree to peace
terms. The Chinese refused, despite their early defeats and lack of effective weaponry.
■ This meant that Japan had to continue fighting and advancing into China, which
led to supplies lines being overstretched.
■ Japanese forces became more vulnerable to Chinese guerilla tactics.
■ The Japanese army also failed to hold onto new territories, as the Communist
simply returned and attacked using guerrilla tactics.
○ At this point, territorial expansion no longer benefited the Japanese economy (unlike
how it did in the Invasion of Manchuria).
■ Territorial Expansion now became an increasing burden, leading to domestic
food shortages by 1940.

● Eventual Collapse of Success (1940 onwards)

○ By 1940, Japan’s successes had become limited. US President Roosevelt was hindered
from taking action due to a series of Neutrality Acts.
○ However, as Japan expanded its advances in 1940-41, the US gave millions of dollars
of aid to China.
○ By summer of 1941, the Americans sent 100 fighter planes to resupply the depleted
Chinese Air Force. Monetary assistance and financial aid was given through the Lend
Lease Program.
○ Whilst providing aid to China, the US increased its economic pressure on Japan by
imposing sanctions on key materials needed for war such as iron, steel and oil.
■ This ultimately hindered the prospect of Japan winning the war.
Reasons for increase in tensions between US and Japan (1931 and 1941):
● Mutual Fear
○ The United States became increasingly fearful of Japan after its invasion of Manchuria
in September 1931, and its withdrawal from the League in 1933.
■ Despite Japan breaking Chinese sovereignty and violating the US’ ‘Open Door’
policy in the region, the US did not take action in the Manchurian Incident and
maintained a policy of “isolationism”.

○ The main reasons the US followed “isolationism” was:

■ Trade with Japan: The US didn’t want to affect its trade and investment
interests in Japan for China - which largely did not matter to the US.
■ US Interest and Security not affected: The US followed “isolationism” as its
interests were not directly affected. Moreover, its geographical location means
that the security is not threatened in incidents such as the Manchurian Incident
of 1931.
■ Need to focus on Domestic Issues: America was deeply impacted by the Great
Depression and was more focused in solving economic issues, rather than
international issues and aggressor states like Japan.

○ Increase in US fear began in the late-1930s, as Japan began its military expansions
which may be a threat to the US.
■ In 1936, Japan introduced a new naval building program which upset the
balance of power in Western Pacific.
■ Japan’s invasion into China in 1937 sparked fear within the government, but the
US did not take much action for fear of provoking Japan.

○ Meanwhile, Japan feared the US’ increasing involvement in the Sino-Japanese War.
■ The US began providing economic and military aid to the GMD
■ In 1938, Roosevelt excluded China from the neutrality acts and provided an oil
loan of $25 million USD.
■ By summer of 1941, the Americans sent 100 fighter planes to resupply the
depleted Chinese Air Force. Monetary assistance and financial aid was given
through the Lend Lease Program.
● Japan’s Alliance with the Axis powers
○ Meanwhile, Japan’s increasingly close alliance with the Axis power also drove an
increase in tensions between US-Japan relations towards the end of 1930s.
○ Japan had begun to build relations with Germany, seen in the signing of the Anti-
Comintern Pact in November 1936.
○ The signing of the Tripartite Pact between Japan, Germany and Italy in September
1940 significantly increased US worries.
■ The Pact was used as a means to deter the United States from entering the
War. (This largely failed as it made the US more fearful and paranoid of Japan)
■ The Pact also respected the sphere of influence of the three signatories. Italy
and Germany would dominate Europe, and Japan would dominate Asia.
■ By the late 1941, many in the US felt that war with Japan was inevitable

● Failure of Diplomatic Negotiations

○ The failure of Diplomatic Negotiations between the US and Japan arguably escalated
tensions between two countries and led to the attack on Pearl Harbour in Dec 1941.
■ In 1941, The US had launched an economic embargo against Japan when it
began an invasion into French Indochina.
■ Japanese assets in the US were frozen. As a result, a series of diplomatic
negotiations occurred.
■ The US demanded the withdrawal of all Japanese troops in Indo-China and
China, also known as the Hull Note.
● The US rejected the Japanese’s offer of a partial withdrawal from China.
● This failure in diplomatic agreement eventually sparked US-Japan
tensions, and prompted Japan to attack Pearl Harbour.
Impacts of the Tripartite Pact (September 1940):
● Strengthened Japan’s relationship with Axis power (Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany) -
acceptance of Japan’s hegemony in Asia
○ The Tripartite Pact effectively aligned Japan with Italy and Germany
○ The pact also had the two powers recognise Japan’s hegemony in Asia and its desires to
establish a new order there
○ The pact also agrees to take action collectively if one of them is attacked by a country
which is currently not in the European conflict or Sino-Japanese war.
■ This implies that the pact is targeted at either the US or USSR.

● Escalated tensions with US-Japan relations

○ The immediate impact of the Tripartite Pact is that the US shifted away from a neutral
country to a country preparing for war.
○ The US imposed economic embargoes on scrap metal shipments to Japan and closed the
Panama Canal to Japanese shipping.
○ By 1941, the US froze Japanese assets in the US

● Development of China’s relations with Western Powers, with greater US involvement in China
○ The impact of the Tripartite Pact is that it increased US involvement in China, with an
increased economic aid.
○ By summer of 1941, the Americans sent 100 fighter planes to resupply the depleted
Chinese Air Force. Monetary assistance and financial aid was given through the Lend
Lease Program.
○ The pact strained US-Japan relations, and drove the western powers closer to China
Reasons for Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbour:
● Economic Concerns
○ Due to the series of US trade embargoes imposed on Japan, Japan only had 18 months
of oil supplies left. A lack of oil supplies will cripple its military and impact its war with
China.
○ As a result, Japan decided to invade the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) as it was the
world’s largest oil producing area. Japan was aware that an invasion of the Dutch East
Indies may provoke the Americans into entering war against them. Hence, the Japanese
decided to strike first and cripple the American fleet in Pearl Harbour.
○ This will prevent the US from interfering with Japanese expansion into the Dutch East
Indies. It will buy Japan time to consolidate its control in South East Asia - before the US
has time to rebuild its naval capability.

● Increase of US-Japan tensions

○ Japan arguably decided to attack Pearl Harbour due to an increase of tensions
between US-Japan
■ Tensions had already been building up with the Japanese invasion of Manchuria,
and the beginning of the Sino-Japanese War (1937)
■ The US began to provide economic aid to China - 25 million USD of loans.
■ The signing of the Tripartite Pact in September 1940 increased US-Japan
tension, and the US shifted from neutrality to a country preparing for war.
■ The increase in US-Japan tensions arguably prompted Japan’s attack on Pearl
Harbour.

● Failure of DIplomatic Negotiations

○ The failure of Diplomatic Negotiations between the US and Japan arguably escalated
tensions between two countries and led to the attack on Pearl Harbour in Dec 1941.
■ In 1941, The US had launched an economic embargo against Japan when it
began an invasion into French Indochina.
■ Japanese assets in the US were frozen. As a result, a series of diplomatic
negotiations occurred.
■ The US demanded the withdrawal of all Japanese troops in Indo-China and
China, also known as the Hull Note.
● The US rejected the Japanese’s offer of a partial withdrawal from China.
● This failure in diplomatic agreement eventually sparked US-Japan
tensions, and prompted Japan to attack Pearl Harbour.