DR CHALLONERS GRAMMAR

SCHOOL
BIOLOGY A LEVEL

YR 13
MODULES 5-6

REVISION WORKBOOK

NAME
DIV
The booklet contains information on the following:

5 - COMMUNICATION, HOMEOSTASIS AND ENERGY

5.1 - Communication and Homeostasis
5.2 - Excretion as an example of Homeostatic Control
5.3 - Neuronal Communication
5.4 - Hormonal Communication
5.5 - Plant and Animal Responses
5.6 - Photosynthesis
5.7 - Respiration

6 - GENETICS, EVOLUTION AND ECOSYSTEMS

6.1 - Cellular Control
6.2 - Patterns of Inheritance
6.3 - Manipulating Genomes
6.4 - Cloning and Biotechnology
6.5 - Ecosystems
6.6 - Population and Sustainability

Please tick the topics when you are happy you have covered them. The
book is not as detailed as a text book or the work books we provide, it is
merely an attempt to cover the essential areas of the course. It has come
mainly from a previous student who went to gain an A* at A Level.

We hope it helps.

BEST OF LUCK.
MODULE 5: Communication, homeostasis & energy

SUMMARY:COMMUNICATION,
HOMEOSTASIS & ENERGY
THE NEED FOR COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
● A ​constant​ i​ nternal​ e
​ nvironment​ must be maintained in order to allow e
​ nzymes​ to w
​ ork​ ​efficiently
so as c
​ ell​ ​metabolism​ can ​continue​, and the ​organism​ can s
​ urvive​.
● Explain precisely what we mean by ‘internal environment’?

● Changing​ ​environments​ (​stimulus​) place ​stress​ on the organism, necessitating

behavioural​/​physiological​ ​changes​ (​response​) so the ​organism​ can c
​ ontinue​ to s
​ urvive​.
● Give examples of responses.

● The ​movement​ of ​metabolic​ p ​ roducts​ alters the ​internal​ ​environment​ of cells - needs r​ esponse​.
● The composition of ​tissue​ ​fluid​ is m ​ aintained​ by ​blood​, which carries ​wastes​ to e ​ xcretory​ o ​ rgans​.
● Multicellular​ o ​ rganisms​ are ​more​ ​efficient​ than single celled organisms as their c ​ ells​ are
specialised​.
● A ​good​ c​ ommunication​ s ​ ystem​ covers the w ​ hole body​, enables ​cells​ to c ​ ommunicate​ with each
other, enables ​specific​ c​ ommunication​, enables ​rapid​ ​communication​, and enables s ​ hort​ and ​long
term​ ​responses​. ​Important​ to ensure different o ​ rgans​ ​work​ t​ ogether​ ​effectively​.
● Cells​ ​signal​ to each other using the ​neuronal​ (​shorter​ ​term​) and h ​ ormonal​ (​longer​ t​ erm​) systems.

HOMEOSTASIS
● The ​maintenance​ of a c ​ onstant​ i​ nternal​ ​environment​ despite ​changes​ in ​external​/​internal​ ​factors​.
○ Body t​ emperature​, ​blood​ g ​ lucose​ concentration, ​blood​ s
​ alt​ concentration, ​water​ ​potential​ of
the blood, blood p ​ ressure​, ​carbon​ ​dioxide​ concentration.
● Stimulus → receptor → communication pathway (neuronal/hormonal) → effector → response
● Receptors​ ​detect​ a ​stimulus​, and use a ​communication​ p ​ athway​ to ​signal​ to the e
​ ffector​ to r​ espond​.
● Negative​ ​feedback​ - mechanism which ​reverses​ a ​change​ and the system brought ​back​ ​to​ o ​ ptimum​.
● It may take t​ ime​ to r​ espond​ to a ​certain​ ​stimulus​, and as such the effect may result in a s ​ light
overshoot​, bringing the system ​away​ f​ rom​ o ​ ptimum​ in the ​opposite​ d​ irection​.
● Why do we not see many examples of positive feedback in biological systems?

● Conditions will never remain perfectly constant, so there will always be ​variation​ around the
optimum.
 ● Positive​ feedback - mechanism which ​increases​ change, bringing system further away from
optimum
○ Oxytocin​ increases ​uterine​ c
​ ontractions​, which stimulates the secretion of more oxytocin.

TEMPERATURE CONTROL IN ECTOTHERMS

● Temperature​ control is important as it affects the r​ ate​ of ​reactions​ and ​protein​ ​structure​ (​enzymes​).
● Positive feedback - temperature falling, less heat from enzyme controlled reactions, temperature
falls
● Ectotherms​ rely on e ​ xternal​ s​ ources​ of ​heat​ and their ​body​ ​temperature​ ​fluctuates​.
● Once ​active​, muscle c ​ ontractions​ generate ​heat​ through ​respiration​.
● If ectotherms are not warm enough, they will attempt to a ​ bsorb​ ​more​ ​heat​ from the environment by:
moving​ to a ​sunny​ a
​ rea​, ​lying​ on a ​warm​ ​surface​, or e
​ xposing​ a ​larger​ ​surface​ a
​ rea​ ​to​ the s
​ un​.
● Outline the biological significance of the plates on dinosaurs.

● If ectotherms are too hot, they will attempt to a ​ bsorb​ ​less​ h

​ eat​ from the environment by: ​moving​ ​out
of​ the ​sun​, moving ​underground​ and ​reducing​ ​body​ ​surface​ ​exposed​ to the sun.
● Advantages​ of ectothermy: ​less​ ​food​ used in r​ espiration​, more ​energy​ converted to ​growth​, need to
find​ ​less​ ​food​, can survive for long period of time without food.
● Disadvantages​ of ectothermy: l​ ess​ a ​ ctive​ in c
​ ooler​ ​temperatures​ so are at ​risk​ from p
​ redators​,
cannot take advantage of ​food​ when ​cold​ as unable to move.

TEMPERATURE CONTROL IN ENDOTHERMS

● Endotherms​ ​control​ their b ​ ody​ ​temperature​ within s ​ trict​ ​limits​ using a v​ ariety​ of ​measures​ which
are usually i​ ndependent​ of the ​external​ e ​ nvironment​.
● Temperature regulation relies on e ​ ffectors​ in the s ​ kin​, m
​ uscles​ and l​ iver​.
● Skin​ - ​sweat​ g ​ lands​ alter how much sweat is released (sweat ​evaporates​ using ​heat​ from b ​ lood​),
hairs​ and ​feather​ e ​ rect​/l​ ie​ f​ lat​ to t​ rap/release heat​, ​vasodilation​/​vasoconstriction​ d ​ iverts​ ​blood
towards/away from skin so more/less heat can be lost via ​radiation​.
● Gaseous​ ​exchange​ s ​ ystem​ - ​panting​ causes ​evaporation​ of ​water​ from lungs/airways, using ​heat
from the b ​ lood​.
● Liver​ - l​ arge​ c
​ entral​ organ, ​respiration​ of ​glycogen​ ​stores​ in the liver r​ eleases​ h ​ eat​.
● Skeletal​ ​muscles​ - c ​ ontractions​/​shivering​ releases heat through i​ ncreased​ r​ espiration​.
● Advantages​ of ​endothermy​: c ​ onstant​ ​internal​ ​body​ ​temperature​ despite external temperatures, can
remain ​active​ during ​low​ t​ emperatures​ (take advantage over prey), can i​ nhabit​ c ​ older​ p
​ arts​ of
planet​.
● Disadvantages​ of endothermy: use s ​ ignificant​ ​energy​ to m ​ aintain​ body ​temperature​, need m ​ ore
food​, use for ​growth​ a ​lower​ p ​ roportion​ of nutrients from food, can ​overheat​ in ​hot​ w ​ eather​.
● Thermoregulatory​ c ​ entre​ in the h ​ ypothalamus​ of the brain d ​ etect​ ​changes​ in b
​ lood​ t​ emperature​.
● Peripheral​ ​temperature​ r​ eceptors​ in the s ​ kin​ monitor t​ emperature​ f​ rom​ the e ​ xtremities​.

ADD EXTRA NOTES BELOW

SUMMARY: EXCRETION
EXCRETION
● Excretion is the ​removal​ of ​metabolic​ w
​ aste​ (products of cell metabolism) f​ rom​ the ​body​.
● List examples of these wastes.

● Products formed in ​excess​ must be removed to ​prevent​ b ​ uildups​ which may ​inhibit​ e​ nzyme​ ​action​.
● CO​2​ passes from cells of ​respiring​ ​tissues​ into the b ​ loodstream​, where it is t​ ransported​ (mainly as
HCO​3​-​ ions) to the ​lungs​, where it diffuses into the a
​ lveoli​ to be excreted during e ​ xhalation​.
● What is the effect of these ions in the blood?

● The ​liver​ breaks down m ​ etabolic​ ​waste​ where it can be passed to ​other​ ​organs​ for excretion.
● Salts​, w ​ ater​ and ​other​ ​excretory​ ​products​ can be lost through the skin as s ​ weat​.
● If C
​ O​2​ ​builds​ u
​ p​, more c
​ arbonic​ ​acid​ is formed which dissociates into H ​ CO​3​-​ and H​ ​+​. The ​HCO​3​-
+​
moves out​ of the erythrocytes, leaving the H ​ ​ ​in​ the e
​ rythrocyte​, which alters the p ​ H​ (affects
hemoglobin​ t​ ertiary​ structure and reduces its a ​ ffinity​ for O
​ 2​​ ). p
​ H​ c
​ hange​ of ​blood​ detected by
respiratory​ ​centre​ in ​medulla​ o ​ blongata​, which causes b ​ reathing​ r​ ate​ to r​ ise​. B​ lood​ ​pressure​/​heart
rate​ may rise also.
● Why?

● Body ​cannot​ s
​ tore​ e
​ xcess​ ​amino​ a
​ cids​, so instead converts them to ​keto​ ​acid​ which can be r​ espired​.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE LIVER

● Hepatocytes carry out many ​metabolic​ ​processes​, so important in ​homeostasis​, requiring a ​good
blood​ ​supply​. The liver s ​ tructure​ ensures m
​ aximum​ amount of b ​ lood​ ​flows​ past each hepatocyte.
● Hepatic​ a​ rtery​ carries ​oxygenated​ blood from the ​aorta​ to the l​ iver​, supplying liver with ​O2​​ .
● Hepatic​ p ​ ortal​ v
​ ein​ carries ​deoxygenated​ blood rich in d
​ igestion​ ​products​ from d ​ igestive​ ​system​.
● Hepatic​ v ​ ein​ carries d​ eoxygenated​ blood from the ​liver​ to the v
​ ena​ c
​ ava​.
● Describe the differences in the other constituents of these vessels.
 ● Bile​ ​duct​ carries ​bile​ from l​ iver​ to g
​ all​ ​bladder​ (stored until needed to e ​ mulsify​ f​ ats​ for r​ espiration​ in
small​ ​intestine​), also contains ​excretory​ p ​ igments​ (eg ​bilirubin​) which will leave the body in f​ aeces​.
● What does emulsify mean? What is the significance of this?

● Liver divided into l​ obes​, which are further divided into ​cylindrical​ l​ obules​.
● Hepatic​ a​ rtery​ and ​portal​ v ​ ein​ s
​ plit​ into s
​ maller​ ​vessels​ which run b ​ etween​ l​ obules​ (​interlobular
vessels). Blood from two vessels m ​ ixes​ as it passes along the s ​ inusoid​, which is ​lined​ with liver
cells.
● Kupffer​ ​cells​ (specialised m ​ acrophages​) move about within the s ​ inusoids​ - break down/​recycle​ old
red​ ​blood​ ​cells​. B
​ ilirubin​ is a product of ​haemoglobin​ ​breakdown​ - ​excreted​ in b ​ ile​.
● Bile made in l​ iver​ c ​ ells​, and released into ​bile​ c ​ analiculi​, which join together to form ​bile​ d ​ uct​.
● Where does the bile duct empty? Why?

● In the c
​ entre​ of each l​ obule​ is branch of ​hepatic​ ​vein​ (​intralobular​ vessel) - s
​ inusoids​ e
​ mpty​ into.
● Hepatocytes​ have simple c ​ uboidal​ ​shape​, with many ​microvilli​, and a d ​ ense​ c​ ytoplasm​ with many
organelles (​ribosomes​, m ​ itochondria​) for ​respiration​ and ​protein​ s ​ ynthesis​.
● Why ribosomes, mitochondria and microvilli?

THE FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER

● The liver ​stores​ s
​ ugars​ as ​glycogen​ ​granules​ in the c
​ ytoplasm​ of ​hepatocytes​.
● Relate the structure to the function of glycogen.

● The liver ​detoxifies​ s ​ ubstances​ which may cause h ​ arm​ (​hydrogen​ p ​ eroxide​, ​alcohol​, ​drugs​).
● Toxins ​rendered​ h ​ armless​ by ​oxidation​, ​reduction​ m ​ ethylation​, c ​ ombination​ with a ​ nother​ ​molecule​.
○ Liver contains many e ​ nzymes​ for detoxification: ​catalase​ (​H2​​ O​2​), c ​ ytochrome​ ​P450​ (​drugs​).
● Alcohol​ (​ethanol​) is a d ​ rug​ which s ​ uppresses​ ​nerve​ a ​ ctivity​. D
​ etoxified​ in ​hepatocytes​:
○ Ethanol​ is d ​ ehydrogenated​ (catalysed by e ​ thanol dehydrogenase​) to form ​ethanal​.
■ 2 hydrogen atoms released​ combine with N ​ AD​ to form ​reduced NAD​.
○ Ethanal​ is ​dehydrogenated​ (catalysed by e ​ thanal dehydrogenase​) to form e ​ thanoic​ ​acid​.
■ 2 hydrogen atoms​ ​released​ combine with N ​ AD​ to form ​reduced NAD​.
○ Ethanoic​ a ​ cid​ combines with ​coenzyme​ A ​ ​ to form ​acetyl​ c ​ oenzyme​ A ​ ​→K ​ rebs​ ​cycle​.
● If t​ oo​ m
​ uch​ ​alcohol​ consumed, N ​ AD​ ​stores​ u
​ sed​ ​up​ in detoxification of alcohol, so f​ atty​ a ​ cids
cannot​ be b ​ roken​ d ​ own​, so are converted to f​ at​ and s ​ tored​ in ​hepatocytes​ → ​fatty​ ​liver​ → c ​ irrhosis​.
● Excess​ ​amino​ a ​ cids​ c ​ annot​ ​be​ s
​ tored​ as the ​amino​ ​groups​ make them ​toxic​, but as they ​contain​ lots
of ​energy​, they are t​ reated​ (deamination and ornithine cycle) to e ​ xcrete​ ​amino​ ​component​.
● In d ​ eamination​, ​oxygen​ is a ​ dded​ to the ​amino​ ​acid​, which forms ​keto​ a ​ cid​ and ​ammonia​.
● Keto​ ​acid​ is an ​organic​ compound which can enter ​respiration​ ​directly​ to release its energy.
● Ammonia​ is ​very​ t​ oxic​ and ​very​ ​soluble​, so is quickly c ​ onverted​ to u ​ rea​ in the o​ rnithine​ c​ ycle​:
 ○ Carbon​ d ​ ioxide​ a
​ dded​ to a
​ mmonia​ to produce c ​ itrulline​ (​releases​ w
​ ater​)
○ Further a ​ mmonia​ is a ​ dded​ to c
​ itrulline​ to produce ​arginine​ (​releases​ w​ ater​)
○ Water​ is ​added​ to ​arginine​ to produce ​ornithine​, and ​urea​ is r​ eleased
● Urea​ is l​ ess​ t​ oxic​ and ​soluble​, and so is ​transported​ in the b ​ lood​ to the k​ idneys​ for ​filtration​.

● Draw an annotated diagram of an hepatocyte and liver lobule

ADD EXTRA NOTES BELOW

KIDNEY STRUCTURE
● The kidneys are positioned on​ each side of the spine​ just b ​ elow the lowest​ rib, and are supplied with
blood from a r​ enal​ a
​ rtery​ and drained by a r​ enal​ ​vein​.
● What vessel supplies the renal artery? What is the biological significance of this?

● The kidney's role is ​excretion​ - the ​removal​ of ​waste​ products from b ​ lood​ to p​ roduce​ u​ rine​, which
passes out of the kidney down the ​ureter​ to the ​bladder​ where it is stored until release.
● Consists of ​three​ r​ egions​ surrounded by a ​tough​ ​capsule​; ​outer​ region called the c ​ ortex​, ​inner​ region
called the m​ edulla​, and the c ​ entre​ which is called the p ​ elvis​ and l​ eads​ ​to​ the u
​ reter​.
● Each kidney contains roughly ​one million nephrons​ - ​tiny​ t​ ubules​ making up the bulk of the kidney.
● Nephron​ s​ tarts​ i​ n​ the ​cortex​ at the ​Bowman’s​ (​renal)capsule​. Rest of the nephron is a c ​ oiled​ t​ ubule
which p​ asses​ t​ hrough​ the c ​ ortex​ before joining a ​collecting​ ​duct​ that passes back down i​ nto​ the
medulla​.
● The ​afferent​ a
​ rteriole​ generates p ​ ressure​ i​ n​ the ​glomerulus​ for u
​ ltrafiltration​.
● How is this pressure achieved?

● Renal a ​ ​rtery​ splits to form many a ​ ​fferent​ arterioles, each leading to the g ​ lomerulus​.
● Blood from the ​glomerulus​ ​continues​ into an ​e​fferent​ ​arteriole​ which carries blood to m ​ ore
capillaries​ surrounding the rest of the tubule, which eventually flow into the ​renal​ v ​ e
​ ​in​.
● Each​ ​glomerulus​ is surrounded by the ​Bowman’s​ c ​ apsule​, which fluid is ​pushed​ ​into​ by
ultrafiltration​.
● The ​filter​ is the b ​ arrier​ b
​ etween​ the ​blood​ in the ​capillary​ and the l​ umen​ o ​ f​ the B
​ owman’s​ ​capsule​:
○ Endothelium​: n ​ arrow​ ​gaps​ between s ​ quamous​ c ​ ells​, and ​pores​ called ​fenestrations​.
○ Basement​ m ​ embrane​: ​fine​ m​ esh​ of ​collagen​ f​ ibres​ and ​glycoproteins​ p ​ reventing​ the p ​ assage​ of
molecules​ with a ​molecular mass >69000​. M ​ ost proteins​ ​and​ ​all blood cells cannot pass​.
○ Epithelial​ c ​ ells​: p
​ odocytes​ with m ​ any finger-like projections​ ensure gaps between cells.
● Bowman’s​ c ​ apsule​ leads into r​ est​ ​of​ ​tubule​ which has 3 parts: P ​ CT, loop of Henle, DCT
● What is the name of the fluid that enters the nephron?

FUNCTION OF THE KIDNEY 1 :

● Ultrafiltration​ is the f​ iltering​ of ​blood​ at the ​molecular​ ​level​.
● Blood flows into ​glomerulus​ through the a ​ fferent​ ​arteriole​, ​wider​ than the ​efferent​ a ​ rteriole​ to
ensure the b ​ lood​ in the c ​ apillaries​ of the ​glomerulus​ maintain a ​higher​ p ​ ressure​ than ​Bowman’s
capsule​, p ​ ushing​ f​ luid​ f​ rom​ the ​blood​ i​ nto​ the ​Bowman’s​ (renal) c ​ apsule​ (which s ​ urrounds
glomerulus​).
● Blood​ ​plasma​ contains w ​ ater, amino acids, glucose, urea​ and ​inorganic​ ​mineral​ i​ ons​, ​all​ of which
enter​ the ​glomerular​ f​ iltrate​ e ​ xcept​ for m​ ost proteins​ (​>69000​) which ​remain​ i​ n​ the ​plasma​.
● All​ a
​ mino​ ​acids​ and ​glucose​ are ​reabsorbed​. ​Some​ m ​ ineral​ i​ ons​ and a ​ ll​ u
​ rea​ is in ​urine​.
● Presence of p ​ roteins​ l​ eft​ ​in​ b
​ lood​ gives ​very​ ​negative​ w ​ ater​ p
​ otential​, ensuring ​fluid​ is ​retained​.
● As the ​fluid​ f​ rom​ the ​Bowman’s (renal)​ c ​ apsule​ ​passes​ a ​ long​ the ​nephron​ ​tubule​, its c ​ omposition​ is
altered​ by s ​ elective​ r​ eabsorption​ - s ​ ubstances​ are ​absorbed​ b ​ ack​ i​ nto​ the ​tissue fluid/blood
capillaries​.
● In P
​ CT​, all s​ ugars​, most ​mineral​ ​ions​ and ​some​ ​water​ is ​reabsorbed​.
○ Highly​ f​ olded​ s ​ urface​ ​area​ and a ​brush​ b ​ order​ i​ ncreases​ the SA and r​ ate​ of ​absorption​.
● In the d​ escending​ l​ imb​ of loop of Henle, m ​ ineral​ ​ions​ are ​added​ and ​water​ is r​ emoved​ to l​ ower Ψ​.
● In the a ​ scending​ l​ imb​, w ​ ater​ p ​ otential​ is i​ ncreased​ as m ​ ineral​ ​ions​ are ​removed​ by a ​ ctive​ ​transport​.
● Define active transport.
 ● In the c​ ollecting​ d
​ uct​, Ψ
​ is decreased again​ by the r​ emoval of water​, resulting in ​urine​ ​in​ the C
​ D​.
● Ultrafiltration and selective reabsorption ensure u ​ rine has low Ψ​ and a ​higher​ ​concentration​ of
solutes than is found in the blood and tissue fluid. Urine passes down u ​ reter​ to b
​ ladder​.
● Selective reabsorption involves ​active​ ​transport​ and ​cotransport​ with specialised cells.
● Cell​ s
​ urface​ m
​ embrane​ in contact with tubule fluid is ​highly​ f​ olded​ - m
​ icrovilli​ which i​ ncrease​ ​SA​.
● Cell Surface Membrane also contains s ​ pecial​ ​cotransporter​ ​proteins​ which t​ ransport​ g ​ lucose​ or
amino​ ​acids​ with s ​ odium ions​ from the tubule into the cell.
● What is cotransport?

● Opposite​ ​membrane​ of cell close to tissue fluid and capillaries also h ​ ighly​ ​folded​ to to increase SA.
● Cell cytoplasm has l​ ots of mitochondria​, indicative of an ​active​ p ​ rocess​ (lots of ATP).
1. Sodium​ i​ ons​ a
​ ctively​ ​pumped​ o ​ ut of cells lining tubule​ and i​ nto​ ​plasma​ by ​active​ t​ ransport​ (​ATP​).
2. Concentration​ of s ​ odium​ ​ion​ in cell c​ ytoplasm​ d
​ ecreases​, creating ​gradient​.
3. Sodium​ i​ ons​ d​ iffuse​ into ​cell​ through c ​ otransport​ ​protein​, ​carrying glucose or an amino acid​.
4. Water​ then ​flows​ i​ n​ v
​ ia​ o
​ smosis​ (​down water potential gradient​) and g ​ lucose/amino acids​ diffuse
into​ the ​blood​.
● Larger​ ​molecules​ such as s ​ mall​ ​proteins​ can be r​ eabsorbed​ by ​endocytosis​.

FUNCTION OF THE KIDNEY & WATER POTENTIAL

● The arrangement of the ​Loop​ o ​ f​ H
​ enle​ allows ​mineral​ i​ ons​ (Sodium and chloride) to be ​transferred
from the a ​ scending​ l​ imb​ into the ​descending​ l​ imb​, to i​ ncrease​ the ​concentration​ of ​mineral​ i​ ons​ in
the ​tubule​ ​fluid​ and in turn the ​tissue​ ​fluid​, giving a ​very low Ψ​ ​in​ the ​medulla​.
● As ​mineral​ ​ions​ d ​ iffuse​ i​ nto​ the ​descending​ l​ imb​, the c ​ oncentration​ o ​ f​ the ​fluid​ i​ n​ the ​descending
limb​ r​ ises​, meaning the ​Ψ decreases​, becoming increasingly negative as tubule descends into
medulla.
● As the ​fluid​ r​ ises​ ​up​ the ​ascending​ l​ imb​, m ​ ineral​ i​ ons​ l​ eave​ fluid (​diffusion​ ​lower​ ​down​ but a ​ ctive
transport​ h ​ igher​ up). ​Upper​ s ​ ection​ of ​ascending​ l​ imb​ i​ mpermeable​ to w ​ ater​.
● These i​ onic​ ​movements​ c ​ reate​ a​ higher Ψ​ in the ​ascending​ ​limb​, ​lower​ ​Ψ​ in t​ issue​ f​ luid​ of ​medulla
and an ​increasingly​ n ​ egative​ Ψ ​ ​ going ​down​ the ​descending​ l​ imb​.
● So, as the ​fluid​ p ​ asses​ d ​ own​ the c ​ ollecting​ ​duct​, it p ​ asses​ ​through​ ​tissues​ with an ​ever​ d ​ ecreasing
water​ p ​ otential​, ​maintaining​ a ​Ψ​ ​gradient​.
● Arrangement is called a ​hairpin​ c ​ ountercurrent​ m ​ ultiplier​ ​system​ - i​ ncreases​ e ​ fficiency​.
● From the t​ op​ o ​ f​ the a​ scending​ l​ imb​, the t​ ubular​ f​ luid​ p ​ asses​ ​along​ a ​short​ d ​ istal​ c ​ onvoluted​ ​tubule​,
where a ​ ctive​ t​ ransport​ is used to a ​ djust​ the ​concentrations​ of ​various​ m ​ ineral​ i​ ons​.
● Fluid​ then ​flows​ i​ nto​ the ​collecting​ ​duct​ where it still contains l​ ots​ of ​water​ and has a h ​ igher Ψ​.
● Collecting duct carries ​fluid​ ​through​ ​medulla​ to ​pelvis​ and into ​ureter​. L ​ ow Ψ​ and h ​ igh
concentration​.
● Amount​ of w ​ ater​ r​ eabsorbed​ ​depends​ ​on​ the ​permeability​ of the collecting duct walls
● How will the permeability be changed?
OSMOREGULATION
● Osmoregulation is the ​control​ o ​ f​ the ​water​ p
​ otential​ (​tendency​ of ​water​ ​to​ m
​ ove​ from one place to
another) of the ​body​. Involves ​controlling​ ​levels​ ​of​ both ​water​ ​and​ ​salt​ in the body.
● Correct​ ​balance​ is is ​needed​ to prevent l​ ysis​/​crenation​ due to too much water leaving/entering cells.
● Explain this in more detail using annotated diagrams.

● Body ​gains​ ​water​ from f​ ood, drink, metabolism​ and ​loses it​ from s
​ weat​, ​urine​, e
​ xhalation​, ​faeces​.
● Describe the idea of water being produced in the body from metabolism?

● The ​kidneys​ a ​ lter​ the v ​ olume​ of ​urine​ p​ roduced​ by ​altering​ the ​permeability​ ​of​ the ​walls​ of the
collecting​ d​ ucts​. When ​water​ n ​ eeds​ to be ​conserved​, ​collecting​ ​duct​ m ​ ore​ ​permeable​ so ​more
water​ can be ​reabsorbed​ i​ nto​ the ​blood​. L ​ ess​ ​urine​ produced. ​Opposite​ when less water needs
conserving.
● The ​cells​ in the w ​ alls​ o
​ f​ the ​collecting​ d​ uct​ respond to the l​ evels​ o​ f​ a​ ntidiuretic​ ​hormone​ in blood.
● ADH​ ​binds​ ​to​ r​ eceptors​ on ​these​ ​cells​ to cause a s ​ eries​ of ​enzyme​ c ​ ontrolled​ r​ eactions​ which
results in ​vesicles​ c ​ ontaining​ ​aquaporins​ to f​ use​ with c ​ ell​ ​membrane​, making cells m ​ ore​ p
​ ermeable​.
● What does this mean for the movement of water? What does it say about the concentration found in
urine and the volume produced?

● When is ADH going to be released? Give examples?

 ● Why is alcohol a diuretic?

● When ​levels​ of ADH ​fall​, the c ​ ell​ s​ urface​ ​membrane​ folds inwards (​invaginates​) to c ​ reate​ n
​ ew
vesicles​ containing a ​ quaporins​ and r​ emoves​ them ​from​ the ​cell​ ​membrane​.
● Hypothalamus​ in the brain contains ​osmoreceptors​ which detect the stimulus and ​monitor​ b ​ lood Ψ​.
● When ​water​ p ​ otential​ f​ alls​, ​osmoreceptor​ ​cells​ lose water and ​crenate​, stimulating n ​ eurosecretory
cells​ in ​hypothalamus​, which are s ​ pecialised​ ​neurones​ with p ​ roduce​ and r​ elease​ ​ADH​.
● ADH​ is ​manufactured​ in the ​cell​ b ​ ody​ which l​ ies​ ​in​ the h
​ ypothalamus​. Then ​moves​ ​down​ ​axon​ to
terminal​ ​bulb​ in ​posterior​ p ​ ituitary​ g ​ land​, where it is stored as ​vesicles​.
● When ​neurosecretory​ c ​ ells​ are ​stimulated​, ​action​ p ​ otentials​ are carried down their ​axons​ and cause
the ​release​ o
​ f​ A
​ DH​ by exocytosis, where it is ​carried​ ​by​ the b ​ lood​ to the ​collecting​ d​ ucts​.
● ADH​ is ​broken​ d ​ own​ s
​ lowly​, ​half​ l​ ife​ of ​20​ m ​ inutes​, so ​collecting​ d
​ ucts​ receive l​ ess​ ​stimulation​.

ADD EXTRA NOTES BELOW

KIDNEY FAILURE
● If the k
​ idneys​ f​ ail​ c
​ ompletely​, they will be ​unable​ to ​regulate​ l​ evels​ of ​water​/​electrolytes​ in the body
or ​remove​ ​waste​ products such as urea from the blood, rapidly leading to death.
● Glomerular​ ​filtration​ r​ ate​ and u ​ rine​ c
​ omposition​ ​analysis​ are ways of ​assessing​ k ​ idney​ f​ unction​.
● Proteins​ in the u ​ rine​ are ​indicative​ that the f​ iltration​ m
​ echanism​ has been d ​ amaged​.
● How may kidney trauma be seen in a patient?

● The ​GFR​ measures ​how​ m ​ uch​ f​ luid​ passes into the ​nephrons​ e ​ ach​ m
​ inute​. Normal range is​ 90-120
cm​3​min​-1​ and a figure b ​ elow 60 cm​3​min​-1​ indicates chronic kidney disease​. 1 ​ 5 cm​3​min​-1​ indicates
kidney​ f​ ailure​ and requires i​ mmediate​ m ​ edical​ ​attention​.
● Causes​ of kidney failure include ​diabetes​, h ​ eart​ ​disease​, ​hypertension​ and ​infection​.
● Renal​ d​ ialysis​ is the most common treatment for kidney failure, involving p ​ assing​ fluid over a
partially permeable ​dialysis​ m ​ embrane​ which allows ​exchange​ of substance between ​blood​ and
dialysis​ ​fluid​.
● Substances found in ​excess​ ​in​ the b ​ lood​ d
​ iffuses​ across the membrane into the d ​ ialysis​ f​ luid​, and
substances in ​concentrations​ ​too​ ​low​ diffuse i​ nto​ the ​blood​ from the d ​ ialysis​ ​fluid​.
● Haemodialysis​ occurs when ​blood​ from an ​artery​ or v ​ ein​ is p​ assed​ ​into​ a ​machine​ that contains an
artificial​ ​dialysis​ m
​ embrane​ shaped to form many a ​ rtificial​ ​capillaries​ which i​ ncreases​ ​SA​ for
exchange​. ​Heparin​ is added to ​avoid​ ​clotting​. A ​ rtificial​ c ​ apillaries​ surrounded by d ​ ialysis​ ​fluid​ flow
in the ​opposite​ d ​ irection​ the blood which i​ mproves​ the ​efficiency​ of exchange. ​Bubbles​ r​ emoved
before the blood is returned to the body via a vein.
● Explain why it is essential that the blood and dialysis fluid flows in opposite directions. Draw an
annotated diagram.
 ● Peritoneal​ ​dialysis​ - the ​dialysis​ m
​ embrane​ is the b ​ ody’s​ o​ wn​ ​abdominal​ membrane. A ​surgeon
implants​ a ​permanent​ ​tube​ in the abdomen. D ​ ialysis​ s
​ olution​ ​poured​ t​ hrough​ ​tube​ and f​ ills​ ​space
between a ​ bdominal​ w ​ all​ and o
​ rgans​. ​Solution​ ​drained​ after ​several​ h
​ ours​. A​ mbulatory​ PD as the
patient can ​walk​ around whilst having this kind of dialysis.
● Dialysis​ must be ​combined​ with a c ​ arefully​ m
​ onitored​ ​diet​.
● What might this entail? (salt, proteins, glucose)

● Kidney​ ​transplant​ occurs when a surgeon implants a new organ into the lower abdomen and
attaches it to the blood supply and the bladder. ​Immunosuppressant​ ​drugs​ given to prevent immune
response.
● Who are the most suitable donors? Why?

● Substances​ s ​ mall​ enough can be ​detected​ in the u

​ rine​ ​if​ ​not​ ​reabsorbed​ further down the nephron.
● In p
​ regnancy​ t​ esting​, a hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (​hCG​) is ​produced​, with a
relative molecular mass of 36700 and as such it can be ​found​ ​in​ the u ​ rine​. Pregnancy testing kits
detect​ the ​presence​ o ​ f​ t​ his​ h
​ ormone​.
● Explain how this may work.

● Gas​ ​chromatography​ can be used to ​detect​ ​anabolic​ ​steroids​ in the urine of a

​ thletes​.
● Why might athletes use these?

ADD EXTRA NOTES BELOW

SUMMARY: NEURONAL
COMMUNICATION
THE ROLE OF SENSORY RECEPTORS
● Sensory​ ​receptors​ are ​specialised​ cells that d​ etect​ c
​ hanges​ in our s
​ urroundings​.
● They often ​convert​ e
​ nergy​ from one form to e ​ lectrical​, or detect the p​ resence​ of ​chemicals​.
● Give the types of receptors we see in the human body.

● Pacinian​ c ​ orpuscles​ detect ​pressure​ c ​ hanges​ in the s​ kin​: o​ val​ structure consisting of ​concentric
rings​ of ​connective​ t​ issue​ ​wrapped​ ​around​ the e ​ nding​ ​of​ a ​nerve​ c​ ell​.
○ When p ​ ressure​ is placed on the skin, the rings of connective tissue are p ​ ushed​ ​against​ the
nerve​ e ​ nding​. Only sensitive to changes in pressure; when c ​ onstant​ pressure s ​ top
responding​.
● Cell surface ​membranes​ of nervous system contain specialised protein ​channels​ (​sodium​,
potassium​, and g ​ ated​ channels).
● The membranes also contain ​sodium/potassium pumps​ that a ​ ctively​ pump ​sodium​ ions (​3)​ o​ ut​ of
the cell and p ​ otassium​ ions (​2)​ i​ nto​ the cell - creating a c ​ oncentration​ g ​ radient​ (​-60mV​).
● When the m ​ embrane​ is ​deformed​ by p ​ ressure​ c
​ hanges​, s ​ odium​ ​channels​ are ​opened​, so ​sodium
ions​ ​diffuse​ i​ nto​ the ​cell​, which ​depolarises​ the membrane as the i​ nside​ of the cell becomes l​ ess
negative​ relative to the outside - a ​generator​ p ​ otential​ (receptor potential) has been ​created​.
● The ​larger​ the s ​ timulus​, the m
​ ore​ g
​ ated​ c
​ hannels​ that will open. If enough open, a significant​ PD
change​ is created which may initiate an i​ mpulse​ or ​action​ p ​ otential​.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF NEURONES

● Neurones​ transmit ​impulses​ as ​action​ ​potentials​ (​rapid depolarisation of membrane​).
● Sensory​ neurones carry a​ ction​ p
​ otentials​ from the ​sensory​ ​receptor​ to the ​central nervous system.
● Motor​ neurones carry ​action​ ​potentials​ from the C​ NS​ to an ​effector​ (muscle or gland).
● Relay​ neurones connect s ​ ensory​ and m​ otor​ neurones.

● Neurones​ are v ​ ery​ l​ ong​ as they have to t​ ransmit​ ​action​ p ​ otentials​ over ​long​ ​distances​.
● Plasma​ ​membranes​ contain many ​gated​ ​ion​ c ​ hannels​ and ​sodium​/​potassium​ p ​ umps​ (use ​ATP​).
● Cell​ b
​ ody​ contains ​nucleus​, many ​mitochondria​ and ​ribosomes​.
● Dendrites​ connect to ​other​ n ​ eurones​ that c​ arry​ i​ mpulses​ towards the c ​ ell​ b
​ ody​.
● Axon​ carries ​impulses​ a ​ way​ from ​cell​ ​body​.
● Neurones​ are surrounded by a ​fatty​ l​ ayer​ called the ​myelin​ s ​ heath​ (made up of S ​ chwann​ ​cells​) that
prevent​ ​electrical​ a ​ ctivity​ being p ​ assed​ to o​ ther​ n​ erve​ ​cells​ nearby.
● Sensory​ neurones have a ​long​ d ​ endron​ that carries the ​action​ p ​ otential​ from the ​sensory​ ​receptor​ to
the ​cell​ ​body​ (positioned just outside the CNS). ​Short​ a ​ xon​ carry a ​ ction​ p
​ otential​ to C
​ NS​.
● Relay​ neurones have many s ​ hort​ ​dendrites​ (connect to many motor and sensory) and s ​ hort​ ​axon​.
● In what form may these connections be? Significance?

● Motor​ n
​ eurones​ have c ​ ell​ b
​ ody​ i​ n​ the ​CNS​ and l​ ong​ ​axon​ that carries action potential to the effector.
● Myelin​ s​ heath​ p
​ revents​ i​ ons​ m
​ oving​ across neurones, so they can only move at the ​nodes​ o ​ f
Ranvier​ (occuring every ​1-3mm​) which means the ​impulse​/a ​ ction​ potential ​jumps​ from node to
node (​fast​). This is ​saltatory​ conduction.
 ● Non-myelinated​ neurones are also a ​ ssociated​ with S
​ chwann​ ​cells​, but many neurones may be
enclosed in one l​ oosely​ wrapped Schwann cell, so ​action​ p
​ otential​ moves as a (​slower​) w
​ ave​.

NERVE IMPULSES: ACTION POTENTIALS

● When at ​rest​, n ​ eurone​ p ​ umping​ (3) ​Na​+​ o ​ ut​ of and (2) ​K​+​ ​into​ cell (use ATP).
+​
● Some​ g ​ ated​ K​ channels o ​ pen​, so ​plasma​ m ​ embrane​ ​more​ ​permeable​ to K ​ +​​ .
● Cell c ​ ytoplasm​ also contains l​ arge​ ​organic​ a ​ nions​, helping to ​maintain​ the r​ esting​ p ​ otential
difference of​ -60mV​, as the i​ nterior​ of cell has a ​more​ ​negative​ p ​ otential​ than the ​exterior​.
● If s
​ odium​ i​ on​ c
​ hannels​ are o ​ pened​ (eg due to p ​ ressure​ ​changes​) then s ​ odium​ ​ions​ d​ iffuse​ ​into​ the
cell​, causing the ​membrane​ to become ​depolarised​ (less negative) and reaches ​threshold​ of ​-50mV​.
● Change​ in ​potential​ d ​ ifference​ s ​ timulates​ ​opening​ of ​sodium​ ​gated​ i​ on​ ​channels​, so more s ​ odium
ions​ ​flow​ ​into​ the ​membrane​ (​positive​ f​ eedback​) - cell becomes ​more​ ​charged​ and reaches + ​ 40mV​.
● Voltage change ​causes v ​ oltage gated sodium​ ​ion​ c ​ hannels​ ​close​ and ​voltage gated potassium
channels​ o ​ pen​, so ​potassium​ ions ​diffuse​ ​out​ of the ​cell​ bringing the ​potential​ ​difference​ back to
negative​ (compared with ​inside​) - r​ epolarisation​.
● Potential difference o ​ vershoots​ ​slightly​, and the cell becomes h ​ yperpolarized​.
● Original​ potential difference r​ estored​ so cell returns back to its r​ esting​ s ​ tate​.
● After an a ​ ction​ p ​ otential​, ​sodium​ and ​potassium​ i​ ons​ are in the ​wrong​ p ​ laces​, so sodium potassium
pumps​ must ​restore​ the correct concentrations of these ions ​before​ another ​another​ ​action
potential​ can be stimulated. ​Refractory​ p ​ eriod​ allows cell to r​ ecover​, and ensures transmitted in o ​ ne
direction​.
● All or nothing response​, as an action potential is e ​ ither​ g
​ enerated​ (if membrane potential reaches
threshold​ ​value​) ​or​ it is n ​ ot​ g​ enerated​ (if membrane potential does not reach threshold value).
● Draw an annotated diagram of a graph to show this

NERVE IMPULSES: TRANSMISSION

● The ​diffusion​ of s ​ odium​ i​ ons​ ​into​ the ​neurone​ ​increases​ their ​concentration​, and so they d ​ iffuse
down​ (sideways) the a ​ xon​ to where there are l​ ower​ ​concentrations​ (​local​ c ​ urrents​).
● The ​sodium​ i​ ons​ which are ​slightly​ f​ urther​ ​down​ the m ​ embrane​ ​cause​ a ​slight​ d ​ epolarisation​, which
causes ​voltage​ g ​ ated​ s ​ odium​ ​ion​ c
​ hannels​ to ​open​ (due to the v ​ oltage​ ​changing​ as ​sodium​ i​ ons​ are
present​) and so m ​ ore​ s ​ odium​ ions ​enter​ the ​neurone​ causing action potential if t​ hreshold​ reached.
● The sodium ions ​continue​ t​ o​ m ​ ove​ ​down​ the m ​ embrane​ to where their ​concentration​ is l​ ower​,
generating​ ​more​ a ​ ction​ p ​ otentials​. ​Cannot​ ​move​ b ​ ackwards​ as ​Na​+​ ​concentration​ still h ​ igh​.
● Saltatory​ c ​ onduction​ occurs in m ​ yelinated​ n ​ eurones​. M ​ yelin​ s​ heath​ p ​ revents​ i​ on​ ​exchange​, except
at n
​ odes​ o ​ f​ R
​ anvier​, therefore sodium ions d ​ iffuse​ (​local​ c
​ urrents​) a ​ long​ a​ xon​ ​until​ ​node​ ​of​ R​ anvier​,
where the n ​ ext​ ​action​ ​potential​ can be g ​ enerated​, so ​impulse​ ​jumps​ from n ​ ode​ ​to​ n
​ ode​ (faster).
● All​ a
​ ction​ ​potentials​ are the ​same​ f​ requency​ (+40mV), so a m ​ ore​ i​ ntense​ s ​ timulus​ produces a
higher​ f​ requency​ of ​action​ ​potentials​ ​as​ o ​ pposed​ ​to​ h ​ igher​ i​ ntensity​ a ​ ction​ p ​ otentials​.
SYNAPSES 1
● The ​synapse​ is the ​gap​ that exists between t​ wo​ ​or​ ​more​ ​neurones​, where one neurone can
communicate with or signal to another neurone. S ​ ynaptic​ ​cleft​ between two neurones.
● Describe the shape and outline its importance?

● Action​ ​potential​ is ​unable​ t​ o​ ​bridge​ the g ​ ap​ between two neurones, so instead the ​action​ p ​ otential​ in
the presynaptic neurone causes the r​ elease ​of a ​chemical​ (​neurotransmitter​) which generates a new
action potential in the p ​ ostsynaptic​ n ​ eurone​.
● The presynaptic neurone ends in a swelling called the p ​ resynaptic​ ​bulb​, which is specialised: many
mitochondria​ (as active process), large s ​ mooth​ ​endoplasmic​ ​reticulum​ (packaging neurotransmitter
into vesicles), lots of ​vesicles​ containing neurotransmitter, ​voltage​ g ​ ated​ c​ alcium​ i​ on​ c
​ hannels​.
● The ​postsynaptic​ m ​ embrane​ contains s ​ pecialised​ ​sodium​ ​ion​ c ​ hannels​ that respond to the
neurotransmitter - channels consist of 5 polypeptide molecules, two of which have receptor site.
1. The ​action​ p
​ otential​ a ​ rriving​ at the synaptic bulb causes ​voltage gated ion calcium ion channels to
open​, and so c ​ alcium​ i​ ons​ d ​ iffuse​ ​into​ the ​synaptic​ b ​ ulb​.
2. Calcium ions ​cause​ v ​ esicles​ (containing acetylcholine) to f​ use​ ​with​ p ​ resynaptic​ m​ embrane​, and
acetylcholine​ is r​ eleased​ by ​exocytosis​ (requiring ​ATP​) ​into​ the synaptic ​cleft​.
3. Acetylcholine​ b ​ inds​ t​ o​ the r​ eceptor​ s ​ ites​ on the sodium ion channels in p ​ ostsynaptic​ ​membrane​,
causing the ​channels​ to ​open​ and s ​ odium​ ​ions​ to d ​ iffuse​ into p ​ ostsynaptic​ n ​ eurone​.
4. Presence​ of ​sodium​ ions creates a e ​ xcitatory​ ​postsynaptic​ ​potential​ (​EPSP​), which will ​summate​ to
generate​ an ​action​ potential, which travels down the ​postsynaptic​ n ​ eurone​.
● Acetylcholinesterase​ h ​ ydrolyses​ a​ cetylcholine​ into e ​ thanoic​ ​acid​ and c ​ holine​ to p
​ revent​ ​continual
transmission​ of signals. Ethanoic acid and choline ​recycled​.
● What does hydrolyses mean. What is the significance of this?

SYNAPSES 2
● Temporal​ ​summation​ - s ​ everal​ ​action​ p
​ otentials​ in the s​ ame​ p
​ resynaptic​ ​neurone o ​ ver time..
● Spatial​ ​summation​ - action potentials ​arriving​ from ​several​ d ​ ifferent​ ​presynaptic​ n
​ eurones​.
○ Useful when ​several​ s ​ timuli​ are w ​ arning​ the o​ rganism​ of ​danger​.
● The effects of several E ​ xcitatory Post Synaptic Potentialss​ need to s ​ ummate to​ r​ each​ the ​threshold
value and generate an AP.
○ Small​ s
​ timuli​ u
​ nlikely​ to ​create​ ​action​ ​potential​, but ​persistent​ small stimuli w ​ ill​.
● Some ​presynaptic​ n​ eurones​ can produce i​ nhibitory​ p ​ ostsynaptic​ p
​ otentials​, which r​ educe​ the effect
of ​summation​ and ​prevent​ an a ​ ction​ ​potential​ in the postsynaptic neurone.
● Outline the advantages of both of these processes.

● One ​presynaptic​ ​neurone​ might d ​ iverge​ to s

​ everal​ ​postsynaptic​ ​neurones​ to allow ​one​ a ​ ction
potential​ to be ​transmitted​ to s ​ everal​ ​parts​ of the ​nervous​ s ​ ystem​:
○ Useful in a r​ eflex​ a ​ rc​, as o​ ne​ neurone can ​elicit​ the r​ esponse​ while a ​ nother​ ​informs​ the ​brain​.
● Synapses ensure action potentials are transmitted in o ​ ne​ ​direction​ only, as o​ nly​ ​presynaptic​ ​bulb
contains​ a​ cetylcholine​.
● After ​repeated​ ​stimulation​, a synapse may​ run​ ​out​ ​of​ vesicles containing the n ​ eurotransmitter​ - the
synapse​ is f​ atigued​: p
​ revents​ o ​ verstimulation​ ​of​ ​effector​, and organism becomes ​habituated​.
● Creating​/s ​ trengthening​ or ​specific​ ​pathways​ is thought to be the ​basis​ ​of​ ​memory​.
SUMMARY: HORMONAL
COMMUNICATION
ENDOCRINE COMMUNICATION
● Endocrine​ system used to ​communicate,​ by transporting ​hormones​ round body in ​circulatory
system.
● Define hormone.

● Nonsteroid​ ​hormones​ made of p ​ rotein​/a ​ mino​ ​acid​ derivatives (eg a ​ drenaline​, ​insulin​ and g​ lucagon​)
are ​insoluble​ in ​lipid​, so instead b ​ ind​ to p ​ lasma​ m
​ embrane​, releasing ​secondary​ ​messenger​ in cell.
● Steroid​ ​hormones​ (eg ​oestrogen​ and t​ estosterone​) are ​soluble​ in l​ ipid​, so ​enter​ the ​cell​ and have a
direct​ ​effect​ o​ n​ the D
​ NA​ i​ n​ the n​ ucleus​.
● Hormones​ are released ​directly​ into b ​ lood​ from e ​ ndocrine​ ​glands​.
○ Endocrine glands are d ​ uctless​ - pass into c ​ apillaries​ running t​ hrough​ the g ​ lands​.
● Target​ ​cells​ r​ eceive​ the ​endocrine​ ​signal​. May be g ​ rouped​ ​together​ as a ​target​ ​tissue​ (eg.
epithelium of collecting ducts), or d ​ ispersed​ in multiple tissues (eg. adrenaline receptors, smooth
muscle).
● For n​ onsteroid​ h ​ ormones​, ​target​ c ​ ells​ must posses a ​specific​ r​ eceptor​ - c ​ omplementary​ in shape.
● Describe these receptor molecules in more detail.

● Action of n ​ onsteroid​ h ​ ormone​ (​first​ ​messenger​) b ​ inding​ t​ o​ ​receptor​ on cell surface m ​ embrane
activates​ ​G protein​, in turn ​activating​ an ​effector​ ​molecule​ (usually an e ​ nzyme​) which converts an
inactive​ molecule into the a ​ ctive​ s​ econdary​ m
​ essenger​.
○ In many cells, e ​ ffector​ is a
​ denyl​ c
​ yclase​ (enzyme), which converts ​ATP​ to cyclic AMP
(​cAMP​).
○ cAMP is the s ​ econdary​ m ​ essenger​ - either acts on o ​ ther​ p
​ roteins​, or causes ​enzyme
cascade​.
● Steroid​ ​hormones​ pass ​through​ p ​ lasma​ ​membrane​ of target cell, b ​ ind​ with specific r​ eceptor​ ​in
cytoplasm​, and the r​ eceptor-steroid​ ​hormone​ c ​ omplex​ ​enters​ ​nucleus​ of target cell, b ​ inding​ to
another s ​ pecific​ r​ eceptor​ on ​chromosomal​ ​material​, the action of which ​stimulates​ p ​ roduction​ of
mRNA​.

ADRENAL GLANDS
● Adrenal​ ​glands​ are ​endocrine​ glands, ​anterior​ to each ​kidney
● Divided into the o​ uter​ a
​ drenal​ c
​ ortex​ and the i​ nner​ ​adrenal​ m
​ edulla​:
● Adrenal cortex is made up of t​ hree​ ​layers​ o ​ f​ c
​ ells​:
● Zona​ ​glomerulosa​ - secretes m ​ ineralocorticoids​ such as a ​ ldosterone​, which help c​ ontrol​ levels of
sodium​ and p ​ otassium​ in blood (alters ​water​ ​retention​ in ​kidney​ and therefore b ​ lood​ p
​ ressure​).
● How may this process work?

● Zona​ ​fasciculata​ - secretes ​glucocorticoids​ such as ​cortisol​, stimulates ​metabolism​ of ​glucose​ and
stored​ ​compounds​ in ​liver​ (released in r​ esponse​ to ​stress​ or​ low blood glucose​)
● Zona​ ​reticularis​ - secretes ​precursor​ m
​ olecules​ used to make ​sex​ ​hormones
○ If c ​ orect​ e
​ nzymes​ present, then zona reticularis may release c ​ ortisol
● Adrenal​ ​medulla​ is at the centre of the adrenal gland, and secretes a ​ drenaline​ and n
​ oradrenaline​.
 ● Describe the nature of the capillary network in this gland and suggest its significance.

○ Adrenaline is a ​polar​ ​molecule​ derived from ​tyrosine​, so can’t enter through plasma
membrane.
○ Instead, adrenaline is detected by ​specialised​ r​ eceptors​ on plasma membrane:
■ Many​ c ​ ells​ have a​ drenaline​ ​receptors​, so e ​ ffects​ are ​widespread​.
○ Adrenaline ​prepares​ b ​ ody​ for a
​ ctivity​, for example by: increasing h ​ eart​ r​ ate​, dilating ​pupils​,
stimulating ​glycogenolysis​, erecting ​body​ h ​ air​, inhibiting ​gut​ action, general v ​ asoconstriction​.
○ Describe how the above process will be of an evolutionary benefit.

ADD EXTRA NOTES BELOW

THE PANCREAS AND RELEASE OF INSULIN
● The ​pancreas​ is a small o
​ rgan​ positioned b
​ elow​ the ​stomach​ - has ​endocrine​ a
​ nd​ e
​ xocrine
functions.
● Why is it located there?

● Secretes p ​ ancreatic​ j​ uices​ (containing e

​ nzymes​) into s
​ mall​ i​ ntestine​, and ​hormones​ from the i​ slets
of​ ​Langerhans​ into the ​blood​.
● Exocrine​ function of pancreas is the ​synthesis​ and ​release​ of ​digestive​ ​enzymes​ from a ​ cini​ c
​ ells​.
● Acini​ grouped together into l​ obules​ (separated by ​connective​ t​ issue​), which ​secrete​ ​enzymes​ i​ nto
the ​tubule​ at the centre of the acini. Tubules join to form ​intralobular​ ​ducts​, which join to p ​ ancreatic
duct​.
● How may these enzymes work, what pH is the optimum?

● Pancreatic juices contain: p ​ ancreatic​ ​amylase​ (​amylose​ to ​maltose​), ​trypsinogen​ (​inactive​ ​protease
which becomes a ​ ctive​ in ​duodenum​), ​lipase​ (​lipid​ d
​ igestion​).
● Why is trypsinogen inactive?

○ Contains ​sodium​ h ​ ydrogencarbonate​ (​alkaline​) - helps n ​ eutralise​ ​digestive​ c

​ ontents​.
● Islets​ of L
​ angerhans​ contain ​alpha​ and b ​ eta​ cells which make up the e ​ ndocrine​ ​tissue​ of pancreas.
○ A​lpha​ cells secrete g ​ luc​a​gon​, ​beta​ cells secrete ​insulin​ (remember it as ​binsulin​)
● Insulin​ ​reduces​ b ​ lood​ g ​ lucose​ concentration, and is released when this raises too high:
● Cell​ m​ embranes​ of beta cells contain C ​ a​2+​ and K ​ ​+​ ​ion​ c​ hannels
+​ +​
○ K​ ​channels u ​ sually​ o ​ pen​, so K​ ​ ions​ d ​ iffuse out​ of ​cell​ making cell ​more​ ​negative​ (​-70 mV​)
● Increased​ g ​ lucose​ c​ oncentration​: ​glucose​ moves i​ nto​ c ​ ell​, used in m ​ etabolism​ to p ​ roduce​ ​ATP
○ Involves the enzyme​ glucokinase
● Extra​ ​ATP​ produced (from metabolism of glucose) causes K ​ +​​ ion channels​ to c ​ lose​, so ​fewer K​+​ i​ ons
can l​ eave​ the ​cell​, so the ​potential​ d ​ ifference​ across the cell membrane becomes l​ ess​ ​negative​.
● The ​change​ ​in​ the​ p.d​ o ​ pens​ the ​calcium ion channels​, so c ​ alcium​ ​ions​ enter the cell.
2+​
● Ca​ ​cause​ the v ​ esicles​ of insulin to ​fuse​ with the c ​ ell​ ​membrane​, insulin released by ​exocytosis​.

REGULATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE

● Normal​ blood glucose c ​ -6 mmol dm​-3
​ oncentration​ between 4
● Why is it important to maintain stable blood glucose concentrations?
 ● Hypoglycemic​ if blood glucose f​ alls below 4 mmol dm​-3​ and r​ emains​ l​ ow​ for long periods of time:
○ Inadequate​ d ​ elivery​ of ​glucose​ to body t​ issues​ (esp. b ​ rain​) may cause t​ iredness​ and
irritability​, but if brain function impaired, then s ​ eizures​, ​unconsciousness​ and eventually
death​.
● Hyperglycemic​ if blood glucose levels ​rise​ and r​ emain​ ​high​ for long periods of time:
○ Can lead to ​organ​ d ​ amage​. Consistently h ​ igher​ than ​7 mmol dm​-3​ indicates diabetes​.
● Cells​ in ​islets​ of ​Langerhans​ constantly m ​ onitor​ ​blood​ g ​ lucose​ concentration - if fall away from
optimum then the a ​ lpha​ and ​beta​ cells ​detect​ the ​change​ and s ​ ecrete​ relevant hormone:
○ Insulin​ if blood glucose ​too​ h ​ igh​, and g ​ lucagon​ if too ​low
● Insulin and glucagon act on ​hepatocytes​ which store ​glucose​ as ​glycogen​.
● High​ blood g ​ lucose​ is d ​ etected​ by the b ​ eta​ ​cells​ in the islets of Langerhans:
○ Beta​ cells ​secrete​ ​more​ ​insulin​ into the blood.
○ Insulin travels to h ​ epatocytes​, ​muscles​ and other body cells via the c ​ irculatory​ ​system
○ Human insulin is a n ​ on​ s
​ teroid​ h ​ ormone​ (small protein of 51 amino acids) so ​cannot​ ​pass
through​ cell surface ​membrane​, instead ​binding​ to r​ eceptor​ on ​target​ ​cell​.
○ Binding​ of i​ nsulin​ a ​ ctivates​ t​ yrosine​ ​kinase​, causing the ​phosphorylation​ of ​inactive
enzymes​.
○ Vesicles​ containing ​glucose​ t​ ransporter​ p ​ roteins​ ​fuse​ with m ​ embrane​ - more ​glucose​ e ​ nters​:
■ Glycogenesis​ - g ​ lucose​ ​converted​ to g ​ lycogen​ for s ​ torage​.
■ More ​glucose​ ​converted​ to f​ ats​ or u ​ sed​ in ​respiration
● Low​ blood glucose detected by ​alpha​ c ​ ells​ in i​ slets​ of ​Langerhans​:
○ Alpha cells ​secrete​ ​glucagon​ into blood - transported by c ​ irculatory​ system to h ​ epatocytes
○ Glucagon binds to s ​ pecific​ r​ eceptors​ on ​hepatocytes​, ​stimulating​ the​ G protein​ inside
membrane, which a ​ ctivates​ the a ​ denyl​ ​cyclase​ inside each cell.
○ Adenyl​ c ​ yclase​ converts ​ATP​ to c ​ AMP​, activating ​enzyme​ ​controlled​ ​reactions​ in cell:
■ Glycogenolysis​ - ​glycogen​ converted to g ​ lucose​ (by ​phosphorylase​ A ​ )​
■ Gluconeogenesis​ - a ​ mino acid/fats​ converted to a ​ dditional​ g​ lucose
■ What might be the effect on the body?

■ More ​fats​ used in r​ espiration​ (as ​opposed​ to g ​ lucose​, so more glucose enters blood)
● Glucagon and insulin are a
​ ntagonistic​ - o
​ pposite​ ​effects​ on glucose concentration (​inhibit​ effects)

DIABETES MELLITUS
● Body ​unable​ to produce ​sufficient​ ​insulin​ to c ​ ontrol​ ​blood​ g
​ lucose​ ​concentration​ - can lead to
hyperglycemia​ after a meal, and h ​ ypoglycemia​ after fasting/exercise (as n ​ o​ g ​ lycogen​ ​reserves​).
● Type 1 diabetes - a ​ utoimmune​ response which d ​ estroys​ ​beta​ c​ ells​, so ​no​ i​ nsulin​ ​secreted​:
○ When g ​ lucose​ l​ evels​ become t​ oo​ ​high​, ​no​ ​insulin​ is secreted therefore n ​ o​ ​glucose​ moves
into the ​hepatocytes​, so n ​ o​ g​ lycogenesis​ can take place, meaning ​no​ ​glucose​ ​stored​ as
glycogen​.
○ Therefore blood glucose r​ emains​ too ​high​ (​hyperglycaemia​), and when glucose
concentration ​falls​, there are n ​ o​ glycogen ​reserves​, so n ​ o​ ​glycogenolysis​ can occur, so ​less
glucose​ r​ eleased​ back into the blood (​hypoglycaemia​).
○ Treated​ by ​insulin​ i​ njections​ - blood glucose m ​ onitored​ and correct insulin d ​ ose
administered​.
■ Alternatives include ​insulin​ p ​ ump​ ​therapy​, islet cell t​ ransplantation​, pancreas
transplant.
● Type 2 diabetes - n ​ on-insulin​ d​ ependent​ d ​ iabetes​ - ​not​ ​enough​ insulin produced, or n ​ ot​ r​ esponsive​.
○ Ageing​ causes ​decrease​ in ​responsiveness​ to i​ nsulin
○ Blood glucose ​concentration​ ​almost​ p ​ ermanently​ ​raised​, so major o ​ rgans​ d ​ amaged
○ Earlier onset of diabetes due to: ​obesity​, ​lack of exercise​, high s ​ ugar​ d ​ iet​, ​family​ ​history​.
○ Treated​ by ​lifestyle​ ​changes​ (eg ​losing​ ​weight​ and ​monitoring​ ​diet​)
■ Supplemented by m ​ edication​ that r​ educes​ the amount of ​glucose​ r​ eleased​ by ​liver
into bloodstream, or b ​ oosts​ amount of ​insulin​ r​ eleased​ from the ​pancreas​.
 ● Insulin ​previously​ extracted from pancreas of a ​ nimals​ (eg. pigs), but more recently produced by
genetically​ ​modified​ b​ acteria​, which has advantages: e
​ xact​ ​copy​ of human insulin, lower risk of
infection​, c
​ heaper​ to manufacture, fewer ​moral​ ​objections​, less chance of ​rejection​.

ADD EXTRA NOTES BELOW

SUMMARY: PLANT AND ANIMAL
RESPONSES
PLANT RESPONSES TO THE ENVIRONMENT
● Plants respond to the ​threats​ of ​herbivores​ (plant eating organisms):
○ Tannins​ - found in u ​ pper​ e
​ pidermis​ of ​leaves​ (make leaf ​taste​ b ​ ad​), and in r​ oots​ (prevent
infiltration​ by ​microorganisms​)
○ Alkaloids​ - found in g ​ rowing​ t​ ips​, f​ lowers​, and p​ eripheral​ ​cell​ ​layer​ of ​stems​ and ​roots​, and
they make the plant t​ aste​ b ​ itter​.
○ Pheromones​ - c ​ hemicals​ r​ eleased​ which a ​ ffect​ the ​behaviour​/​physiology​ of ​other
organisms​.
● Plants ​respond​ to the e ​ nvironment​ to help them ​survive​ long enough to ​reproduce​:
● Tropisms​ are ​directional​ g ​ rowth​ r​ esponses​ to ​changes​ in the ​environment​:
○ In p ​ ositive​ ​tropic​ r​ esponses​, plants grow t​ owards​ the ​stimulus​, and in ​negative​, ​away​.
○ Phototropism​ - s ​ hoots​ grow t​ owards​ l​ ight​ (​photosynthesis​).
○ Geotropism​ - roots grow ​towards​ pull of ​gravity
○ How will this be an advantage

○ Chemotropism​ - ​pollen​ t​ ubes​ grow d

​ own​ the s
​ tyle​ ​towards​ ​chemicals​ (​fertilisation​).
○ How may this be achieved?

○ Thigmotropism​ - ​shoots​ of ​climbing​ p ​ lants​ ​wind​ a​ round​ ​other​ p

​ lants​ or s
​ tructures​ (​support​).
● Nastic​ ​responses​ - n
​ on-directional​ ​responses​ to e ​ xternal​ s
​ timuli.
● Hormones​ ​coordinate​ plant ​responses​:
○ Cytokinins​ - p ​ romote​ ​cell​ ​division​, ​delay​ l​ eaf​ s
​ enescence​, o ​ vercome​ ​apical​ ​dominance
○ Abscisic acid - inhibits seed germination ​and​ growth, stomatal closure
○ Gibberellins, promote seed germination ​and​ stem growth
○ Ethene - promotes fruit ripening

CONTROLLING PLANT GROWTH

● Auxins​ are plant hormones which are ​responsible​ for r​ egulating​ plant ​growth​.
● If a
​ pex​ of plant b ​ roken​ o ​ ff​, ​side​ b
​ ranches​ ​grow​ from previously dormant lateral buds. This suggests
auxins​ ​from​ the ​apical​ b ​ ud​ p ​ revent​ ​lateral​ b
​ ud​ ​growth​ (removal of tip → auxin levels fall).
○ To ​test​ this, scientists applied a ​ uxin​ ​paste​ to c
​ ut​ e
​ nd​ of shoot, and l​ ateral​ ​buds​ d ​ id​ n
​ ot​ ​grow​.
○ Scientists ​manipulation​ could have had ​unexpected​ ​effect​: when s ​ hoot​ ​cut​ and ​cells
exposed​ to O ​ 2​​ a ​different​ h ​ ormone​ may have been p ​ roduced​ which p ​ romotes​ lateral ​growth​.
To avoid this, a ​ring​ of ​auxin​ ​transport​ i​ nhibitor​ was a ​ pplied​ b
​ elow​ the ​apex​ of the shoot and
lateral​ b
​ uds​ g​ rew​.
● Scientists concluded n ​ ormal​ ​auxin​ ​levels​ ​inhibit​ ​growth​, but ​low​ a ​ uxin​ ​levels​ ​promote​ ​growth​.
○ The ​variables​ (​axuin​ l​ evels​ and ​growth​ i​ nhibition​) m ​ ay​ have ​no​ ​impact​ on e ​ ach​ o​ ther​ or be
affected​ by a t​ hird​ ​variable​. Scientists now believe two other hormones are involved:
 ● Abscisic​ ​acid​ i​ nhibits​ b ​ ud​ g ​ rowth​ - h​ igh​ a ​ uxin​ in shoot keeps a ​ bscisic​ ​acid​ l​ evels​ h ​ igh​ in bud, but
when the ​tip​ r​ emoved​ (and ​auxin​ levels f​ all​), ​abscisic​ a ​ cid​ levels ​fall​ and b ​ uds​ start to g ​ row​.
● Cytokinins​ (​produced​ in ​roots​) promote b ​ ud​ ​growth​ - application of ​cytokinins​ to b ​ uds​ can o ​ verride
the ​apical​ ​dominance​ effect. ​High​ a ​ uxin​ levels cause the ​cytokinins​ to ​move​ to the a ​ pex​ and so the
shoot​ ​grows​ u ​ pwards​, but when a ​ pex​ is r​ emoved​ (and a ​ uxin​ levels f​ all​) c​ ytokinin​ ​spreads​ ​evenly​ -
buds ​grow​.
● Gibberellins​ are plant hormones responsible for ​control​ of ​stem​ e ​ longation​ and s ​ eed​ g ​ ermination​.
● When applied to ​dwarf​ v ​ arieties​ of plants, g ​ ibberellic​ ​acid​ (​GA​3​) caused the plants to ​grow​ ​taller​.
○ Could be a n ​ atural​ p ​ henomenon​ - GA​3​ c ​ an​ make plants grow taller, ​doesn’t​ ​necessarily​ in
nature​.
● Plants with ​higher​ l​ evels​ of ​GA​1​ were t​ aller​ - doesn’t mean that GA​1​ ​directly​ causes stem growth.
● Ent​-kaurene → *1* → GA​12​-aldehyde ⇢ GA​20​ → *2* → GA​1
● Le​ ​gene​ responsible for ​producing​ an e ​ nzyme​ (​*2*​) that converts ​GA​20​ to G ​ A​1​.
○ Homozygous​ r​ ecessive​ (​ ​le le​)​ produce n ​ o​ ​enzyme​ ​*2*​ → c ​ annot​ c ​ onvert​ G ​ A​20​ to G ​ A​1​.
○ Homozygous​ d ​ ominant​/h ​ eterozygous​ (​Le Le / Le le​) ​produce​ ​enzyme​ *​2*​ → c ​ an​ c ​ onvert​.
● Another plant with a m ​ utation​ ​blocking​ g ​ ibberellin​ p ​ roduction​ at (​*1*​) does ​not​ grow t​ all​, as ​no
gibberellin​ is ​produced​, because there is ​no​ s ​ ubstrate​ f​ or​ the ​pathway​, but the ​enzymes​ are ​present​.
● Grafting​ this plant ​onto​ a ​homozygous​ r​ ecessive​ (​le le​) plant resulted in the ​plant​ g ​ rowing​ ​tall​:
○ The ​shoot​ had ​no​ G ​ A​20​ of its o ​ wn​, but c ​ ould​ c ​ onvert​ ​GA​20​ to G ​ A​1​. ​Used​ G ​ A​20​ f​ rom​ the ​normal
plant​ (​le le​), confirming that G ​ A​1​ d
​ oes​ ​cause​ ​stem​ e ​ longation​.
● When ​seed​ a ​ bsorbs​ w ​ ater​, ​embryo​ r​ eleases​ g ​ ibberellin​ → travels to ​aleurone​ l​ ayer​ (​endosperm
region).
● The ​gibberellin​ enables the ​production​ of ​amylase​ → ​break​ ​down​ s ​ tarch​ into g ​ lucose​, providing a
respiratory​ ​substrate​ for the embryo, so ​protein​ s ​ ynthesis​ can o ​ ccur​ and the e ​ mbryo​ ​grows​.

INVESTIGATING TROPISMS
● Cell​ w
​ alls​ l​ imit​ ability to d
​ ivide​/​expand​ → ​growth​ occurs at ​meristems​ (​immature​ cells able to
divide​).
○ Apical​ meristems (at t​ ips​ of roots/shoots) → s ​ hoots/roots getting longer
○ Lateral​ b ​ ud​ meristems (at b ​ uds​) → give rise to s ​ ide​ ​shoots
○ Lateral​ meristems (​cylinder​ near ​outside​ of r​ oots​/​shoots​) → roots/shoots getting ​wider
○ Intercalary​ meristems (​between​ n ​ odes​) → ​shoot​ getting l​ onger​.
● Phototropic​ responses: illuminate different p ​ lants​ from different d ​ irections​ at different ​light
intensities​.
● Geotropic​ responses: plants in c ​ linostat​ (switched o ​ n​ for c​ ontrol​, ​off​ for ​experimental​).
● Describe a clinostat?

● Plant​ ​hormones​: 1. ​Control​, 2. ​Tip​ ​removed​, 3. T

​ ip​ ​covered​ with o ​ paque​ cap, 4. ​Tip​ ​covered​ with
transparent​ cap, 5. ​Tip​ s
​ eparated​ by ​gelatin​ ​block​, 6. T ​ ip​ s
​ eparated​ by ​mica​, 7. O
​ ffset​ ​blocks​ of
auxin​.
● Auxin​ m​ oves​ to s
​ haded​ s​ ide​ causing shaded side to e ​ longate​ f​ aster​ → shoot b ​ ends​.
 ● Mechanism for this? Draw a diagram to show this?

● Auxin​ i​ ncreases​ s​ tretchiness​ of ​cell​ w ​ all​ by promoting a ​ ctive​ ​transport​ of ​H​+​ by ​ATP​ ​synthase
enzyme​ ​into​ c
​ ell​ w
​ all​ → l​ ower​ p​ H​ → o ​ ptimum​ conditions for wall-loosening enzymes (​expansins​) →
break​ ​bonds​ in ​cellulose​ → h ​ ydrogen​ b ​ onds​ within cellulose d ​ isrupted​ → cell takes ​less​ ​water​ →
less​ ​rigid​.
● Phototropin 1​ promoted by ​blue​ l​ ight​. When l​ ight​ is ​shone​, there is a g ​ radient​ of ​phototropin​ ​1,​
causing ​auxin​ r​ edistribution​ through effect on ​PIN​ ​proteins​ (controlled by P ​ INOID​ ​molecules​).
● Auxin​ effect in r​ oots​ o​ pposite​ in ​shoots​ - ​inhibits​ cell e ​ longation​ → root grows d ​ ownwards​.
● To perform a ​serial​ d ​ ilution​ at 1​ 0​ m
​ l​ of solution to tube ​1,​ and 9 ​ ​m
​ l​ of ​water​ to ​other​ ​tubes​. Take ​1
ml​ from tube ​1​ and place i​ n​ tube 2 ​ ,​ take 1 ml from tube 2 and place in tube 3 ​etc​. Each ​10x​ ​more
dilute​.

COMMERCIAL USES OF PLANT HORMONES

● Dipping ​end​ of ​cutting​ in ​rooting​ p ​ owder​ (​auxin​ + t​ alcum​ ​powder​) encourages ​root​ g ​ rowth​.
● Artificial​ ​auxins​ used to p ​ revent​ l​ eaf​ ​fall​ and ​promote​ ​flowering​ for ​commercial​ f​ lower​ ​production​.
● Auxin can be ​applied​ to u ​ npollinated​ f​ lowers​ to grow ​seedless​ f​ ruit​: auxin promotes ​ovule​ g ​ rowth​ →
triggers ​production​ of ​auxin​ by ​tissues​ in the f​ ruit​ → ​complete​ ​developmental​ ​process​.
● Auxin used as ​herbicides​ to ​kill​ ​weeds​: m ​ an​ m ​ ade​ → more ​difficult​ to b ​ reak​ ​down​ so a​ ct​ on plant
for ​longer​, shoot growth ​promoted​ to an ​extreme​ → ​stem​ ​cannot​ s ​ upport​ itself → plant ​buckles​ →
death​.
● Cytokinins​ d ​ elay​ s
​ enescence​: used to prevent ​yellowing​ of ​lettuce​ leaves and used in ​tissue​ ​culture
to mass produce plants - produce lots of s ​ ide​ ​branches​ which each can be ​individually​ ​grown​.
● Gibberellins​ used to delay ​senescence​ in c ​ itrus​ f​ ruit​, improve ​apple​ s
​ hape​, ​grapes​ can grow ​bigger​.
● Gibberellins​ speed up b ​ rewing​ as cause b ​ arley​ ​germination​ to occur f​ aster​.
● Acid​ ​sprayed​ in ​solution​ which r​ eleases​ e ​ thene​ into the plants causes ​fruit​ r​ ipening​ and ​fruit​ ​drop​.
● Restricting​ e ​ thene​ (eg. low t​ emperatures​, low ​O2​​ , high ​CO​2​) ​prevents​ fruit ​ripening​ → s ​ tored​ for
longer​.

ADD EXTRA NOTES BELOW

THE MAMMALIAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
● Organisms need a ​communication​ s ​ ystem​ which must e ​ nable​: d
​ etection​ to c ​ hanges​ in (internal and
external) e
​ nvironment​, cell ​signalling​ between all parts of body, c ​ oordination​ of a range of ​effectors
to carry out responses to sensory input, and suitable r​ esponses​.
● Nervous system divided into the c ​ entral​ nervous system (​CNS​) and ​peripheral​ nervous system
(​PNS​).
● Central​ nervous system consists of the b ​ rain​ (containing 86 bn neurones) and ​spinal​ ​cord​.
● The brain is mainly composed of ​relay​ ​neurones​ which have ​multiple​ c ​ onnections​ → c ​ omplex​ p
​ aths​.
○ Most are ​non-myelinated​ cells → tissues look grey → g ​ rey​ ​matter​.
● The spinal cord contains many n ​ on-myelinated​ ​neurones​ (​central​ g ​ rey​ m
​ atter​), and also many
myelinated​ n​ eurones​ (​outer​ w
​ hite​ m​ atter​) for r​ apid​ response.
● If myelinated fibres transmit quicker why do we have unmyelinated fibres?

● Spinal​ c ​ ord​ protected by v ​ ertebral​ ​column​. ​Peripheral​ ​nerves​ e ​ nter​/​leave​ cord b ​ etween​ each
vertebrae​.
● PNS​ ensures r​ apid​ c ​ ommunication​ between s ​ ensory​ r​ eceptors​, ​CNS​ and e ​ ffectors​.
○ Comprised of ​sensory​/​motor​ ​neurones​ bundled together in c ​ onnective​ t​ issue​ s ​ heath​ →
nerves​.
● Sensory​ ​nervous​ s ​ ystem​: sensory f​ ibres​ ​entering​ ​CNS​ (​dendrites​ of sensory neurons) ​conduct
action​ ​potentials​ from the sensory receptors. These neurones have their c ​ ell​ b
​ ody​ in the d
​ orsal​ ​root​,
leading into the ​spinal​ c ​ ord​, and a s ​ hort​ ​axon​ connecting to ​other​ ​neurones​ in the CNS.
● Motor​ n ​ ervous​ s ​ ystem​ conducts ​action​ p ​ otentials​ from the ​CNS​ t​ o​ the ​effectors​: ​autonomic​ ​+
sensory​.
● Somatic​ nervous system consists of m ​ otor​ n
​ eurones​ that c ​ onduct​ ​action​ p ​ otentials​ from the ​CNS​ t​ o
effectors​ under ​voluntary​ ​control​ (eg. skeletal muscles). Mostly ​myelinated​ → ​rapid​.
● Autonomic​ nervous system consists of m ​ otor​ n​ eurons​ that c ​ onduct​ ​action​ p ​ otentials​ from the C ​ NS
to e
​ ffectors​ n ​ ot​ u
​ nder​ v ​ oluntary​ c ​ ontrol​ (eg. glands, cardiac muscle). M ​ ostly​ u ​ nmyelinated​ →
slower​.
● ANS splits into ​sympathetic​ s ​ ystem​ (​prepares​ body for ​activity​) and p ​ arasympathetic​ system
(​conserves​ energy) → a ​ ntagonistic​ systems.
● Sympathetic​: ​many​ n ​ erves​ out of C ​ NS​ each leading to s ​ eparate​ ​effector​, ​ganglia​ just ​outside​ ​CNS​,
short​ ​preganglionic​ neurons, ​long​ p ​ ostganglionic​ neurons, uses ​noradrenaline​ as neurotransmitter.
● Autonomic: f​ ew​ n ​ erves​ out of C ​ NS​ divide up to d ​ ifferent​ ​effectors​, ​ganglia​ in ​effector​ tissue, ​long
preganglionic​ neurons, ​short​ p ​ ostganglionic​ neurons, uses ​acetylcholine​ as neurotransmitter.
● Which type of system may be employed in a stress situation? What might be the effect on the body
and what might be the advantages?
THE BRAIN
● Cerebrum​ - two ​cerebral​ h
​ emispheres​, connected via the c
​ orpus​ c
​ allosum​. Humans = highly
developed.
● Explain just how highly developed the human brain is?

○ Cerebral​ c ​ ortex​ - o
​ utermost​ ​layer​ of the ​cerebrum​ consists of a ​thin​ ​layer​ of ​nerve​ c ​ ell
bodies​.
○ Divided into ​areas​ responsible for ​specific​ a ​ ctivities​ and ​body​ ​regions​:
○ Sensory​ areas indirectly receive ​APs​ from ​sensory​ ​receptors​ - ​size​/​sensitivity​ r​ elated
○ Association​ areas c ​ ompare​ s ​ ensory​ i​ nputs​ with ​previous​ ​experience​ to ​interpret​ ​input
○ Motor​ areas send ​APs​ to various e ​ ffectors​. ​Size​/​complexity​ ​related​. O ​ pposite​ sides.
● Cerebellum​ - controls b ​ alance​ and ​fine​ c ​ oordination​ of ​movement​. C ​ onnected​ to ​cerebellum​ by
pons​.
○ Receives​ i​ nformation​ from s ​ ensory​ r​ eceptors​ and ​coordinates​ ​fine​, c ​ omplex​ m ​ ovements​.
○ Control requires l​ earning​ → p ​ ractice​ → ​strengthens​ nervous p ​ athways​ → u ​ nconscious
control.
● Hypothalamus​ and ​pituitary​ c ​ omplex​ - controls ​homeostatic​ m ​ echanisms​ in the body.
○ Temperature​: h ​ ypothalamus​ d ​ etects​ ​changes​ in core body temperature and receives ​sensory
input​ from temperature r​ eceptors​ in s ​ kin​. Initiate response by n ​ ervous​/h ​ ormonal​ s ​ ystems​.
○ Osmoregulation​: h ​ ypothalamus​ contains ​osmoreceptors​ → monitor Ψ ​ ​ ​of​ ​blood​. When Ψ
changes, osmoregulatory centre initiates response via h ​ ormonal​ s ​ ystem​ → p ​ ituitary​ gland.
● Pituitary​ ​gland​ - acts in ​conjunction​ with h ​ ypothalamus​. Consists of t​ wo​ l​ obes​:
○ Posterior​ lobe - ​hormones​ produced in hypothalamus p ​ ass​ d
​ own​ ​neurosecretory​ c ​ ells​ →
blood​.
○ Anterior​ lobe - ​produces​ o ​ wn​ h ​ ormones​ which are ​released​ into b ​ lood​ in response to
production​ of ​releasing​ f​ actors​ by ​hypothalamus​.
● Medulla​ o​ blongata​ - controls ​non-skeletal​ (cardiac/involuntary smooth) m ​ uscles​ through A ​ NS​.
○ Contains centres for r​ egulating​ v ​ ital​ p​ rocesses​ (​cardiac​ centre: ​heart​ r​ ate​, v ​ asomotor​ centre:
circulation​ and ​blood​ ​pressure​, ​respiratory​ centre: rate/depth of ​breathing​).

ADD EXTRA NOTES BELOW

REFLEX ACTIONS
● Responses​ to changes in environment ​not involving any brain processing​ to c ​ oordinate​ the
movement​.
● Nervous pathways ​very​ s ​ hort​ → ensure reflex r​ apid​ → ​avoid​ ​danger​/d ​ amage​ → ​high​ ​survival​ v ​ alue​.
● The ​blinking​ r​ eflex​ is the t​ emporary​ c ​ losure​ of e ​ yelids​ ​protect​ eyes from d ​ amage​.
● Cranial​ reflex: nervous pathway passes through ​part​ ​of​ ​brain​ - still direct (not involving thought)
● Reflex​ ​arc​ - ​receptor​ and e ​ ffector​ are in the ​same​ ​place​ - eg. blinking reflex.
● The ​corneal​ r​ eflex​ is m ​ ediated​ by a s ​ ensory​ ​neurone​ from the c ​ ornea​, which e ​ nters​ the ​pons​.
● Sensory​ neurone → r​ elay​ neurone → m ​ otor​ neurone → f​ acial​ m ​ uscles​ → (usually b ​ oth​) eyelid
blinks​.
○ Sensory​ n ​ eurones​ ​also​ ​pass​ APs to ​myelinated​ neurones in ​pons​, carrying A ​ Ps​ to c
​ erebral
cortex​ → i​ nform​ higher centres of r​ esponse​. Response can therefore be ​overridden​ →
contacts​.
○ Myelinated​ neurones carry i​ mpulses​ t​ o/from cerebral cortex​ m ​ ore​ r​ apidly​ than unmyelinated
relay neurons in pons → ​inhibitory​ A ​ Ps​ ​transmitted​ → ​prevent​ ​APs​ i​ n​ m ​ otor​ ​neurone​.
● Knee​ ​jerk​ reflex - ​nervous​ ​pathways​ pass through s ​ pinal​ ​cord​ rather than through brain → s ​ pinal
reflex​.
○ Tendons​ connecting p ​ atella​ and q ​ uadriceps​ ​tapped​ → tendons s ​ tretch​ →​ pull​ quadricep
muscle​ → detected by m ​ uscle​ s ​ pindles​ (specialised ​stretch​ ​receptors​) → reflex causes
contraction​.
○ Only 2 ​ ​n
​ eurones​: s​ ensory​ neurone → ​motor​ neurone. F ​ ast​ and ​cannot​ be ​overridden​.
○ Inhibited​ during ​running​/​walking​ by ​cerebellum​ due to c ​ omplex​ ​pattern​ of impulses.
○ Outline the process in detail of the knee jerk reflex.

COORDINATING RESPONSES
● Detecting a t​ hreat​ to ​survival​ stimulates the ​fight​ or ​flight​ response → range of p ​ hysiological
activities which p​ repare​ the animal for a ​ ctivity​, either flight (​running​ away) or fight (​challenging​ the
threat).
○ Coordination​ of fight/flight: sensory inputs feed into ​sensory​ c ​ entres​ in c​ erebrum​ →
cerebrum passes signals to ​association​ c ​ entres​ → h​ ypothalamus​ stimulated by cerebrum →
increases ​activity​ in ​sympathetic​ N ​ S​ → releases h ​ ormones​ from a ​ nterior​ p​ ituitary​ g​ land​ →
increased ​activity​ of e​ ffectors​.
● Nervous​ communication = ​rapid​ response, ​hormonal​ system = ​long​ term response (release
adrenaline):
● Adrenaline​ (1st messenger) b ​ inds​ to r​ eceptor​ on membrane (non-steroid hormone) → G ​ ​p
​ rotein
stimulated → A ​ denyl​ c​ yclase​ converts A ​ TP​ to c​ AMP​ (2nd messenger) → activates e ​ nzyme​ action.
● Hypothalamus secretes ​releasing​ ​factors​ into blood → pass down ​portal​ ​vessel​ to p ​ ituitary​ g​ land​ →
stimulate release of ​tropic​ h ​ ormones​ (stimulate activity via e ​ ndocrine​ g
​ lands​) from ​anterior
pituitary​.
 ● Complete the table to compare and contrast nervous and hormonal systems

Characteristics Hormone Nervous

Duration

Form of
communication

Means of
communication

Speed

CONTROLLING HEART RATE

● The ​heart​ ​pumps​ blood around the c​ irculatory​ ​system​ → transport ​O​2​ and n
​ utrients​ to tissues,
remove w​ aste​ p
​ roducts​ (prevent toxic build ups), transport ​urea​ from liver to kidneys, distribute ​heat​.
● How is water important here?

● Circulatory​ s
​ ystem​ needs to ​adapt​ to meet n
​ eeds​ of ​cells​ (depending on a
​ ctivity​ ​levels​).
● Give examples of a change and the change in the body you would expect.

● Cardiac​ muscle needs c ​ oordination​ as the a ​ tria​ have a higher m

​ yogenic​ r​ ate​ than the ​ventricles​.
● Cardiovascular​ c ​ entre​ in ​medulla​ o​ blongata​ detect ​stimuli​: ​muscle​ s ​ tretch​ r​ eceptors​, ​pH​ of ​blood
(amount of C​ O​2​ being ​released​), ​blood​ p ​ ressure​.
○ Action​ p ​ otentials​ sent down a ​ ccelerans​ nerve → release n ​ oradrenaline​ → ​increase​ heart
rate.
○ Action​ p ​ otentials​ sent down v ​ agus​ ​nerve​ → release ​acetylcholine​ → ​reduce​ heart rate.
● Heart rate can be controlled a ​ rtificially​ by fitting a ​pacemaker​, which delivers electrical impulses.
MUSCLE
● Muscle cells are arranged in ​fibres​, which can ​contract​ (becoming ​shorter​) to produce a ​force​.
● Cannot elongate without an ​antagonist​: opposing ​muscle​, ​elastic​ ​recoil​, ​hydrostatic​ ​pressure​.
● Explain antagonism using named examples.

● Involuntary​ ​smooth​ ​muscle​ consists of individual cells, ​tapered​ at both ends ​→ ​spindle​ ​shaped​.
○ Each cell ≈ 500μm long, 5μm wide, containing a n ​ ucleus​ and b​ undles​ of ​actin​ and ​myosin​.
○ Contracts ​regularly​ and s​ lowly​ → does ​not​ ​tire​ easily → controlled by A ​ NS​.
○ Arranged in ​longitudinal​ and c​ ircular​ ​layers​ → found in w ​ alls​ of ​tubular​ structures.
○ Give an example of involuntary muscle. (clue peristalsis)

● Cardiac​ muscle forms the m ​ uscular​ part of the ​heart​. L

​ ong​, ​branched​ fibres → cross b ​ ridges​.
○ Cross​ b ​ ridges​ → electrical ​stimulation​ spreads ​evenly​ and contraction is a s ​ queezing​ action.
○ Cells joined by ​intercalated​ d ​ iscs​ (specialised ​plasma​ ​membranes​) → free ​diffusion​ of ions.
○ Contracts ​powerfully​ and ​continuously → ​ does n ​ ot​ t​ ire​ easily → controlled by ​ANS​.
● Voluntary​ (​skeletal​/​striated​) muscle occurs at ​joins​ in the skeleton → contraction ​moves​ ​skeleton​.
○ Each fibre is m ​ ultinucleate​, surrounded by s ​ arcolemma​ (membrane).
○ Actin​ and ​myosin​ arranged in a particular b ​ anded​ p ​ attern​ → ​striped​ appearance.
○ Voluntary muscle contracts ​quickly​/​powerfully​ → f​ atigues​ ​easily​ → controlled by ​SNS​.
● Muscle cell ​cytoplasm​ → s ​ arcoplasm​ → many m ​ itochondria​ and extensive s ​ arcoplasmic​ ​reticulum
● The ​neuromuscular​ j​ unction​ occurs between the nervous system and muscle. Similar to synapse
1. Action​ ​potentials​ arrive at end of a ​ xon​ → open ​calcium​ i​ on​ ​channels​ → ​calcium​ ​ions​ flood into
axon​.
2. Calcium causes ​vesicles​ of ​acetylcholine​ to move towards and f​ use​ with the m ​ embrane​.
3. Acetylcholine​ d ​ iffuses​ across junction and fuses with ​receptors​ in s ​ arcolemma​.
4. Wave of ​depolarisation​ spreads along ​sarcolemma​ → down t​ ransverse​ t​ ubules​ → into ​muscle​ f​ ibre​.
● Motor​ u
​ nit​: m
​ otor​ n
​ eurones​ ​divide​ → connect to ​several​ m ​ uscle​ ​fibres​ → c ​ ontract​ t​ ogether​.

MUSCLE CONTRACTION
● Myofibrils​ ​→​ ​contractile​ ​units​ ​→ c​ ontaining ​thick​ (​myosin​) and ​thin​ (​actin​) ​filaments​.
● Thin filaments align to make up the ​light​ ​band​ (held together by ​Z​ ​line​).
● Sarcomere​ found between two ​Z​ ​lines​ ​→ ​functional​ ​unit​ of the muscle.
● Thin​ f​ ilaments​ consist of ​two​ c ​ hains​ of ​actin​ subunits ​twisted​ round each other. ​Tropomyosin
wound round actin, attached to g ​ lobular​ molecules of t​ roponin​. Each t​ roponin​ c ​ omplex​ consists of
three​ p ​ olypeptides​, one ​binding​ to a ​ ctin​, one binding to ​tropomyosin​, one binding to ​Ca​2+​ (when
available).
○ At ​rest​, these ​molecules​ ​cover​ b ​ inding​ s
​ ites​ to which thick filaments can bind.
● Thick​ ​filaments​ consist of b ​ undles​ of ​myosin​: each myosin has t​ wo​ p ​ rotruding​ ​heads​ which stick
out at each end of the molecule - they are ​mobile​ and can b ​ ind​ to ​thin​ f​ ilaments​ when ​binding​ ​sites
exposed​.
● The ​sliding​ f​ ilament​ h
​ ypothesis​ - during contraction: ​light​ ​band​ and ​H​ ​zone​ get ​shorter​, ​Z​ l​ ines​ move
closer​ and the s ​ arcomere​ gets s ​ horter​ (​thick​ and t​ hin​ filaments ​slide​ p ​ ast​ one another).
● Muscle s ​ timulated​ → a​ ction​ p
​ otential​ passes along s ​ arcolemma​ down the ​transverse​ ​tubules​ into
the muscle ​fibre​ → carried to ​sarcoplasmic​ r​ eticulum​ → c ​ alcium​ ​ions​ ​released​ into sarcoplasm
 (from sarcoplasmic reticulum) → calcium ions ​bind​ to t​ roponin​ → a ​ lters​ s
​ hape​ of troponin → ​pulling
the ​tropomyosin​ aside → ​exposes​ b ​ inding​ ​sites​ on actin → m ​ yosin​ ​heads​ b ​ ind​ to the actin → c
​ ross
bridges​ between the filaments ​form​ → m ​ yosin​ heads ​move​ → a ​ ctin​ ​pulled​ past myosin filament →
myosin​ heads ​detach​ from actin → ​bind​ ​further​ u ​ p​ actin filament.
● Once ​contraction​ has ​occurred​, ​calcium​ ​ions​ rapidly p ​ umped​ back into ​sarcoplasmic​ r​ eticulum​ →
relax.
● ATP​ supplies ​energy​ for c​ ontraction​: ATP attaches to the m ​ yosin​ h ​ ead​ → allows ​movement​ of
myosin​.
● Millions of m​ yosin​ h
​ eads​ are involved in m​ uscle​ ​contraction​ → h ​ igh​ d​ emand​ for A ​ TP​.
● Muscle cells only contain enough ​ATP​ for 1 ​ -2s​ of contraction, so ATP must be r​ egenerated​ very
quickly:
○ Aerobic​ r​ espiration​ in ​mitochondria​ (helped by ​Bohr​ e ​ ffect​, limited by rate of ​oxygen
delivery​).
○ Anaerobic​ r​ espiration​ in s ​ arcoplasm​ of muscle tissue (​small​ amounts of ​ATP​, and l​ actic
acid​).
● Write out both equations

○ Creatine​ p
​ hosphate​ acts as a r​ eserve​ s
​ tore​ of phosphate groups (added to A
​ DP​ → A
​ TP​)
ADD EXTRA NOTES BELOW
SUMMARY: PHOTOSYNTHESIS
THE INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION
● Photosynthesis is the p ​ hysiological​ ​process​ which converts ​light​ ​energy​ i​ nto​ ​chemical​ e ​ nergy​.
● Autotrophic​ ​nutrition​ is the process by which ​organisms​ ​use​ c ​ hemical​ e​ nergy​ to s ​ ynthesize​ ​large
organic​ ​molecules​ (building blocks of living cells) ​from​ ​simple​ i​ norganic​ ​molecules​ (eg. water)
● Organisms that can photosynthesise are ​photoautotrophs​ as they use l​ ight​ as the source of their
autotrophic nutrition​. Also described as p ​ roducers​ as are f​ irst trophic level​ in food chain.
● 6CO​2​ + 6H​2​O + energy from photons ⟶ C​6​H​12​O​6​ + 6O​2
○ Each p ​ hoton​ contains a q ​ uantum​ of energy. ​Monosaccharide​ ​sugars​ formed.
● Example of ​carbon​ f​ ixation​ - c ​ arbon​ c
​ onverted​ into s
​ ugars​. Helps r​ egulate​ ​carbon​ d ​ ioxide​ l​ evels​.
● Photosynthesis​ is an both an ​endothermic​ and a ​reduction​ reaction.
● Organic​ m ​ olecules​ b ​ uilt​ in photosynthesis are ​respired​ during respiration, r​ eleasing​ c ​ hemical
energy​.
● Non-photosynthetic​ organisms are h ​ eterotrophs​ - gain energy by d ​ igesting​ ​complex​ o ​ rganic
molecules​ of food t​ o​ s ​ maller​ ​molecules​ which can be used as ​respiratory​ ​substrates​.
● Respiration​ is ​exothermic​ (releases chemical energy) and an ​oxidation​ reaction.
● C​6​H​12​O​6​ + 6O​2 ⟶
​ 6CO​2​ + 6H​2​O
● Complete the equation above.
● Photosynthesis and aerobic respiration are important in ​cycling CO​2​ a ​ nd​ O​2​ in the ​atmosphere​.
● Products​ of one process a ​ re​ raw m​ aterials​ for the other.
● Compensation​ p ​ oint​ is reached when the ​rate​ of ​photosynthesis​ is ​equal​ to the r​ ate​ of ​respiration​ -
there is ​no​ n ​ et​ g
​ ain​ or ​loss​ of ​carbohydrate​. Time taken to reach this is the ​compensation​ p ​ eriod​.
● Suggest a time of day when this might happen and explain why?

● Shade​ p
​ lants​ can u
​ tilise​ l​ ight​ of ​lower​ l​ ight​ ​intensity​ so have s
​ horter​ c
​ ompensation​ ​period​.

CHLOROPLASTS AND PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS

● Chloroplasts​ are the ​organelles​ w ​ ithin​ p
​ lant​ ​cells​ where ​photosynthesis​ ​takes​ p ​ lace​.
● Disc​ shaped, ​2-10μm long​, surrounded by a ​double​ m ​ embrane​ (the envelope) with an
intermembrane​ s ​ pace​ of width 1 ​ 0-20nm​ between inner and (​highly​ ​permeable​) o ​ uter​ ​membrane​.
● Two​ ​distinct​ r​ egions​: S ​ troma​ - f​ luid filled matrix (Light Independent Reaction), Grana - stacked
thylakoids (Light Dependent Reaction).
● Thylakoid​ ​membranes​ (​flattened​ ​discs​) are s ​ tacked​ to provide a​ large surface area​ for:
○ The ​distribution​ o ​ f​ the ​photosystems​ (contain photosynthetic pigments that trap light
energy)
○ The ​electron​ c ​ arriers​ and ​ATP​ s ​ ynthase​ e ​ nzymes​ to c ​ onvert light energy to ATP
● Proteins​ ​embedded​ i​ n​ the ​thylakoid​ m ​ embranes​ h ​ old​ the ​photosystems​ in place.
● Stroma​ is a f​ luid​ f​ illed​ m​ atrix​ which contains the ​enzymes​ needed to c ​ atalyse​ ​reactions​ of the light
independent stage of photosynthesis, as well as s ​ tarch​ ​grains​, ​oil droplets, small ribosomes, DNA.
● Outline the idea of compartmentalisation in relation to chloroplast function.
 ● Photosystems​ are ​funnel-shaped​ s ​ tructures​ within t​ hylakoid​ ​membranes​ containing p ​ hotosynthetic
pigments​ which ​absorb​ l​ ight​ of a ​particular​ w ​ avelength​. A ​ ppears​ the ​colour​ which it ​reflects​.
● Light​ ​energy​ is ​funnelled​ down to the ​primary​ ​pigment​ ​reaction​ ​centre​, which consists of a ​type​ o ​ f
chlorophyll​, at the b ​ ase​ o ​ f​ the ​photosystem​.
● Chlorophyll​ is a m ​ ixture​ o ​ f​ ​pigments​ containing a ​porphyrin​ ​group​ - ​magnesium​ a ​ tom​ with H ​ C​ ​tail​.
○ Chlorophyll​ a ​ ​ absorbs r​ ed​ l​ ight​ (and some b ​ lue​ ​light​ of ​wavelength​ ​440​ nm)
■ 2​ t​ ypes​ with different a ​ bsorption​ p ​ eaks​: P ​ 700​
​ in PSI a ​ nd​ P​680​ in PSII.
○ Chlorophyll​ b ​ ​ absorbs light 4 ​ 00-500​ nm and around ​640nm​. Appears y ​ ellow​/g ​ reen​.
● Accessory​ ​pigments​ are ​light​ a ​ bsorbing​ ​compounds​ which w ​ ork​ ​with​ ​chlorophyll​ a ​ ​:
○ Carotenoids​ absorb b ​ lue​ l​ ight​ 4​ 00-500​ nm, and r​ eflect​ ​yellow​ and o ​ range​ light.
○ Xanthophylls​ absorb b ​ lue​ and g ​ reen​ light ​375-550​ nm and ​reflect​ y ​ ellow​ light.

THE LIGHT DEPENDENT STAGE

● Photolysis​ - enzyme in ​PSII​ ​splits​ ​water​ into e ​ lectrons​, ​protons​, ​oxygen​ in the p ​ resence​ o ​ f​ ​light​.
○ Some ​oxygen​ p ​ roduced​ is u ​ sed​ b ​ y​ p
​ lant​ c ​ ells​ in respiration. ​Excess​ e ​ xits​ ​through​ ​stomata​.
○ Electrons​ r​ eplace​ those ​lost​ b ​ y​ P ​ SII​ when ​light​ ​hits​ it and e ​ lectrons​ are ​excited​.
○ Protons​ are used in ​photophosphorylation​ and ​pass​ through A ​ TP​ ​synthase​ to p ​ roduce​ A ​ TP​.
● Photophosphorylation​ is the g ​ eneration​ of ​ATP​ from ​ADP​ and i​ norganic​ ​phosphate​ in the ​presence
of ​light​. N
​ oncyclic​: P ​ SI​ and ​PSII​ producing A ​ TP​, ​O2​​ and N ​ ADPH​. ​Cyclic​: P ​ SI​ producing ​less​ ​ATP​.
● Photon​ of light ​strikes​ P ​ SII​. E ​ nergy​ c ​ hanneled​ to P ​ rimary Pigment Reaction Centre​. ​Pair​ of
electrons​ ​excited​ inside c ​ hlorophyll​ ​a​ m ​ olecule​ and e ​ scape​. ​Lost​ ​electrons​ a ​ t​ P
​ SII​ are ​replaced​ by
those f​ ormed​ in ​photolysis​.
● Electrons​ c ​ aptured​ by an e ​ lectron​ c ​ arrier​ - ​protein​ ​with​ ​Fe​3​+​ at ​centre​. ​Fe​3​+ ​reduced​ to F ​ e​2​+​, then
donates​ e ​ lectron​ t​ o​ the ​next​ electron c ​ arrier​ to become ​reoxidised​ ​Fe​3​+​. At e ​ ach​ s ​ tep​, ​some​ of the
electrons​ ​energy​ is r​ eleased​ which is then ​used​ to p ​ ump​ p​ rotons​ a ​ cross​ t​ hylakoid​ m ​ embrane​.
● Electrons​ are ​eventually​ c ​ aptured​ by ​another​ ​molecule​ of ​chlorophyll​ ​a​ in ​PSI​ - ​replacing​ the
electrons​ which were e ​ xcited​ by l​ ight​ e ​ nergy​.
● Ferredoxin​ (a ​protein-iron-sulfur​ c ​ omplex​) a ​ ccepts​ ​electrons​ e ​ xcited​ ​from​ ​PSI​ and p ​ asses​ ​them​ to
NADP​ ​in​ the ​stroma​.
● Protons​ ​accumulate​ i​ n​ the t​ hylakoid​ s ​ pace​ (as they have been p ​ umped​ in ​using​ the ​energy​ ​released
when​ ​electrons​ t​ ravel​ a ​ long​ the ​electron​ ​carrier​) c ​ reating​ a ​concentration​ ​gradient​. ​Protons​ ​diffuse
down​ this ​gradient​ through A ​ TP​ s​ ynthase​ ​enzymes​, which c ​ auses​ ​ADP​ and ​Pi​ to j​ oin​ to f​ orm​ A ​ TP​.
● Protons​ ​pass​ through the c ​ hannel​ and are ​then​ ​accepted​, a ​ long​ ​with​ e ​ lectrons​ from ​original
photolysis​ of water, b ​ y​ N​ ADP​ which ​becomes​ ​reduced​. ​Catalysed​ ​by NADP​ ​reductase​.
● In c
​ yclic​ ​photophosphorylation​, ​electrons​ p ​ ass​ ​back​ ​to​ the electron c ​ arrier​ a​ fter​ being ​excited​ from
PSI​, i​ nstead​ of p​ assing​ t​ o​ ​ferredoxin​. S ​ mall​ a ​ mounts​ of ​ATP​ ​produced​, but n ​ o​ ​reduced​ N ​ ADP​.
● The ​chloroplasts​ i​ n​ g ​ uard​ c ​ ells​ ​contain​ ​only​ P ​ SI​ as they ​only​ p ​ roduce​ A ​ TP​ which ​actively​ b ​ rings
potassium​ i​ ons​ i​ nto ​the c ​ ells​, ​lowering​ w ​ ater​ p ​ otential​ and ​causing​ ​water​ to f​ low​ i​ n​ by ​osmosis​. The
guard​ ​cells​ s ​ well​ as a result, and the s ​ tomata​ are o ​ pened​ (as there is ​light​).

THE LIGHT INDEPENDENT STAGE

● Takes​ p ​ lace​ i​ n​ the s
​ troma​, and ​relies​ ​on​ the ​products​ ​of​ the ​light​ ​dependent​ ​stage​ - ​ATP​ and
NADPH​.
● CO​2​ enters​
​ the l​ eaf​ through the s ​ tomata​ and ​diffuses​ through the s ​ pongy​ m ​ esophyll​ layer to the
palisade​ ​layer​, into the p ​ alisade​ ​cells​, through their t​ hin​ ​cellulose​ ​cell​ ​walls​ and into the ​chloroplast​.
● CO​2​ then ​combines​ with R ​ uBP​ (a c ​ arbon​ d​ ioxide​ a​ cceptor​), ​catalysed​ b ​ y​ R
​ uBisCO​ to form an
unstable​ ​intermediate​ s ​ ix​ ​carbon​ c ​ ompound​ which i​ mmediately​ ​breaks​ ​down​ into ​two​ ​molecules​ of
a3​ ​ ​carbon​ ​compound​ called G ​ lycerate 3 Phosphate​ (​ GP).​ ​Carbon​ has now been ​fixed​ - ​maintaining
concentration​ g ​ radient​ f​ or​ ​diffusion​.
● GP​ is then r​ educed​ u ​ sing​ ​ATP​ and h ​ ydrogen​ ​ions​ from r​ educed​ N ​ ADP​ to f​ orm​ ​triose phosphate
(GP)​.
● 10​ ​of​ ​every​ ​12​ m ​ olecules​ ​of​ ​TP​ are ​used​ to r​ egenerate​ ​6​ m ​ olecules​ of ​RuBP​. Remaining 2 ​
molecules​ of TP ​are​ the p ​ roduct​, which can be ​used​ t​ o​ ​synthesis​ ​organic​ ​compounds​.
● The ​Calvin​ C ​ ycle​ o ​ nly​ r​ uns​ d ​ uring​ d​ aylight​, as p​ roducts​ f​ rom​ the l​ ight​ ​dependent​ s ​ tage​ (NADPH and
ATP) are ​needed​ f​ or​ i​ t​ t​ o​ r​ un​.
● Protons​ are p ​ umped​ i​ nto​ t​ hylakoid​ ​space​ in L ​ DS​, l​ owering​ ​pH​ ​of​ ​stroma​ to 8 ​ ​ - ​optimum of​ R ​ uBisCO​.
 ● In​ ​daylight​, ​concentration​ o
​ f​ m
​ agnesium​ ​ions​ ​increases​ in s
​ troma​ (​transpiration​) which is a
cofactor​ for R ​ uBisCO​ and ​activates​ i​ t​.
● What do we mean by a cofactor?

● Ferredoxin​ also ​activates​ e

​ nzymes​ ​involved​ ​in​ the c
​ alvin​ c
​ ycle​ when r​ educed​ d
​ uring​ L
​ DS​.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

● At any given moment, the ​rate​ o ​ f​ a ​metabolic​ ​process​ that d ​ epends​ o
​ n​ ​multiple​ ​factors​ is ​limited​ b
​ y
the​ f​ actor​ that is p
​ resent​ i​ n​ its l​ east​ f​ avourable​ l​ evel​.
● Light​ ​intensity​ provides e ​ nergy​ to p ​ ower​ the L
​ DS​ which p ​ roduces​ ​NADPH​ and A ​ TP​ for the L ​ IS​.
● Light​ also ​causes​ the ​stomata​ to o ​ pen​ so that ​gaseous​ e ​ xchange​ can o ​ ccur​, leading to w ​ ater
uptake​.
● How may this happen?

● When there is l​ ittle​ or ​no​ l​ ight​, ​GP​ c

​ annot​ be ​reduced​ (as ​no​ N ​ ADPH​ or ​ATP​) so T ​ P​ levels f​ all​ and G ​ P
levels ​build​ ​up​. As ​TP​ l​ evels​ have f​ allen​, ​RuBP​ c​ annot​ ​be​ r​ egenerated​ so levels of R ​ uBP​ ​fall​.
● Carbon​ d ​ ioxide​ in the atmosphere and in aquatic habitats are h ​ igh​ e
​ nough​ that C ​ O​2​ ​isn’t​ ​usually​ a
limiting factor,​ but if it ​falls​ ​below 0.01​%, then R ​ uBP​ c
​ annot​ a ​ ccept​ i​ t​, so ​RuBP​ l​ evels​ r​ ise​, and G​ P
and T​ P​ ​cannot​ b​ e​ m
​ ade​.
● Temperature​ a ​ ffects​ p
​ hotosynthesis​ as it is ​controlled​ by many e ​ nzymes​.
● How is this significant?

● As ​temperature​ rises u ​ p​ t​ o​ 3
​ 0℃​, rate of p
​ hotosynthesis​ ​increases​ due to h ​ igher​ ​kinetic​ e
​ nergy​.
● At ​temperatures​ a ​ bove​ 3 ​ 0℃​, growth mates may reduce due to p ​ hotorespiration​: ​O​2​ ​competes​ with
CO​2​ for R
​ uBisCO’s​ active site, ​reducing​ the a ​ mount​ of ​CO​2​ ​accepted​ by ​RuBP​, so l​ ess​ ​GP​ and T ​ P​ is
formed​. H ​ owever​, due to l​ ack​ of ​TP​, ​RuBP​ ​cannot​ be r​ egenerated​, so ​accumulated​ R ​ uBP​ ​falls​.
● At ​temperatures​ a ​ bove​ 4 ​ 5℃​, the ​enzymes​ i​ nvolved​ may be d ​ enatured​, so ​GP​, T
​ P​ and ​RuBP​ ​fall​.
● If a ​plant​ is ​water​ s​ tressed​, ​cells​ ​lose​ w ​ ater​ and become p ​ lasmolysed​. ​Plant​ ​roots​ p ​ roduce​ a​ bscisic
acid​ that ​causes​ the s ​ tomata​ to c ​ lose​ when ​translocated​ to l​ eaves​. T​ issues​ become f​ laccid​ and
wilt​.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS: PRACTICALS

● To ​measure​ the ​rate​ of p
​ hotosynthesis​, ​measure​ ​rate​ of ​uptake​ of​ raw​ m
​ aterials​/o ​ xygen
production​.
● Limitations​ of m
​ easuring​ o ​ xygen​ production are s ​ ome​ ​oxygen​ will be u
​ sed​ ​for​ ​respiration​, and ​some
of the ​collected​ o
​ xygen​ may ​contain​ ​dissolved​ ​nitrogen​.
● Photosynthometer​ (aka A ​ udus​ ​microburette​) can be ​used​ to m
​ easure​ ​rate​ of ​photosynthesis​.
● Consider the variables if you were to use one of these?
ADD EXTRA NOTES BELOW
SUMMARY: RESPIRATION
THE NEED FOR CELLULAR RESPIRATION
● Living organisms need to respire to ​release​ e​ nergy​ (the ​capacity​ to do w
​ ork​) stored in ​organic
molecules​, to s​ ynthesise​ A
​ TP​ from ATP and P​i ,​ which can be ​hydrolysed​ to release ​energy​ to drive
biological​ p
​ rocesses​: active transport, endocytosis, exocytosis, synthesis, DNA replication, cell
division.
● Define these terms.

● Cell m
​ etabolism​ the ​collective​ term for all the ​chemical​ r​ eactions​ which take place ​within​ c ​ ells​.
○ Anabolic​ reactions s ​ ynthesizes​ large molecules, ​catabolic​ reactions h ​ ydrolyse​ large
molecules.
● Light​ ​energy​ allows ​photoautotrophs​ to p ​ hotosynthesise​ which builds up c ​ hemical​ ​potential​ ​energy
in the form of o ​ rganic​ molecules. H ​ eterotrophs​ ​consume​ and r​ espire​ these molecules, releasing the
chemical potential energy as h ​ eat​, or more chemical potential energy as A ​ TP​. ​ATP​ is a
phosphorylated​ n ​ ucleotide​, containing a ​ denine​ and ​3​ p
​ hosphate​ ​groups​.
○ Relatively​ s ​ table​ (does not break down to ATP and P​i​ in solution, but readily hydrolysed).
● Hydrolysis​ of ​ATP​ releases s ​ mall​ ​manageable​ quantities of e ​ nergy​ which isn’t ​wasteful​ or
damaging​.
● Release of ​heat​ (both in r​ espiration​ and during ​ATP​ h ​ ydrolysis​) keeps organisms w ​ arm​ and ​enzyme
catalysed reactions near their ​optimum​ rate.

GLYCOLYSIS
● The first stage in both a ​ erobic​ and a ​ naerobic​ respiration - a ​10​ ​stage​ ​metabolic​ ​pathway​ occurring in
the ​cytoplasm​ of all living organisms, converting ​glucose​ to p ​ yruvate​.
● NAD​ (​nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide​) is a ​non-protein​ molecule h ​ elping​ ​dehydrogenase
enzymes​ carry out o ​ xidation​ by a ​ ccepting​ (​up​ t​ o​ 2 ​ ​) h
​ ydrogen​ a ​ toms​ to become r​ educed​ ​NAD​. In this
state, p
​ rotons​ and ​electrons​ are ​carried​ to the c ​ ristae​ to be used in ​oxidative​ p ​ hosphorylation​ to
produce ATP.
● When ​NAD​ ​releases​ ​protons​ which it accepted, it becomes r​ eoxidised​ N ​ AD​ - accept ​more​ ​protons​.
● Glucose​ is a ​hexose​ s​ ugar​ and its molecules are s ​ table​, so needs to be ​activated​ before splitting into
two three-carbon compounds.
1. ATP → ADP + P​i ​ (hydrolysis). Phosphoryl group added (C1) to glucose → hexose monophosphate.
2. ATP → ADP + P​i .​ Phosphoryl group added (C6) to hexose monophosphate → hexose bisphosphate.
3. Each ​hexose​ b​ isphosphate​ s ​ plit​ into two t​ hree-carbon​ compounds called t​ riose​ ​phosphate​.
● Each​ molecule of ​TP​ contains o ​ ne​ of the ​phosphate​ g ​ roups​.
4. Dehydrogenase​ e ​ nzymes​ (aided by c ​ oenzyme​ N ​ AD​) ​remove​ ​hydrogen​ (​oxidation​) f​ rom​ t​ riose
phosphate​ to form t​ wo​ m ​ olecules​ of ​pyruvate​.
● 4​ molecules of ​ATP​ ​produced​ (4ADP + 4P​i​ → 4ATP), and ​2​ molecules of N ​ AD​ ​reduced​.
● Net​ formation: ​2​ molecules of ​red​. N ​ AD​, ​2​ molecules of p ​ yruvate​, ​2​ molecules of A ​ TP​ (as ​2 used​).
THE STRUCTURE OF THE MITOCHONDRION
● Mitochondria are ​rod​, t​ hread​ or ​spherical​ shaped, with d ​ iameters​ of ​0.5-1μm​ and ​lengths​ of ​2-5μm​.
● The ​matrix​ is a ​gel​ like substance enclosed by the ​inner​ m ​ embrane​ in which the ​link​ r​ eaction​ and
Krebs​ ​cycle​ take place. It c​ ontains​ e ​ nzymes​ needed to catalyse these phases, molecules of N ​ AD​ and
FAD​, ​oxaloacetate​, looped ​mDNA​ and ​mitochondrial​ r​ ibosomes​.
● The ​outer​ ​membrane​ is a ​smooth​ ​phospholipid​ ​bilayer​ containing p ​ roteins​, which act as c ​ arriers​ or
form c ​ hannels​ to allow the ​passage​ of molecules (eg. pyruvate) into the mitochondrion.
● The ​inner​ membrane is a ​lipid​ b ​ ilayer​ folded into c ​ ristae​, giving a l​ arger​ s​ urface​ ​area​ for ​electron
carriers​ (arranged in transport chains) and A ​ TP​ s
​ ynthase​ ​enzymes​ to be e ​ mbedded​. The inner
membrane is ​less​ p ​ ermeable​ to s ​ mall​ i​ ons​ (eg. hydrogen ions - ​protons​) than the outer membrane.
● The ​intermembrane​ s ​ pace​ is found b ​ etween​ the two membranes and is involved in ​oxidative
phosphorylation​. Inner membrane in c ​ lose​ c​ ontact​ with m ​ atrix​, so ​red​. ​NAD​/​FAD​ can d ​ eliver​ ​H+​​ .

THE LINK REACTION AND THE KREBS CYCLE

● Pyruvate​ (produced in g ​ lycolysis​) passes through the outer and inner mitochondrial m ​ embranes
through ​pyruvate-H​+​ symport channels​ - a transport p ​ rotein​ which transports ​2 ions​ in the ​same
direction​.
1. Pyruvate is d ​ ecarboxylated​ (removal of carboxyl group) → source of some ​CO​2​ ​released​.
2. Pyruvate is d ​ ehydrogenated​ (removal of hydrogen) to produce an a ​ cetyl​ ​group​.
3. Acetyl group combines with c ​ oenzyme​ A ​ ​ to form ​acetyl CoA​ (acetyl group carried to Krebs by CoA).
4. Coenzyme N ​ AD​ becomes r​ educed​.
● Overall, from 1 glucose, in the link reaction, 2 red. NAD, 0 red. FAD, 2 CO​2​ and 0 ATP are produced.
● As 2 molecules of acetyl CoA are formed, there are ​2​ ​turns​ of ​Krebs​ cycle for ​each​ molecule of
glucose​.
1. Acetyl​ ​group​ r​ eleased​ from ​acetyl CoA​ and ​combines​ with o ​ xaloacetate​ (4C) to form ​citrate​ (6C).
2. Citrate​ is d
​ ecarboxylated​ and d ​ ehydrogenated​ to produce a ​5C​ compound, 1 ​ CO​2​ , 1
​ red. NAD​.
3. 5C​ compound is d ​ ecarboxylated​ and ​dehydrogenated​ to produce a ​4C​ compound, 1 ​ CO​2​ , 1
​ red.
NAD.
4. 4C​ compound ​temporarily​ ​combines​ with C ​ oA​, s
​ ubstrate-level​ ​phosphorylation​ takes place to
produce one molecule of A ​ TP​. 4C compound released.
5. 4C compound is ​dehydrogenated​, producing a d ​ ifferent​ ​4C​ compound and a molecule of r​ educed
FAD​.
6. Isomerase​ ​enzymes​ catalyse r​ earrangement​ of the 4C compound. Further d ​ ehydrogenation​,
regenerates​ a molecule of o ​ xaloacetate​, so the cycle can continue.
● Overall, from 1 glucose, in the Krebs cycle, 6 red. NAD, 2 red. FAD, 4 CO​2​ and 2 ATP are produced.
● Despite O​2​ not being used, Link Reaction and Krebs Cycle will not run without oxygen and so are
aerobic​.
● Other​ s
​ ubstrates​, besides glucose, can be ​aerobically​ ​respired​.
○ Fatty​ a ​ cids​ are ​broken​ d ​ own​ to many molecules of​ acetate​ that enter ​Krebs​ via ​CoA​.
○ Glycerol​ can be converted to p ​ yruvate​ and enter Krebs via the l​ ink​ r​ eaction​.
○ Amino​ a ​ cids​ may be ​deaminated​ and the rest of the molecule can enter the K ​ rebs​ c
​ ycle​, or
be changed to ​pyruvate​ or a ​ cetyl​ C
​ oA​.

OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION AND THE CHEMIOSMOTIC THEORY

1. Red​. N
​ AD​ and ​red​. ​FAD​ are r​ eoxidised​ when they ​deliver​ their ​hydrogen​ a ​ toms​ to the E
​ lectron
Transport Chain​.
2. Hydrogen​ a ​ toms​ r​ eleased​ from the ​reduced​ ​coenzymes​ split into ​protons​ and ​electrons​.
3. The ​protons​ go into ​solution​ in the mitochondrial m ​ atrix​, and ​electrons​ pass a ​ long​ the ​ETC​.
4. Each ​electron​ ​carrier​ c​ ontains​ i​ ron​ ​ion​ - the iron ion can g ​ ain​ an e​ lectron​ to become ​reduced​ ​Fe​2+​.
The reduced iron ion then d ​ onates​ the ​electron​ to the n ​ ext​ iron ​ion​ i​ n​ the ​chain​, becoming r​ eoxidised
3+​
Fe​ .
5. Energy​ r​ eleased​ (as electrons pass along chain) used to ​pump​ ​protons​ into i​ ntermembrane​ s ​ pace​.
6. As ​protons​ ​accumulate​ in the intermembrane space, a proton g ​ radient​ f​ orms​ ​across​ the ​membrane​.
 7. Proton gradient ​across​ i​ nner​ ​membrane​ generate a ​chemiosmotic​ p ​ otential​, known as a ​proton
motive​ ​force​ (pmf). Source of ​potential​ e ​ nergy​, which is used in the ​formation​ ​of​ A ​ TP​.
8. Protons ​cannot​ ​diffuse​ t​ hrough​ the lipid ​bilayer​ of the membranes, as the o ​ uter​ m​ embrane​ has a
low​ degree of p ​ ermeability​ to protons, and the ​inner​ m ​ embrane​ is ​completely​ ​impermeable​ to
protons.
9. Instead, ​protons​ d ​ iffuse​ t​ hrough​ protein c ​ hannels​ associated with ​ATP​ s​ ynthase​ ​enzymes​ .
10. The action of ​protons​ d ​ iffusing​ down their gradient and flowing ​through​ the ​ATP​ s ​ ynthase​ enzymes
causes a ​conformational​ ​change​ in the ATP synthase ​enzyme​, which allows A ​ DP​ and ​Pi​​ to f​ orm
ATP​.
11. Oxygen​ is the f​ inal​ e
​ lectron​ a ​ cceptor​ - it combines with ​electrons​ coming off the e ​ lectron​ ​transport
chain​, and combines with p ​ rotons​ which have diffused down the A ​ TP​ synthase c ​ hannel​, f​ orming
water​.
● What is the importance of this?

● From o ​ ne​ molecule of g ​ lucose​, 1 ​ 0​ molecules of r​ ed​. N

​ AD​ are formed, which can produce 2 ​ 5​ ​ATP​.
The ​2​ molecules of ​red​. ​FAD​ can produce 3 ​ ​ molecules of A ​ TP​, so overall ​28​ can be produced ​from
OP​.
● 2​ ATP (from ​glycolysis​) + ​2​ ATP (from ​Krebs​) + 2 ​ 8​ ATP (from o ​ xidative​ ​phosphorylation​) = 3​ 2​ A
​ TP​.
○ Some ​ATP​ used to ​actively​ t​ ransport​ p ​ yruvate​ i​ nto​ ​mitochondria​, some used to ​transport
NAD​ (​from​ g
​ lycolysis​) i​ nto​ ​mitochondria​, and some ​protons​ l​ eak​ through o ​ uter​ m
​ embrane​.

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION IN EUKARYOTES

● In a
​ naerobic​ c ​ onditions​ (without O​2​), ​O2​​ is u ​ nable​ to a ​ ct​ as the ​final​ e​ lectron​ a​ cceptor​, → ​protons
unable​ to c ​ ombine​ with e ​ lectrons​ (and O​2​) to ​form​ ​H2​​ O​ → p​ rotons​ b​ uild​ ​up​ in the matrix → p ​ roton
gradient​ ​reduced​ → ​oxidative​ p ​ hosphorylation​ s ​ tops​ → ​red​. ​NAD​/​FAD​ unable to unload hydrogen
atoms → ​can’t​ b ​ e​ r​ eoxidised​ → ​Krebs​ c ​ ycle​ and ​link​ ​reaction​ ​stops​. A ​ erobic​ s ​ topped​ → ​less​ ​ATP​.
● Glycolysis​ can s ​ till​ o ​ ccur​ but r​ educed​ N ​ AD​ (generated in oxidation of triose phosphate to pyruvate)
must be r​ eoxidised​ - this cannot occur in electron transport chain so requires ​different metabolic
path​.
● Both e ​ thanol​ (​fungi​ - eg. yeast) and l​ actate​ (​mammals​) f​ ermentation​ pathways occur in the
cytoplasm​.
● Ethanol​ f​ ermentation​: each ​pyruvate​ d ​ ecarboxylated​ (removal of carboxyl group - ​releases​ ​CO​2​)
catalysed by p ​ yruvate​ d ​ ecarboxylase​ (aided by c ​ oenzyme​ ​thiamine​ ​diphosphate​) to produce ​ethanal
→ ethanal ​accepts​ h ​ ydrogen​ from ​red​. ​NAD​ to form ​ethanol​ (catalysed by e ​ thanol​ d ​ ehydrogenase​).
○ Red​. N ​ AD​ is r​ eoxidised​ → can a ​ ccept​ m ​ ore​ ​hydrogen​ from ​triose​ ​phosphate​ → A ​ TP
production​ can ​continue​ as triose phosphate is oxidised to pyruvate as (glycolysis
continues).
● Lactate​ ​fermentation​: p ​ yruvate​ ​accepts​ ​hydrogen​ atoms from ​red​. N ​ AD​ (catalysed by l​ actate
dehydrogenase​) to form ​lactate​, and the r​ ed​. ​NAD​ is r​ eoxidised​, so ​glycolysis​ c ​ ontinues​.
○ Lactate​ (produced in ​muscle​ ​tissue​) is carried to the l​ iver​ v ​ ia​ the ​blood​, where (when m ​ ore​ O
​ ​2
is available) it is c ​ onverted​ either back to ​pyruvate​, or r​ ecycled​ to ​glucose​ and g ​ lycogen​.
○ If l​ actate​ were n ​ ot​ ​removed​, ​pH​ would f​ all​ and the ​action​ of ​enzymes​ involved i​ n​ g ​ lycolysis
and ​muscle​ c ​ ontraction​ would be i​ nhibited​.
● Only 2​ ​A
​ TP​ p​ roduced​ per molecule of glucose (≈​1/15th​ of that produced in aerobic respiration),
though y ​ ield​ may be ​large​ as ​ATP​ ​not​ ​fully broken​ ​down​.
PRACTICAL INVESTIGATIONS INTO RESPIRATION RATES IN YEAST
● Yeast​ is a s
​ ingle​ ​celled​ f​ ungi​ (​eukaryote​) which ​reproduces​ ​asexually​ by m ​ itosis​. Reproduction
relies​ on a s​ upply​ o
​ f​ A
​ TP​ therefore the r​ ate​ of ​respiration​ depends on o ​ xygen​ a
​ vailability​.
● Placing yeast in ​flasks​ containing ​cider​ in a ​ erobic​/​anaerobic​ ​conditions​ measures ​respiration​ r​ ates​.
● A ​haemocytometer​ can be used to c ​ ount​ the number of ​cells​ within a sample.

ENERGY VALUES OF DIFFERENT RESPIRATORY SUBSTRATES

● Carbohydrates​: g ​ lucose​ (​monosaccharide​) is main respiratory substrate → ​only​ u ​ sable​ ​respiratory
substrate​ for some cells (eg. b ​ rain​ cells and ​RBCs​).
○ Disaccharides​ d ​ igested​ to m ​ onosaccharides​ for respiration, p ​ olysaccharides​ (glycogen in
animals, starch (amylopectin/amylose) in plants) h ​ ydrolysed​ to free up glucose, other
monosaccharides​ (fructose/galactose) ​converted​ to g ​ lucose​ by ​isomerase​ enzymes.
● Lipids​: (3 fatty acids : 1 glycerol) are ​important​ r​ espiratory​ s ​ ubstrates​ for many ​tissues​ - (​muscle​)
○ Glycerol​ converted to ​triose​ p ​ hosphate​ and respired through g ​ lycolysis​.
○ Fatty​ a ​ cid​ t​ ails​ contain l​ ots​ of ​hydrogen​/c ​ arbon​ and l​ ittle​ ​oxygen​ → lots of ​protons​ (for
oxidative phosphorylation) → produce ​more​ ​ATP​ than ​carbohydrates​ → ​better​ substrate.
○ Fatty​ a ​ cid​ c​ ombines​ with C ​ oA​ (​needs​ ​energy​ - ​from​ ​hydrolysis​ of A ​ TP​ to A​ MP​) → ​fatty​ ​acid​ -
CoA​ c ​ omplex​ transported to m ​ atrix​ → broken down to 2 ​ ​ ​carbon​-​acetyl​ ​groups​, e ​ ach​ a
​ ttached
to C​ oA​ → ​beta-oxidation​ ​pathway​ generates r​ educed​ N ​ AD​/F ​ AD​ → a ​ cetyl​ g
​ roup​ ​released
from CoA → enters K ​ rebs​ by combining with oxaloacetate.
● Proteins​: a​ mino​ a ​ cids​ d ​ eaminated​ (removal of amino group) in l​ iver​ → forms k ​ eto​ a
​ cid​ → enters
respiratory pathway as either p ​ yruvate​, ​acetyl​ ​CoA​ or a ​Krebs​ c ​ ycle​ a ​ cid​.
● More​ ​protons​ available for chemiosmosis = ​ ​m
​ ore​ A
​ TP​, so the more hydrogen atoms within a
molecule of respiratory substrate, the more ATP that can be generated per molecule of substrate:
○ Carbohydrate - 15.8 kJ.g​-1​, Lipid - 39.4 kJ.g​-1​, Protein - 17.0 kJ.g​-1​.
● Respiratory​ q ​ uotient​ = C ​ O​2​ produced / O​2​ consumed
○ RQ > 1​ → a ​ naerobic​ t​ aking​ p ​ lace​ as CO​2​ produced > O​2​ being consumed.

PRACTICAL INVESTIGATIONS INTO FACTORS AFFECTING RESPIRATION RATES

● Respirometers​ measure the ​rate​ of ​respiration​ by measuring the v ​ olume​ of ​oxygen​ ​absorbed​ (CO​2
removed by soda lime). ​Liquid​ ​moves​ as ​oxygen​ is ​absorbed​, and ​volume​ ​calculated​ if ​radius
known.
● Varying​ ​temperature​ between readings (allow ​time​ for organisms to a ​ djust​) measures how
respiration​ is a
​ ffected​ by t​ emperature​: rate will i​ ncrease​ (​kinetics​) and then d ​ ecrease​ (​enzymes
denatured​).
○ Animals​ should only be used between ​10-40 ℃​. F ​ ungal​ m​ aterial​ at ​more​ ​extreme
temperatures.
● Effect of ​substrate​ c
​ oncentration​ can be m ​ easured​ using ​yeast​ ​suspensions​ with d ​ iffering
concentrations​ of glucose. If ​omit​ ​NaOH​, ​CO​2​ e
​ volution​ measured over specific time.
● Fermentation​ t​ ubes​ may be used to investigate ​efficiency​ of yeast at r​ espiring​ ​different​ ​substrates​.
ADD EXTRA NOTES BELOW:
MODULE 6: Genetics and ecosystems

SUMMARY: CELLULAR CONTROL

GENE MUTATIONS
● Mutations​ are ​random​ changes to the genetic material, either in the ​structure​ or ​number​ of
chromosomes​, or changes to ​DNA​ (gene mutations).
● Which may be most severe, explain your reasons.

● Somatic​ mutations (errors associated with ​mitotic​ division) are not passed to offspring.
● Inherited​ mutations (errors associated with ​meiosis​ and g ​ amete​ formation) are passed on.
● Point​ mutations - one ​base​ is s
​ ubstituted​ for another base.
○ Silent​ - triplet with replaced base codes for the ​same​ a ​ mino​ ​acid​ (DNA code is ​degenerate​).
○ Missense​ - triplet with replaced base codes for a d ​ ifferent​ a ​ mino​ ​acid​ → changes protein.
○ Nonsense​ - triplet with replaced base becomes a s ​ top​ t​ riplet​ → no more amino acids added.
● Indel​ mutations - one or more ​nucleotides​ are i​ nserted​ or ​deleted​ from length of DNA → f​ rameshift​.
● Explain precisely the impact of a frameshift mutation.

○ Insertions or deletions of amino acids (not in multiples of 3) lead to a frameshift - all

subsequent​ base ​triplets​ are changed → protein severely changed → d ​ egrades​.
○ Expanding​ t​ riple​ ​nucleotide​ r​ epeats​ occur when an e ​ xtra​ ​repeating​ ​triplet​ is inserted during
meiosis - this may occur e ​ ach​ g​ eneration​, and only take effect once a ​threshold​ is reached.
● Not all mutations are ​harmful​ - many are neither advantageous or disadvantageous (eg. ear lobes).

REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION

● Enzymes catalysing metabolic reactions are synthesised at constant rates, but enzymes that are only
needed under ​specific​ ​conditions​ are ​synthesised​ at ​varying​ r​ ates​ according to the c
​ ell’s​ n
​ eeds​.
● Why do you think these ideas have come from the study of prokaryotes?

● E. coli​ normally metabolises g ​ lucose​, but if absent and lactose present, ​lactose​ is metabolised.
● The ​lac​ operon is a length of DNA containing:
○ Control​ ​sites​: the o ​ perator​ region, l​ ac​O,​ and the ​promoter​ region, P ​ ​.
○ Structural​ g ​ enes​: ​lac​Z​ (codes for l​ actose​ ​permease​ - an enzyme allowing lactose to enter the
bacterial cell) and ​lac​Y​ (codes for ​Beta-galactosidase​ - hydrolyses lactose → galactose).
○ Regulatory​ g ​ ene​,​ I​, coding for ​Lac​I​ (a r​ epressor​ ​protein​).
● When the r​ egulatory​ g ​ ene​ is e ​ xpressed​: ​Lac​I​ is p
​ roduced​ → ​binds​ to the o ​ perator​ ​region​ → ​prevents
RNA​ ​polymerase​ from ​binding​ to the p ​ romoter​ r​ egion​ → l​ ac​Y​ and l​ ac​Z​ ​aren’t​ ​produced​ → l​ actose
cannot​ e ​ nter​ the ​cell​ and c ​ annot​ be ​hydrolysed​ (as ​neither​ ​enzyme​ is ​present​).
 ● When ​lactose​ is ​present​ (and all glucose has been hydrolysed): ​lactose​ b ​ inds​ to the ​Lac​I​ r​ epressor
protein​ → c
​ onformational​ ​change​ of repressor protein → n ​ o​ ​longer​ ​binds​ to the o​ perator​ → ​RNA
polymerase​ can b ​ ind​ to the p​ romoter​ region → ​lac​Y​ and ​lac​Z​ can be e ​ xpressed​ → ​enzymes
synthesised​ → l​ actose​ can e ​ nter​ the bacterium and can be ​metabolised​.
● What is the lag phase in population growth, why is it significant here?

● Transcription​ f​ actors​ are p ​ roteins​ or ​short​ pieces of R ​ NA​ that a​ ct​ ​within​ the n ​ ucleus​ to c
​ ontrol
which g ​ enes​ within a cell are ​switched​ o ​ n​ and o​ ff​.
○ They s ​ lide​ a
​ long​ sections of D ​ NA​, ​binding​ to p ​ romoter​ ​regions​ where they either a ​ id​ or ​inhibit
the ​attachment​ of ​RNA​ ​polymerase​ (therefore activating or suppressing the gene).
○ Regulated​ by t​ umor​ s ​ uppressor​ ​genes​ and p ​ roto-oncogenes
● Within a gene there exist ​introns​ (​non-coding​ ​regions​ of ​DNA​ which are n ​ ot​ ​expressed​) and e ​ xons
(​coding​ r​ egions​ of D ​ NA​ which are e ​ xpressed​).
● The ​whole​ g ​ ene​ (​introns​ and e ​ xons​) is ​transcribed​ to produce p ​ rimary​ ​mRNA​.
● Primary​ ​mRNA​ is ​edited​ and the ​RNA​ i​ ntrons​ (corresponding to the DNA introns) are ​removed​.
● Endonucleases​ e ​ dit​ and ​splice​ the R​ NA​ → m ​ ultiple​ ​codes​ → ​multiple​ p ​ roteins​.
● Gene​ e​ xpression​ can also be r​ egulated​ p ​ ost-transcription​ through p ​ rotein​ a
​ ctivation​ (eg. by
phosphorylation​) - ​cAMP​ may phosphorylate other proteins within the cell (such as p ​ rotein​ k​ inase​ ​A)​
causing an e ​ nzyme​ c ​ ascade​ and a​ ltering​ other ​molecules​.

GENETIC CONTROL OF BODY DEVELOPMENT

● Homeotic​ g ​ enes​ control m ​ orphogenesis​ - the a ​ natomical​ ​development​ of an organism.
● Several​ h
​ omeotic​ g ​ enes​ contain ​homeobox​ ​sequences​ - 180 DNA base pairs coding for 60 amino
acids called a h​ omeodomain​ s ​ equence​ (within a protein).
● Homeodomain sequences fold into a ​H-T-H​ (helix-turn-helix) shape and act as ​transcription​ ​factors​,
binding​ to ​DNA​ and ​regulating​ the t​ ranscription​ of ​adjacent​ ​genes​.
● Homeobox​ ​sequences​ are ​very​ s ​ imilar​ and h​ ighly​ ​conserved​ between organisms (eg. identical in
mice and fruit flies) as they are crucial for the ​regulation​ of ​development​ and ​differentiation​.
○ Switch on c ​ ascades​: m​ itotic​ cell division, a
​ poptosis​, cell m
​ igration​, regulates ​cell​ ​cycle​.
○ What is the evolutionary significance of this?

● Hox​ ​genes​ (a ​subset​ of h​ omeobox​ ​genes​ found only in a ​ nimals​) regulate b ​ ody​ ​development​ along
the ​anterior-posterior​ axis, controlling which b ​ ody​ p
​ arts​ ​grow​ ​where​.
● Hox genes are arranged in ​clusters​ and are c ​ ollinear​ - the s​ equential​ and t​ emporal​ ​order​ o ​ f​ the g
​ ene
expression​ corresponds to the s ​ equential​ d ​ evelopment​ of v ​ arious​ b
​ ody​ p
​ arts​ (ie. the order in which
and the time the Hox gene are expressed relates to the order and time of body part development).
● Hox genes ​regulated​ b ​ y​ g
​ ap​ ​genes​ and p ​ air-rule​ ​genes​ (regulated by m ​ RNA​ from e ​ gg​ ​cytoplasm​).
● During ​mitosis​, some ​genes​ are ​switched​ o ​ ff​ and n​ ot​ ​expressed​ → cell ​differentiation​.
○ Hayflick​ l​ imit​ - cells can divide a m ​ aximum​ of ​≈​ ​50​ ​times​ by ​mitosis​ before they d ​ egrade​.
● Apoptosis is ​programmed​ ​cell​ ​death​: e ​ nzymes​ break down the ​cytoskeleton​ → c ​ ytoplasm​ becomes
dense​ with tightly packed organelles → ​blebs​ (protrusions from plasma membrane) form →
chromatin​ ​condenses​ → ​nuclear​ e ​ nvelope​ b ​ reaks​ ​down​ → cell breaks into ​vesicles​ →
phagocytosis​.
 ○ Controlled by c ​ ell​ ​signalling​ molecules, and can be induced by ​nitric​ ​oxide​.
○ Too​ m
​ uch​ apoptosis → cell d ​ egradation​, ​too​ ​little​ apoptosis → t​ umor​ formation.
○ Involved in d
​ igit​/l​ imb​ s
​ eparation​ and the ​weeding​ out of i​ neffective​ ​T-lymphocytes​.

ADD EXTRA NOTES BELOW

SUMMARY: PATTERNS OF
INHERITANCE
GENETIC VARIATION
Complete the table

Term Definition

Gene

Genotype

Phenotype

Allele

Homozygous

Heterozygous

Dominant

Dihybrid
inheritance

Recessive

Monogenic
(hybrid)
inheritance

Locus

● An organism's p ​ henotype​ is the p ​ hysical​ e

​ xpression​ (​visible​ ​characteristic​) of a gene.
● An organism's g ​ enotype​ is the g​ enetic​ ​makeup​ (or genetic c ​ ode​).
● Mutagens​ are a ​ gents​ which i​ ncrease​ the r​ ate​ of ​mutation​ - they may be p ​ hysical​ (eg. X-rays),
chemical​ (eg. nitrous acid) or b ​ iological​ (eg. viruses).
● Chromosome​ m ​ utations​ are ​changes​ to the n ​ umber​ of or ​make​ u ​ p​ of ​chromosomes​:
○ Deletion​ - part of a chromosome breaks off and is l​ ost
○ Inversion​ - part of a chromosome breaks off, r​ otates​ 1 ​ 80​ d ​ egrees​, and reattaches
○ Translocation​ - part of a chromosome breaks off and a ​ ttaches​ to a ​ nother​ ​chromosome
○ Duplication​ - part of a chromosome is ​duplicated
○ Nondisjunction​ - pair of chromosomes ​fails​ to s ​ eparate​ - one gamete has extra chromosome
○ Consider the inheritance of Down’s syndrome.
 ○ Aneuploidy​ - chromosome n ​ ot​ an e
​ xact​ m
​ ultiple​ of ​haploid​ number
○ Polyploidy​ - d ​ iploid​ gamete ​fertilised​ by a h​ aploid​ gamete → t​ riploid​ (3 sets chromosomes)
● Sexual​ ​reproduction​ causes variation through the ​crossing​ o ​ ver​ of ​chromosomes​ during p​ rophase 1​,
independent​ a​ ssortment​ of c ​ hromosomes​ in ​anaphase​ 1 ​ and 2​, and the ​production​ of ​haploid
gametes​ means the ​gamete​ can f​ use​ ​randomly​ with a ​ nother​ h
​ aploid​ gamete to produce a d ​ iploid​.
● Environmental​ f​ actors​ cause variation (eg. regional d ​ ialects​, scars, losing limbs or digits).
● Variation​ can also result due to the e ​ nvironment​ ​interacting​ with ​genes​ - eg. chlorotic plants.
● Explain chlorosis in more detail.

MONOGENIC INHERITANCE
● Monogenic​ ​inheritance​ refers to ​inheritance​ whereby a ​single​ t​ rait​ is d
​ etermined​ by ​one​ g
​ ene​/​allele​.
● Gregor M
​ endel​ used ​pea​ p
​ lants​ to investigate the factors affecting inheritance of characteristics.
● What characteristics of peas were useful here in terms of scientific technique?

● Dominant​ ​alleles​ (usually denoted with c ​ apital​ l​ etters​, eg. T) code for a ​characteristic​ if ​present​,
regardless​ of the ​other​ a ​ lleles​, whereas ​recessive​ ​alleles​ (usually denoted with ​lower-case​ letters
eg. t) will ​only​ c
​ ode​ f​ or​ their c​ haracteristic​ if ​all​ a ​ lleles​ are ​recessive​ (i.e there is ​no​ d
​ ominant​ allele).
● An organism is h ​ omozygous​ if ​both​ a ​ lleles​ are the ​same​: ​TT​ (​homozygous​ ​dominant​) or t​ t
(​homozygous​ r​ ecessive​). An organism is ​heterozygous​ if ​both​ ​alleles​ are ​different​: ​Tt​.
● Test​ c
​ rosses​ can be used to d ​ etermine​ the ​genotypes​ of ​phenotypically​ ​similar​ ​individuals​.
○ Pea plants with the ​genotypes​ T ​ T​ and ​Tt​ will ​both​ be t​ all​ stemmed - ​phenotypically​ ​similar​.
○ However, any pea plant which is s ​ hort​ s
​ temmed​ m ​ ust​ have the genotype ​tt​.
○ By considering the results of c ​ rossing​ the t​ all​ s ​ temmed​ pea plant for which the genotype is
unknown (either TT or Tt) w ​ ith​ a ​short​ ​stemmed​ pea plant for which the genotype is known
(tt), the unknown genotype of the tall stemmed plant can be determined.
■ If T ​ T​: T
​ T x tt​ - possible offspring genotypes: Tt, Tt, tT, Tt = ​100% Tt (tall).
■ If T ​ t: Tt x tt​ - possible offspring genotypes: Tt, Tt, tt, tt = 5 ​ 0% Tt (tall)​ and ​50% tt
(short).
○ Therefore if ​any​ offspring are ​short​ ​stemmed​, the ​genotype​ of the ​tall​ p ​ arent​ must be T ​ t​.

DIHYBRID INHERITANCE
● Dihybrid inheritance r​ efers to the ​simultaneous​ ​inheritance​ of ​two​ c ​ haracteristics​.
● When investigating the inheritance of seed shape and seed colour, Mendel crossed ​true-breeding
pea plants with yellow, round seeds (​homozygous​ ​dominant​ at ​both​ gene l​ oci​, ​YYRR​) with
true-breeding​ pea plants with green, wrinkled seeds (​heterozygous​ at b ​ oth​ gene l​ oci​, y
​ yrr​).
● Parent Cross: ​YYRR x yyrr = 100% YyRr​ (the first filial (​F​1​) generation).
● F​1​ Cross: ​YyRr x YyRr​ = 9​ YYRR​ (yellow, round)​ :​ 3 ​ yyRR​ (green, round)​ : 3 YYrr ​(yellow, wrinkled)​ : 1
yyrr ​(green, wrinkled). This conforms to the standard ​9:3:3:1 dihybrid ratio​, so Mendel concluded:
○ The ​alleles​ of the two genes are ​inherited​ ​independently​ to each other.
○ During ​fertilisation​, ​any​ one of an a​ llele​ ​pair​ can c
​ ombine​ with a
​ ny​ ​other​ ​allele​ p​ air​.
● By ​considering​ each cross ​monogenically​, p ​ robabilities​ can be u​ sed​ to calculate the 9:3:3:1 ratio:
○ A ​dominant​ t​ rait​ (eg. yellow or round) will occur​ ¾​ times in a monogenic cross.
○ A ​recessive​ t​ rait​ (eg. green or wrinkled) will occur ​¼ t​ imes in a monogenic cross.
○ Yellow, round = Yellow x Round = ¾ x ¾ = ​9/16​. Yellow, wrinkled = ¾ x ¼ = 3 ​ /16​. Green, round
= ¼ x ¾ =​ 3/16.​ Green wrinkled = ¼ x ¼ = 1 ​ /16.
MULTIPLE ALLELES
● A gene is said to have m ​ ultiple​ ​alleles​ if there exist t​ hree or more​ alleles at a ​gene​ ​locus​.
● Inheritance of human A ​ BO blood groups​ is an example of multiple alleles - a gene encodes an
isoagglutinogen​, I, on the ​surface​ of ​erythrocytes​. The alleles present are I​ ​A​, I​B​ and I​O
○ List the genotypes and phenotypes with ABO blood groups.

○ I​A​ and​ I​B​ are ​dominant​ to​ I​O​, and both ​contribute​ to the p ​ henotype​ (​codominance​).
○ I​A​ x I​B​ = AB, I​B​ x I​O​ = B, I​A​ x I​O​ = A, I​O​ x I​O​ = O
● Coat​ ​colour​ in ​rabbits​ is an example of multiple alleles - there is a d ​ ominance​ ​hierarchy​ of the
alleles:
○ C (Agouti) > C​ch​ (Chinchilla) > C​h​ (himalayan) > c (albino)
○ Agouti​ rabbits can have ​4​ g ​ enotypes​ (CC, CC​Ch​, CC​h​, Cc), c​ hinchilla​ can have 3 ​ ​ genotypes
Ch​ Ch​ Ch​ h​ Ch​ h​ h​ h​
(C​ C​ , C​ C​ , C​ c), h ​ imalayan​ can have ​2​ (C​ C​ , C​ c), and a ​ lbinos​ have ​1​ (cc).

SEX LINKAGE
● 23rd​ p​ air​ of chromosomes are s ​ ex​ c
​ hromosomes (heterosomes)​, X ​ or Y,​ determining an individual's
gender​ (XX - female, XY - Male) - n ​ ot​ f​ ully​ ​homologous​. small sections match up→meiosis.
○ The ​X​ c ​ hromosomes​ is s ​ ignificantly​ l​ arger​ than the Y chromosome.
○ If a female has an abnormal allele on her X chromosome, she will likely have the functioning
version on her other X chromosome. Males do not have another X, so are more at risk.
○ Males​ are ​functionally​ h ​ aploid​ (​hemizygous​) for ​X-linked genes​ - can’t be heterozygous, or
homozygous for X-linked genes, as their other chromosome is a Y chromosome, not an X.
● Remaining 2 ​ 2​ p
​ airs​ are ​autosomes​, each ​fully​ h ​ omologous​ - chromosomes are the s ​ ame​ l​ ength​ and
contain the ​same​ g ​ enes​ at the s ​ ame​ g ​ ene​ l​ oci​.
● Hemophilia A​ occurs when b ​ lood​ c ​ annot​ ​clot​ f​ ast​ ​enough​, because a f​ aulty​ a ​ llele​ on the
non-homologous​ r​ egion​ of the ​X​ c ​ hromosome​ does not code for enough f​ actor​ ​8.​
● X​H​ represents a (​dominant​) n ​ ormal​ allele, and ​Xh​​ represents a (​recessive​) ​abnormal​ allele.
○ Females can either have haemophilia A (genotype X​h​X​h​), be symptomless carriers (X​H​X​h​), or
be normal (X​H​X​H​). Males can either have hemophilia A (X​h​Y), or be normal (X​H​Y).No caariers in
the male.
● Colour​ b ​ lindness​ is sex linked - the protein involved in coding for coloured vision is on the X
chromosome but not on the Y chromosome.
● A gene ​C​ (on the X chromosome) codes for ​coat​ c ​ ats​: C​O​ = ginger, C​B​ = black.
​ olour​ in c
cO cB
○ Codominant​: X X genotype produces the ​tortoiseshell​ phenotype - m ​ ale​ c
​ ats​ ​cannot​ ​be
tortoiseshell​, as they only have o ​ ne​ X​ ​c
​ hromosome​. They can either be ​black​ or g ​ inger​.
● In every female cell nucleus, o ​ ne​ ​X​ ​chromosome​ is r​ andomly​ i​ nactivated​ to prevent twice as many
genes being expressed (as there are two X chromosomes).

CODOMINANCE
● When ​both​ ​alleles​ o
​ f​ a ​gene​ in the ​genotype​ of a ​heterozygous​ individual contribute to its
phenotype​.
● For example, the gene that codes for c ​ oat​ ​colour​ in ​cattle​ has two alleles: C​ ​R​ (red) and C
​ ​W​ (white).
R​ R​
○ Homozygous​ for the r​ ed​ coat allele, C​ C​ gives a r​ ed​ coat.
○ Homozygous​ for the w ​ hite​ coat allele, C​W​C​W​ gives a w​ hite​ coat.
R​ W​
○ Heterozygous​, C​ C​ gives a r​ oan​ coat (​red​ a ​ nd​ w
​ hite​ hairs, as both alleles contribute).

AUTOSOMAL LINKAGE
● Linked​ g​ enes​ exist on the ​same​ ​chromosome​.
● If linked genes are n ​ ot​ a
​ ffected​ by ​crossing​ o ​ ver​ during meiosis, they will be i​ nherited​ as ​one​ ​unit​.
● Inheritance of l​ inked​ g
​ enes​ produce the same g ​ eno​/​phenotypic​ ratios of a m
​ onohybrid​ c ​ ross​.
● During ​gamete​ f​ ormation​ in p ​ rophase​ 1 ​ ​ of ​meiosis​, ​non-sister​ ​chromatids​ may c ​ ross​ ​over​, forming
recombinant​ g ​ ametes​, which contain sections of both the p ​ aternal​ and ​maternal​ ​chromosomes​.
○ The ​further​ a​ part​ the ​gene​ ​loci​, the ​greater​ the ​chance​ of ​recombinant​ g ​ ametes​ ​forming​.
 ● Different​ ​recombinant​ g ​ ametes​ will produce ​different​ o
​ ffspring​, so it is ​not​ p
​ ossible​ to determine
the ​expected​ r​ atios​ of the offspring by using a p​ unnett​ ​square​ - the process is ​random​.
● Why do scandinavian people have blue eyes and blond hair?

EPISTASIS
● Epistasis refers to the i​ nteraction​ of ​non-linked​ ​gene​ l​ oci​, where one m ​ asks​ or ​suppresses​ the
expression​ of the other. This may be a ​ ntagonistic​ or ​complementary​.
● Genes are ​not​ l​ inked​, so are a ​ ssorted​ ​independently​ during gamete formation.
● Epistasis r​ educes​ the number of ​phenotypic​ c ​ lasses​ in the F​2​ generation → ​reduces​ v ​ ariation​.
● Recessive​ ​antagonistic​ epistasis occurs when the h ​ omozygous​ p ​ resence​ of a r​ ecessive​ a ​ llele​ at the
first​ ​locus​ ​prevents​ the ​expression​ of ​another​ ​allele​ at a s ​ econd​ ​locus​.
○ Alleles at f​ irst​ l​ ocus​ e ​ pistatic​ to alleles at s​ econd​ ​locus​, which are h ​ ypostatic​.
○ 9:3:3:1 → 9:3:(3+1) → 9:3:4
● Dominant​ ​antagonistic​ ​epistasis​ occurs when the ​presence​ of the ​dominant​ ​allele​ (either hom. dom.
or het.) at the f​ irst​ l​ ocus​ p
​ revents​ the ​expression​ of ​another​ ​allele​ at a second locus.
○ 9:3:3:1 → (9+3+1):1 → 13:3
● Complementary​ e ​ pistasis​ tends to occur when t​ wo​ a ​ lleles​ code for t​ wo​ ​enzymes​ that work in
succession​, catalysing ​sequential​ ​steps​ of a m ​ etabolic​ p ​ athway​.
○ Eg. in m ​ ice​, the ​C/c​ l​ ocus​ codes for an ​enzyme​ which c ​ onverts​ the ​colourless​ ​precursor
molecule​ into ​black​ p ​ igment​, and the​ A/a locus​ codes for an e ​ nzyme​ which d ​ istributes​ this
black​ p
​ igment​ combined with a y ​ ellow​ ​band​ to produce an ​agouti​ colouration.

USING THE CHI-SQUARED TEST

● Tests whether the ​difference​ between and o ​ bserved​ and ​expected​ results is s ​ ignificant​.
● Can be used when: data is ​categorical​, there is a strong b ​ iological​ ​theory​ to predict the expected
results, sample size is ​large​, data is ​raw​, n ​ o​ z
​ ero​ scores in the raw data count.
● Large​ ​data​ removes impact of ​anomalous​ ​data​ from u ​ nfertilised​ ​ovules​, some ​ovules​ n ​ ot
developing​ into seeds, and the impact of the ​genetic​ ​lottery​.
● Tests the ​null​ h
​ ypothesis​ - ‘There is n
​ o​ ​statistically​ s ​ ignificant​ ​difference​ between the observed and
expected data. Any ​difference​ is d ​ ue​ to c​ hange’​.
● Determine the ​p​ v ​ alue​ from a distribution table. Degrees of freedom = no. of categories - 1.
○ If the ​chi-squared​ value e ​ xceeds​ critical value, the difference is s ​ ignificant​ (​reject​ null hyp.)

DISCONTINUOUS AND CONTINUOUS VARIATION

● Discontinuous​ v​ ariation​ - p
​ henotypic​ c​ lasses​ are ​distinct​ and ​discrete​, eg. ​blood groups.
○ Tend to be m ​ onogenic​ - controlled by a s ​ ingle​ g​ ene​ l​ ocus​.
● Continuous​ v
​ ariation​ - phenotypes fall within a ​range​ a ​ cross​ the p ​ opulation​, e
​ g. height.
○ Tend to be p ​ olygenic​ - m
​ ultiple​ g
​ enes​ have ​small​ ​impacts​ on the ​phenotype​ ​additively​.
● The ​environment​ has a ​greater​ i​ mpact​ on the ​expression​ of ​polygenic​ ​characteristics​.
● Draw graphs to show these types of variation.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE EVOLUTION OF A SPECIES
● Natural​ ​selection​ - m ​ utation​ and m ​ igration​ introduce ​new​ ​alleles​ into populations → d ​ ifferent
phenotypes​ → some individuals will be ​better​ a ​ dapted​ to their environment → ​more​ ​likely​ to ​survive
and r​ eproduce​ → ​pass​ a ​ dvantageous​ c ​ haracteristics​ to ​offspring​ → c ​ hange​ in a ​ llele​ f​ requencies​.
● Stabilising​ ​selection​ - natural selection leading to ​constancy​ ​within​ a ​population​.
○ Intermediate​ phenotypes ​favoured​, ​extreme​ phenotypes ​selected​ a ​ gainst​ → r​ educe
diversity​.
● Directional​ s ​ election​ - environmental change favors a ​new​ p ​ henotype​ → p ​ op. mean changes.
● Genetic​ ​drift​ - variation in the ​relative​ f​ requency​ of ​different​ g ​ enotypes​ in a s ​ mall​ p ​ opulation​, owing
to the ​chance​ d ​ isappearance​ of ​particular​ ​genes​ as ​individuals​ ​die​ or d ​ o​ ​not​ ​reproduce​.
● Genetic​ ​bottleneck​ - when a population size s ​ hrinks​ and i​ ncreases​ again.
○ Genetic ​diversity​ will be ​reduced​ - may be a ​ dvantageous​/d ​ isadvantageous​ dependent on the
alleles which have been lost.
● Founder​ e ​ ffect​ - ​the r​ educed​ g
​ enetic​ d
​ iversity​ which results when a p ​ opulation​ is d ​ escended​ from a
small​ ​number​ of ​ancestors​ which were ​isolated​ from the o ​ riginal​, ​larger​ p​ opulation​.

THE HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE

● Describes and predicts a b ​ alanced​ ​equilibrium​ in the f​ requencies​ of ​alleles​ and g​ enotypes​ within a
closed, ​freely​ and ​randomly​ ​breeding​ p
​ opulation​.
● Assumptions: ​population​ is l​ arge​ enough to make sampling error negligible, ​mating​ occurs
randomly​, no selective advantage for any genotype (​no​ ​selection​), ​no​ m ​ utation​, ​migration​ or g
​ enetic
drift​.
● Suggest populations where this may work and populations where it may not.

● Let the frequency of the dominant allele X = p, and the frequency of the recessive allele x = q:
○ p + q = 1​ (binomial - alleles are either X or x)
○ p​2​ + 2pq + q​2​ = 1 (​ trinomial - individuals are either homozygous dominant (XX = p x p = p​2​),
heterozygous (Xx or xX = p x q + p x q = 2pq), or homozygous recessive (xx = q x q = q​2​).

ISOLATING MECHANISMS
● Speciation​ - the ​evolution​ of ​one​ ​species​ i​ nto​ ​another​, or ​two​ ​new​ ​species​:
○ Isolation​ → d ​ ifferent​ ​selection​ p
​ ressures​ in each environment → each p ​ opulation​ e​ volves​ by
natural selection → ​allele​ f​ requencies​ c ​ hange​ → ​phenotypes​ c ​ hange​ → ​cannot​ ​interbreed​.
○ Explain specifically how natural selection would cause isolation

○ Subspecies​ - the ​two​ ​populations​ will be d ​ ifferent​ but still ​able​ to i​ nterbreed​.
● Geographical​ i​ solation​ - g
​ eographical​ f​ eatures​ act as b​ arriers​ to g
​ ene​ f​ low​ (eg. r​ ivers​) - ​allopatric​.
● Reproductive​ isolation - ​behavioural​ ​changes​ mean the t​ wo​ ​populations​ are a ​ ctive​ at ​different​ t​ imes
and so are ​unable​ to ​reproduce​ (eg. ​foraging​ at ​night​ as opposed to during the day) - ​sympatric​.
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
● The ​breeding​ of ​plants​/​animals​ to produce d ​ esirable​ ​traits​ eg.​ increased yield or docility.
● Humans​ are the a ​ gents​ of s ​ election​, ​unlike​ the ​environment​ in the process of n ​ atural​ ​selection​.
● Selective breeding can be used to ​artificially​ ​select​ the d ​ esired​ ​phenotypic​ t​ raits​.
● Inbreeding​ d ​ epression​ can result from ​excessive​ ​selective​ b ​ reeding​, as a ​population’s​ ​genetic
diversity​ is r​ educed​ as ​phenotypically​ s ​ imilar​ i​ ndividuals​ are c ​ ontinually​ ​reproduced​.
● Hybrid​ ​vigor​ - ​increased​ h ​ eterozygosity​ giving ​increased​ ​vigor​ of ​fertility​, ​growth​ and s ​ urvival​.
○ Breeders ​outcross​ i​ ndividuals​ belonging to two different varieties to i​ ncrease​ the p ​ roportion
of ​genes​ that are h ​ eterozygous​ (heterozygosity).
○ Increases g ​ enetic​ ​diversity​, ​reducing​ s ​ usceptibility​ to d ​ isease​.
● Artificial​ ​selection​ is ​beneficial​ ​economically​, but also raises strong e ​ thical​ ​concerns​:
○ Domesticated animals are d ​ ocile​, but are less able to d ​ efend​ themselves.
○ Livestock may contain ​less​ ​fat​, but will suffer in ​lower​ t​ emperatures​ in winter.
○ Dog​ ​breeds​ are at a significant disadvantage if introduced into the wild.
○ Pedigree​ dogs have a severe ​lack​ of ​genetic​ ​diversity​ → susceptible to ​diseases​.
○ Coat​ c ​ olours​, selected by humans, do not ​camouflage​ animals in the wild.

ADD EXTRA NOTES BELOW

SUMMARY: MANIPULATING GENOMES
DNA SEQUENCING
● DNA sequencing is a technique that allows g ​ enes​ to be i​ solated​ and r​ ead​.
● Early​ DNA research worked with m ​ RNA​ - s ​ low​ and only suitable for ​short​ g ​ enes​ as ​RNA​ is ​unstable​.
● Fred​ S
​ anger​ used ​single​ s ​ tranded​ ​DNA​, incubated in ​4 petri dishes​, each containing a solution with
the ​4 bases ​and ​DNA polymerase.
● A ​modified​ ​version​ of e ​ ach​ b​ ase​ (labeled with a r​ adioactive isotope​) was ​added​ to each petri dish.
○ Once this base was i​ ncorporated​ into the ​DNA​ ​strand​, ​no​ m ​ ore​ bases could be ​added​ -
terminal​.
● Reaction produces ​thousands​ of ​DNA​ ​strands​ of ​varying​ l​ engths​, which are ​run​ on a ​gel​.
○ Smaller​ f​ ragments​ travel f​ urther​ (as they are l​ ighter​), so the strands are s ​ orted​ by ​length​.
● Nucleotide b ​ ases​ at the ​end​ of each s ​ trand​ are ​read​ according to their ​radioactive​ ​label​:
○ The base which the (one base) strand travelled furthest with ends in is the first base.
○ The base which the strand which travelled the second furthest ends with is the second base.
● Fred Sanger’s method is e ​ fficient​ and s ​ afe​, but ​time​ ​consuming​ and c ​ ostly​.
● DNA​ can be c ​ loned​ by inserting the ​gene​ into a ​bacterial​ p ​ lasmid​, which is ​copied​ ​many​ ​times​ when
the ​bacterium​ d ​ ivides​.
● DNA​ ​sequencing​ m ​ achines​ label terminal bases with ​fluorescent​ ​dyes​ and ​identifies​ them with a
laser​.
● Pyrosequencing​ sequences DNA by ​synthesising​ a ​single​ s ​ trand​ of DNA, c​ omplementary​ to the
strand to be sequenced, and ​detecting​ the l​ ight​ e ​ mission​ from the a ​ ddition​ of e
​ ach​ b
​ ase​ (can be
identified).
● Bioinformatics​ - branch of biology involved in ​storing​ h ​ uge​ amounts of d ​ ata​.

APPLICATIONS OF GENE SEQUENCING

● The ​Human​ ​Genome​ P ​ roject​ revealed the human genome contains only ≈ 2 ​ 4,000 genes.
○ Changes to r​ egulatory​ D ​ NA​ r​ egions​ increases ​protein​ ​capacity​ without increasing g ​ ene
number​.
● Genome-wide​ c ​ omparisons​ can be made between i​ ndividuals​ and s ​ pecies​:
○ Genes​ that w ​ ork​ w
​ ell​ are ​conserved​ by ​evolution​ - 99% genes shared with chimpanzees.
○ Differences​ between organisms are due to ​alterations​ causing ​genes​ to w ​ ork​ in subtly
different​ ways, as ​opposed​ to n ​ ew​ ​genes​ being introduced.
○ Evolutionary​ r​ elationships​ between organisms can be ​confirmed​, or lead to r​ eclassification​.
● DNA differs (by ≈ ) 0.1% between humans at points called ​single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPS).
● Researchers can p ​ redict​ a
​ mino​ a​ cid​ ​sequences​ using the knowledge of which t​ riplets​ code for
which a
​ mino​ a​ cids​, and the organisms ​sequenced​ ​genome​. Need to know which sections are
introns/exons.
● Synthetic​ ​biology​ - branch of science involved in ​designing​ and b ​ uilding​ b
​ iological​ ​systems​/d
​ evices​.
○ Raises issues of ​ethics​ and ​biosecurity​ (​bioethics​) eg. the government’s DNA database.

DNA PROFILING
● The ​analysis​ of ​DNA​ from ​samples​ such as b ​ lood​ or ​bodily​ ​fluids​ (aka. DNA fingerprinting).
● DNA ​obtained​ from the individual and ​digested​ with ​restriction​ e ​ nzymes​ - ​cut​ D
​ NA​ at ​specific​ sites.
● The fragments are ​separated​ by ​electrophoresis​ and ​stained​ - ​smaller​ ​fragments​ travel f​ urther​.
● The ​banding​ p ​ attern​ (the r​ elative​ ​distances​ ​moved​ by each strand) c ​ ompared​ to the b ​ anding​ p
​ attern
of ​another​ s
​ ample​ of DNA (which has been t​ reated​ w ​ ith​ the ​same​ restriction ​enzymes​).
● Short​ ​tandem​ r​ epeat​ (​STR​) s​ equences​ of ​DNA​ can be ​used​ for the profiling.
● Transformed f​ orensic​ ​science​ - ​criminal​ c ​ onvictions​, ​maternity​/​paternity​ ​disputes​, d ​ isease​ a
​ nalysis​.

THE POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION

● The polymerase chain reaction (​PCR​) is a ​ rtificial​ ​replication​ of ​DNA​ to a
​ mplify​ DNA → ​analysis​.
● PCR relies on DNA being made of two ​antiparallel​ b ​ ackbone​ ​strands​ (each having a​ 5’ and a 3’ end)​,
DNA ​only​ g
​ rows​ f​ rom​ the 3
​ ’ end​, and the ​base​ ​pairing​ ​rules​ (A-T, C-G)
 ● PCR ​differs​ to D
​ NA​ r​ eplication​ in that o
​ nly​ ​short​ s
​ equences​ of DNA can be r​ eplicated​ using PCR, it
requires the a​ ddition​ of ​primers​, and a c ​ ycle​ of h
​ eating​/​cooling​ is needed.
● What is a primer?

● Sample​ of D ​ ixed​ with ​DNA​ ​nucleotides​, ​primers​, ​Mg​2+​ ions​ and ​Taq DNA Polymerase
​ NA​ m
○ Taq polymerase is obtained from t​ hermophilic​ b ​ acterium​ → ​stable​ at h ​ igh​ t​ emperatures​.
● Heated​ to 9 ​ 5℃​ - h ​ ydrogen​ ​bonds​ between strands ​break​ → stands s ​ plit​ → ​two​ ​single​ s
​ trands​ of
DNA​.
● Cooled​ to 6 ​ 8℃​ - ​primers​ ​bind​ (by ​hydrogen​ ​bonds​) to ​each​ ​end​ of the ​ssDNA​.
● Heated​ to 7 ​ 2℃​ to ​keep​ the ​DNA​ as ​single​ s ​ trands​ and prevent them binding together.
● Taq​ ​DNA​ ​polymerase​ b ​ inds​ to the d
​ ouble​ ​stranded​ D ​ NA​, ​catalysing​ the ​addition​ of ​DNA​ ​nucleotides
in the ​5’ to 3’ direction​ to the ​ssDNA​ forming ​2 double-stranded chains of DNA.
● (​Cyclical​) process is r​ epeated​ for many cycles - DNA copies increases e ​ xponentially​.
● PCR can be used in f​ orensic​ s ​ cience​, t​ issue typing​, and the ​detection​ of ​oncogenes​ and m ​ utations​.
● How may the detection of oncogenes be beneficial?

ELECTROPHORESIS
● Electrophoresis is used to s ​ eparate​ ​molecules​, such as D
​ NA​ or ​proteins​.
● Agarose​ g
​ el​ p
​ late​ covered by b
​ uffer​.
● What is a buffer?

● Electrodes​ at either end of tank. ​Current​ passes through gel.

● DNA​ has an o​ verall​ n​ egative​ ​charge​ (due to p ​ hosphate​ g ​ roups​) so the ​fragments​ ​move​ to the
anode​.
○ Fragments of ​DNA​ all have a ​similar​ ​surface​ c ​ harge​, regardless of size.
● Proteins​ may have d ​ ifferent​ c ​ harges​, so a ​charged​ d ​ eterrent​ is often u ​ sed​ to e
​ qualize​ charges.
● DNA​ ​probes​ are ​short​ s​ ingle​ ​stranded​ l​ engths​ of ​DNA​, ​complementary​ to the s ​ ection​ of ​DNA​ ​being
investigated​ - the ​probe​ a ​ nneals​ t​ o​ the ​length​ of ​DNA​, allowing its l​ ocation​ to be i​ dentified​.
○ Labeled using ​radioactive​ ​markers​ (revealed by exposure to ​photographic​ ​film​), or
fluorescent​ m ​ arkers​ (emits colour on exposure to U ​ V​ ​light​).
○ Useful in l​ ocating​ s ​ pecific​ D
​ NA​ s​ equences​ for ​genetic​ ​engineering​, identifying the same
gene in different genomes for ​genome​ ​comparisons​, identifying a ​ lleles​ related to ​disease
susceptibility​.
○ Give some examples.
 ● Fixing​ ​multiple​ D
​ NA​ ​probes​ on fixed surfaces creates a m ​ icroarray​ - useful in in i​ dentifying​ the
presence​ of an ​allele​. ​Reference​ and t​ est​ ​DNA​ labeled with ​fluorescent​ m
​ arkers​ - s ​ canned​ with
lasers​.

ADD EXTRA NOTES BELOW

GENETIC ENGINEERING
● Genetic e
​ ngineering​ / genetic ​modification​ / ​recombinant​ ​DNA​ t​ echnology​ - the ​combination​ and
manipulation​ of D​ NA​ from d
​ ifferent​ o
​ rganisms​.
● Genes​ are ​isolated​ from one organism and i​ nserted​ into another organism u ​ sing​ ​vectors​.
● What may be the vectors?

1. The ​gene​ is o
​ btained​:
● Reverse​ ​transcriptase​ can be used to ​create​ ​cDNA​ ​from​ the ​mRNA​ template, which can be
made into a d ​ ouble​ ​stranded​ length of ​DNA​ using ​primers​ and D
​ NA​ ​polymerase​.
● What is a retrovirus, how is it relevant here?

● If n
​ ucleotide​ s ​ equence​ is k ​ nown​, the ​gene​ can be s ​ ynthesised​ using an a ​ utomated
polynucleotide​ s ​ ynthesiser​, or ​PCR​ can be used to a ​ mplify​ the g ​ ene​ from g ​ enomic​ D
​ NA​.
2. The ​copy​ of the gene is ​placed​ into the ​vector​:
● Plasmids obtained from bacteria mixed with r​ estriction​ ​enzymes​, cutting the DNA.
○ Sticky​ e ​ nds​ - strands o ​ verhang​ (​staggered​). B ​ lunt​ ​ends​ - strands t​ erminate​ at ​base
pair​.
● Gene​ and ​cut​ p ​ lasmid​ a ​ nneal​ where ​complementary​ - catalysed by ​DNA​ l​ igase​.
3. The ​vector​ then needs to be ​inserted​ i​ nto​ the r​ ecipient​ cell:
● Heat​ s ​ hock​ t​ reatment​ - a ​ lternate​ t​ emperature​ between ​0℃ a ​ nd ​42℃​ in presence of ​CaCl​2​.
● Electroporation​ - h ​ igh​ ​voltage​ p ​ ulse​ applied to the ​cell​ to d ​ isrupt​ the ​membrane​.
● Transfection​ - D ​ NA​ p ​ ackaged​ into b ​ acteriophage​, which i​ nfects​ the ​host​ cell.
4. The ​recipient​ c ​ ell​ e
​ xpresses​ the D ​ NA​, ​producing​ the p ​ rotein​.
● Restriction​ e ​ nzymes​ - c ​ ut​ up D​ NA​ by the process of ​restriction​, recognising p ​ alindromic​ ​sequences​.
● Reverse​ t​ ranscriptases​ - catalyse the p ​ roduction​ of ​cDNA​ using ​RNA​ as the ​template​.
 ● Ligase​ e
​ nzymes​ - catalyse the c
​ ondensation​ ​reactions​ that j​ oin​ s
​ ugar​ and p
​ hosphate​ g
​ roups​.
● Eg. ​bacteria​ have been g
​ enetically​ m
​ odified​ to produce h
​ uman​ i​ nsulin​ for ​diabetics​.
● Transformed bacteria have some ​antibiotic​ r​ esistance​ (as this is how the success of the
modification is determined) so it is important that they ​do​ n ​ ot​ e
​ scape​ the lab.

ISSUES RELATING TO GENETIC MODIFICATION

● Soya​ ​beans​ are a ​first​ g
​ eneration​ g
​ enetically​ m
​ odified​ p​ lant​.
○ Benefits: h ​ erbicide​ r​ esistance​ - ​weeds​ (​competition​) ​killed​ without the soya beans being
killed.
○ Hazards: g ​ enes​ for h​ erbicide​ r​ esistance​ could p
​ ass​ into w
​ eeds​.
○ Explain this in more detail?

● Microorganisms​ such as​ E. coli

○ Benefits: m ​ odified​ to m ​ ake​ ​hormones​ - eg. insulin and human growth hormone.
○ Hazards: m ​ icroorganisms​ could e ​ scape​ and ​transfer​ (market genes) a ​ ntibiotic​ r​ esistance​ to
other bacteria (though they should be modified in a way which means they cannot survive).
● Pathogens​ such as ​viruses
○ Benefits: m ​ odified​ to have ​no​ v ​ irulence​, but still have antigens so can be used to develop
immunity​. Can also be used as v ​ ectors​ in g
​ ene​ ​therapy​.
○ Hazards: allele inserted into the genome may increase the risk of ​cancer
● Mice​ can be bred for ​medical research
● Why mice?
○ Benefits: used to develop t​ herapies​ for b ​ reast​ and ​prostate​ ​cancer​, and help in the
identification​ of ​gene​ ​function​ by ​removing​ g ​ enes​ from mice and observing the effects.
○ Hazards: u ​ nethical​ (but strict ​guidelines​).

GENE THERAPY
● The ​insertion​ of a f​ unctioning​ a ​ llele​ of a p
​ articular​ g
​ ene​ into cells that contain only ​mutated​ and
non-functional​ a ​ lleles​ for that gene - r​ emoves​ ​genetic​ ​disorder​ if ​functional​ p ​ rotein​ p​ roduced​.
● Somatic​ ​cell​ g
​ ene​ t​ herapy​ - gene therapy by i​ nserting​ ​functioning​ a ​ lleles​ into b ​ ody​ ​cells​.
○ Alterations are n ​ ot passed onto offspring​ - ​only​ c ​ ertain​ b
​ ody​ c
​ ells​ ​affected​.
○ Liposomes​ can be ​used​ as ​vectors​ to treat​ cystic fibrosis.
○ Viruses​ or ​artificial chromosomes​ can also be used.
● Germ line gene therapy​ - gene therapy by ​inserting​ f​ unctioning​ ​alleles​ into​ gametes or zygotes
○ Offspring​ may also ​inherit​ f​ oreign​ a ​ lleles
○ Change​ the g ​ enetic​ m
​ akeup​ of ​many​ p ​ eople​ - all the d
​ escendants​, who have n ​ ot​ ​consented​.
○ Illegal​ in humans.
SUMMARY: CLONING AND
BIOTECHNOLOGY
NATURAL CLONES
● Natural​ ​clones​ - g
​ enetically​ ​identical​ copies produced by a ​ sexual​ r​ eproduction​ (​mitotic​ division).
● Mitosis​ creates ​two​ g​ enetically​ i​ dentical​ ​cells​ - ​chemical/physical​ d ​ ifferences​ due to d​ ifferentiation​.
● Advantages​ of natural cloning: if g ​ rowth​ c
​ onditions​ are ​optimal​ for the parent they will be optimal for
offspring, cloning is ​rapid​ (takes advantage of suitable environmental conditions), requires ​one
parent​.
● Disadvantages​ of natural cloning: offspring may become ​overcrowded​, no ​genetic​ ​diversity​ (except
caused by mutation), little ​variation​, ​selection​ not possible, more s ​ usceptible​ to e ​ nvironmental
change​.
● Give an example of natural clones.

● Vegetative​ ​propagation​ - v ​ egetative​ ​fragments​ of plant r​ eproduce asexually ​to form clones.
○ Many ​plant​ c ​ ells​ r​ etain​ a
​ bility​ to d
​ ivide​/differentiate (​not​ as ​complete​ as in a ​ nimals​).
● Horizontal​ s
​ tems​ can grow from roots at ​certain​ ​points​ (​runners/stolons/rhizomes​).
● Examples of natural clones in plants include ​potato​ ​tubers​, ​corms​ and b ​ ulbs​ (eg. ​onions​).
● Animals​ do not naturally clone often - eg. i​ dentical​ ​twins​ (zygote divides and daughter cells split in
two).
● What may account for small changes in phenotypes?

CLONES IN PLANTS
● Gardeners​ and ​growers​ can make use of v ​ egetative​ ​propagation​ by making ​cuttings​:
○ Stem​ is ​cut​ between two leaf joints (​nodes​), cut end of stem placed in ​moist​ s ​ oil​, n
​ ew​ ​roots
grow​ from tissues in stem.
● Some plants take roots easily, but some need their stems to be ​dipped​ in r​ ooting​ h ​ ormones​.
● Taking cuttings is t​ ime​ c
​ onsuming​, requires ​lots​ of ​space​, and some plants d ​ o​ ​not​ ​respond​ ​well​.
● Tissue​ ​culture​ - series of ​techniques​ used to​ grow​ c
​ ells​, ​tissues​, ​organs​ from a ​sample​ of ​plant
cells​.
○ Carried out on a ​growth​ ​medium​ under ​sterile​ c ​ onditions​, using ​hormones​.
○ What molecules do you think will be present in growth medium. Explain your answers.

● Micropropagation​ - taking a s ​ mall​ p

​ iece​ of ​plant​ (the e
​ xplant​), and using ​growth​ ​substances​ to
encourage​ it to grow and develop into a w ​ hole​ ​new​ ​plant​.
○ Plant​ m ​ aterial​ is c
​ ut​ into small pieces (​explants​) - m ​ eristematic​ tissue (as free from ​viruses​).
○ Explants s ​ terilised​ using dilute bleach of alcohol - kills b ​ acteria​ and f​ ungi​.
○ Explants placed on s ​ terile​ ​growth​ ​medium​ (​agar​) containing ​suitable​ ​nutrients​ and
hormones
 ○ Explants d ​ ivide​ by m
​ itosis​ to form a ​callus​ - mass of u ​ ndifferentiated​, ​totipotent​ ​cells​.
○ Callus ​divides​ to produce a larger number of s ​ mall​ c
​ lumps​ of ​undifferentiated​ cells.
○ Small c​ lumps​ of cells d ​ ivide​ and ​differentiate​ into d
​ ifferent​ ​plant​ ​tissues​, as they are m ​ oved
around​ the ​medium​ to areas with ​different​ r​ atios​ of ​hormones​ (​cytokinin​ vs a ​ uxin​).
○ Once plantlets have been formed, they are transferred to a greenhouse to develop.
● Advantages​ of artificial cloning: r​ apid​ (compared with growing from seeds), carried out in plants that
have ​lost ability to sexually reproduce (​ eg. bananas, as they have no seeds), offspring exhibit ​same
desirable characteristics ​of parent, u ​ niform​ in p
​ henotype​ so easier to grow/harvest, v ​ irus​ f​ ree​.
● Disadvantages​ of artificial cloning: ​labour​ i​ ntensive​, ​expensive​, can f​ ail​ due to c ​ ontamination​,
cloned offspring g ​ enetically​ ​identical​ so s​ usceptible​ to disease/environmental change, no v ​ ariation​.

ARTIFICIAL CLONES IN ANIMALS

● Some invertebrates such as ​greenfly​ and ​water​ ​fleas​ can clone n ​ aturally​.
● Totipotent​ cells - capable of ​dividing​ and d
​ ifferentiating​ into a ​ ny​ c
​ ell​ found in the a
​ dult​ organism.
○ Only truly totipotent cells are ​very​ ​early​ e​ mbryo​ c
​ ells​.
○ Why?

● Embryo​ s​ plitting​ produces identical offspring (​twins​):

○ Zygote​ c ​ reated​ by ​IVF​ (in-vitro fertilisation) - sperm and egg fused outside of body.
○ Zygote ​divides​ to form a ​blastocyst​ - ​bundle​ of ​cells​.
○ Blastocyst​ s ​ plit​ and ​each​ b
​ undle​ of cells continues to d ​ ivide​.
○ Each b ​ lastocyst​ is ​implanted​ into the u ​ terus​ of a ​surrogate​ mother, and d ​ evelops​.
○ Precise g ​ enotype​ and ​phenotype​ u ​ nknown​ until animal is born.
● SCNT​ - Somatic cell nuclear transfer - the ​only​ ​way​ to clone adult animals (advantageous as
phenotype​ k ​ nown​ b​ efore​ the ​cloning​ starts, allowing ​artificial​ ​selection​). First used in 1996 to
produce Dolly.
○ Egg​ ​cell​ is obtained and the nucleus is removed - e ​ nucleation​.
○ A body cell (​somatic​ ​cell​) from the adult to be cloned is ​isolated​ and ​enucleated​.
○ The ​nucleus​ f​ rom​ the s ​ omatic​ c​ ell​ is f​ used​ with the e ​ nucleated​ ​egg​ ​cell​ with an ​electric
shock​.
○ The shock t​ riggers​ the ​egg​ c ​ ell​ to start d ​ eveloping​ as though it had been ​fertilised​.
○ Mitosis​ produces a ​blastocyst​, which is ​implanted​ into the u ​ terus​ of the ​surrogate​ mother.

● Draw annotated diagrams to show the stages of embryo splitting and SCNT. Make sure you make it
clear which is the clone and what it is a clone of.
 ● Non-reproductive​ cloning - production of c ​ loned​ ​cells​/​tissues​ for p ​ urposes​ ​other​ ​than​ ​reproduction​:
● Therapeutic​ cloning - new ​tissues​ and o ​ rgans​ grown as r​ eplacement​ p ​ arts​ (eg. ​skin​ ​graft​) - a
​ voids
rejection​ as the patient’s own cells will be g ​ enetically​ i​ dentical​.
● Cloning for s​ cientific​ r​ esearch​ - research into g ​ ene​ a
​ ction​, and ​testing​ ​effects​ of ​medicinal​ d ​ rugs​.
● Arguments ​for​ ​artificial​ c​ loning​: produces ​whole​ a ​ nimal​ ​herds​ with b ​ eneficial​ ​characteristics​, allows
drugs​ to be ​tested​ without ethical issues, produces t​ issues​/​organs​ ​identical​ to patient, boosts
population​ of e​ ndangered​ ​species​.
● Arguments ​against​ a ​ rtificial​ ​cloning​: lack of v ​ ariation​ exposes herds to d ​ iseases​, animals may be
produced with l​ ittle​ r​ egard​ for their w​ elfare​, ​success​ ​rate​ is p ​ oor​, e
​ xpensive​, shorter l​ ife​ ​spans​,
ethics​.

INTRODUCTION TO BIOTECHNOLOGY
● Biotechnology​ - the use of ​living​ o​ rganisms​ or ​parts​ of ​living​ o ​ rganisms​ in i​ ndustrial​ ​processes​.
● Microorganisms​ are used in biotechnology: c ​ heap​ and e ​ asy​ to g
​ row​, production can take place at
lower​ t​ emperatures​ and normal a ​ tmospheric​ ​pressure​, not dependent on ​climate​, many are
by-products​ from other industrial processes, s ​ hort​ ​life​ c
​ ycle​ and f​ ast​ ​reproduction​, easily
genetically​ ​modified​, fewer ​ethical​ concerns, ​easy​ to h ​ arvest​, product is p ​ urer​ or ​easier​ to i​ solate​.
● Other​ o ​ rganisms​ can be used in biotechnology: G ​ M​ a ​ nimals​ (goats producing spider silk in their
milk).

USING BIOTECHNOLOGY TO MAKE FOOD

● Yoghurt​: m
​ ilk​ f​ ermented​ using b
​ acteria​ → l​ actic​ a
​ cid​ produced → milk protein ​denatured​ →
coagulate​.
● Cheese​: ​milk​ treated with ​bacteria​ → ​lactic​ ​acid​ p
​ roduced​ (from lactose) → mixed with ​rennet
(contains ​rennin​, obtained from ​stomachs​ of ​young​ ​mammals​) → ​coagulates​ in process of C ​ a​2+​ →
curd​ → pressed into ​moulds​ (containing bacteria).
● Why only young mammals?

● Baking​: f​ lour​, ​water​, s ​ alt​, ​yeast​ ​mixed​ together → dough left to ​prove​, yeast respires ​anaerobically​ to
produce ​CO​2​ → dough ​rises​ → dough c ​ ooked​ (​alcohol​ ​evaporates​).
● Wine​: y​ east​ (found on s ​ kin​ of ​grapes​) uses f​ ructose​ and g ​ lucose​ within grapes to respire
anaerobically​ → produces ​CO​2​ and ​alcohol​.
● Beer​: b
​ arley​ g ​ rains​ b
​ eginning​ to g ​ erminate​ (​malting​) convert s ​ tarch​ to ​maltose​ → yeast​ respires
maltose​ ​anaerobically​ producing ​CO​2​ and ​alcohol​.
● Advantages​ of using microorganisms: ​protein​ produced ​faster​, production more r​ esponsive​ to
demand​, n ​ o​ f​ at​/​cholesterol​, requires ​small​ ​land​ m ​ ass​, ​easier​ to G
​ M​, ​seasonal​ i​ ndependence​.
● Disadvantages​ of using microorganisms: ​unappetising​, p ​ rotein​ needs to be ​isolated​, protein needs
to be ​purified​, different a ​ mino​ a​ cid​ p
​ rofile​, risk of ​infection​ from ​growth​ ​tank​, p
​ oor​ p
​ alatability​.

OTHER PROCESSES INVOLVING BIOTECHNOLOGY

● Drug​ p
​ roduction​ can be s ​ caled​ ​up​ using ​fermenters​ - conditions controlled to m ​ aximise​ ​yield​:
○ Temperature​: too hot → denatured, too cold → limited rate of reaction
○ Nutrients​ a ​ vailable​: used to synthesise product, eg. nitrogen, carbon, minerals, vitamins
○ pH​: affects enzyme activity → growth and synthesis
○ Product​ c ​ oncentration​: toxicity inhibits reaction rate if product builds up.
● Primary​ ​metabolites​ - s
​ ynthesised​ by the microorganism during n ​ ormal​ m
​ etabolism​/active growth.
○ Continually​ r​ eleased​ into the fermenter broth and can be e ​ xtracted​ ​continually​ (​log phase​).
● Secondary​ m​ etabolites​ - s ​ ynthesised​ by the microorganism when ​placed​ ​under​ s ​ tress​.
● Batch​ ​culture​ - f​ ermenter​ is e
​ mptied​ once n ​ utrients​ are ​used​ ​up​, and process r​ epeated​.
● Continuous​ c ​ ulture​ - broth is ​regularly​ r​ emoved​ to p ​ revent​ ​population​ becoming t​ oo​ ​dense​.
● Asepsis​ - the ​maintenance​ of ​sterile​ c ​ onditions​ - important to ​prevent​ u ​ nwanted​ m ​ icroorganisms
growing, which would ​compete​ with the ​cultured​ m ​ icroorganisms​, s ​ poil​ p ​ roduct​, ​produce​ ​toxins​.
● Production​ of ​penicillin​: s ​ econdary​ m​ etabolite​ (only p ​ roduced​ when ​population​ g ​ rows​ to certain
size).
○ Fermenter​ run for​ 6-8 days​ → a ​ ntibiotic​ ​precipitated​ and m ​ odified​ → ​mixed​ with i​ nert
substances​ → p ​ repared​ for a
​ dministration​ into body.
● Production​ of ​insulin​: manufactured by c ​ ontinuous​ c ​ ulture​ by ​genetically​ ​modified​ ​bacteria​,
containing p ​ lasmids​ with r​ ecombinant​ ​genes​ (the ​human​ ​insulin​ g ​ ene​ i​ nserted​).
● Bioremediation​ - use of m ​ icroorganisms​ to c ​ lean​ ​soil​ and ​underground​ w ​ ater​ on p ​ olluted​ ​sites​.
● Draw a diagram of a fermenter
MICROORGANISM CULTURES
● Microorganisms grow on anything which provides ​carbon​ (​respiration​) and n ​ itrogen​ (protein
synthesis​).
● Aseptic​ ​techniques​ p ​ revent​ growth of ​unwanted​ ​microorganisms​: w ​ ashing​ ​hands​, ​disinfecting
working​ a ​ rea​, working c​ lose​ to b
​ unsen​ b
​ urner​ to heat the air, passing ​bottleneck​ over f​ lame​, not
completely​ ​lifting​ the ​lid​ off the petri-dish, and passing g ​ lassware​/​metal​ instruments through ​flame​.
● Sterilisation​ - m ​ edium​ h​ eated​ in a
​ utoclave​ → kills unwanted living organisms.
● Inoculation​ - the ​introduction​ of ​microorganisms​ to a s ​ terile​ ​medium​:
○ Streaking​ - wire inoculating loop transfers medium by dragging loop across the surface,
seeding​ - sterile pipette transfers drops of liquid, ​spreading​ - glass spreader, c ​ otton​ s
​ wab
dabbed​.
● Incubation​ - m​ aintenance​ of ​favourable​ ​conditions​ whilst the b ​ acteria​ ​grow​.
● What might the favourable conditions be? Consider the risk of disease?

○ Petri​ d
​ ish​ l​ abelled​ and ​top​ t​ aped​ to b​ ottom​ using tape (​not​ ​sealed​ c
​ ompletely​, to allow O​2​ to
enter to discourage the formation of pathogenic anaerobic bacteria).
○ Petri​ d ​ ish​ p​ laced​ in ​suitable​ e​ nvironment​ - ​upside​ d
​ own​ (prevent ​condensation​ ​droplets
falling).
○ Suitable​ t​ emperatures
● Liquid​ ​medium​ can be used - clear but t​ urns​ c ​ loudy​ when bacteria have grown.
○ Can be used to i​ ncrease​ number of m ​ icroorganisms​ ​before​ t​ ransferring​ to a ​ gar​.
○ Investigate p ​ opulation​ ​growth​ - transfer ​small​ ​samples​ to agar plants and c ​ ounting​ c
​ olonies​.
■ Serial​ d ​ ilutions​ can be used to r​ educe​ the ​concentration​ to a ​ llow​ ​counting​.
■ Explain how this works.

POPULATION GROWTH IN A CLOSED CULTURE

● The ​growth​ ​curve​ maps the p ​ redictable​ ​pattern​ of ​population​ ​growth​ ​against​ ​time​ in a closed
culture:
○ Closed​ ​culture​ - all ​conditions​ are ​set​ at ​start​ and there is n ​ o​ e
​ xchange​ with the e ​ nvironment​.
■ Similar to batch culture, but O​2​ may be added in batch culture to continue growth.
● Lag​ ​phase​ - population g ​ rowth​ s ​ low​ as the p​ opulation​ is s
​ mall​ and a ​ djusting​ to their new
environment​:
○ Taking up ​water​, ​cell​ ​growth​, ​activating​ certain g ​ enes​, ​synthesising​ certain e ​ nzymes​.
● Log​ (exponential) ​phase​ - population g ​ rows​ at an e​ xponential​ ​rate​:
○ Organisms have a ​ djusted​ to their e ​ nvironment​ ​containing​ the ​enzymes ​they need to survive
and ​sufficient​ n​ utrients​ to g ​ row​ ​rapidly​ and ​reproduce​. D ​ oubles​ with e ​ eneration​ →​ 2​x
​ ach​ g
● Stationary​ p​ hase​ - population g ​ rowth​ s ​ lows​ and population ​size​ l​ evels​ o ​ ut​ (remaining fairly
constant​):
○ Increasing​ n ​ umbers​ of organisms ​use​ ​up​ ​nutrients​ and produce ​increasing​ w ​ aste​ eg. CO​2
○ Reproduction rate = death rate
 ● Death​ (​decline​) ​phase​ - population g
​ rowth​ is n
​ egative​ and the population ​size​ s​ hrinks​:
○ Nutrients​ have r​ un​ ​out​ and the ​concentration​ of waste is t​ oxic​ - all ​organisms​ ​eventually​ d
​ ie​.
● Primary​ ​metabolites​ (produced during n ​ ormal​ ​metabolic​ ​activities​) are collected during the ​log
phase a​ nd are produced in ​continuous​ ​culture​, as the removal of waste products and the addition of
new nutrients prevents population growth leaving the log phase - continual supply of primary
metabolites.
● Secondary​ m ​ etabolites​ (produced ​during​ ​stress​) are collected during the ​stationary​ ​phase​, which
only exists in b
​ atch​ c
​ ulture​, hence batch culture is used.
● Define primary, secondary metabolites.

IMMOBILISED ENZYMES
● Immobilised​ e​ nzymes​ are enzymes h ​ eld​ in p
​ lace​ and n​ ot​ f​ ree​ to d
​ iffuse​ ​through​ ​solution​.
● Advantages of using enzymes in biotechnology: l​ ower​ ​extraction​ ​costs​ as enzymes do not mix with
the product, easily r​ eused​, c
​ ontinuous​ p
​ rocess​ are ​easier​, ​enzymes​ p ​ rotected​ f​ rom​ e
​ xtreme
conditions​ by matrix and so can be used at ​higher​ t​ emperatures​ (increased rate of reaction) ​without
denaturing​.
● Disadvantages​: m​ ore​ e​ xpensive​ and usually l​ ess​ ​active​ than free enzymes → s ​ lower​.
● Why are they slower if they are used a t higher temperatures?

● Absorption​: enzymes ​bound​ to ​supporting​ ​surface​ (eg. clay) by h ​ ydrophobic​ i​ nteractions​/​ionic​ ​links​.
○ Active​ ​site​ may be slightly d ​ istorted​ by a ​ dditional​ ​interactions​, or become ​loose​ as ​bonds
weak​.
● Covalent​ ​bonding​: e ​ nzymes​ ​bound​ to supporting surfaces using ​strong​ c ​ ovalent​ b
​ onds​.
○ Bonded using a c ​ ross​ l​ inking​ ​agent​ - may form a ​chain​. ​Unlikely​ to ​break​ ​off​.
○ Can be ​expensive​ and d ​ istort​ a ​ ctive​ s​ ite​ → worse fit → reduced activity.
● Entrapment: enzyme t​ rapped​ in a m ​ atrix​ which does n ​ ot​ ​allow​ f​ ree​ ​movement​.
○ Enzyme u ​ naffected​ and remain f​ ully​ ​active​, but ​substrate​ ​molecules​ must d ​ iffuse in​ and
product​ m​ olecules​ must diffuse o ​ ut​ → only ​suitable​ when ​substrate​ and ​product​ are ​small​.
○ Eg. ​calcium​ a ​ lginate​ b​ eads​ in schools, or c ​ ellulose​ ​meshes​ in industrial processes.
● Membrane​ ​separation​: enzymes ​separated​ from ​reaction​ ​mixture​ by ​partially​ ​permeable​ m ​ embrane​.
○ Substrate​/​product​ ​molecules​ must be s ​ mall​ ​enough​ to d ​ iffuse​, and ​access​ to e ​ nzyme
reduced​.
● Glucose ​isomerase​ converts g ​ lucose​ to f​ ructose​ (produces high fructose corn syrup → diet food).
● Penicillin​ ​acylase​ catalyses the formation of s ​ emi-synthetic​ ​penicillins​.
● Lactase​ converts ​lactose​ to g ​ alactose​ by hydrolysis → lactose free milk → bone/teeth development.
● Aminoacylase​ - hydrolase produces p ​ ure​ samples of L ​ -amino acids b ​ y removing the acyl group.
● Glucoamylase​ converts ​dextrins​ to g ​ lucose​ in a ​fermentation​ process.
SUMMARY: ECOSYSTEMS
ECOSYSTEMS
● Ecosystems​ - a group of l​ iving​ and n ​ on​ l​ iving​ things and the i​ nterrelationships​ that exist between
them.
○ Habitats​ - the places where organisms ​live​.
○ Population​ - all the organisms of ​one​ ​species​, living in the same ​place​ at the same ​time​.
○ Community​ - all the ​populations​ of ​different​ ​species​, living in the same ​place​ at the same
time​.
● The ​role​ of an ​organism​ within its ecosystem is it’s n ​ iche​ - ​two​ ​species​ c
​ annot​ o
​ ccupy​ the ​same
niche​.
● Ecosystems are affected by both biotic and abiotic factors:
○ Biotic​ factors (​living​ things) - p ​ roducers, consumers, decomposers.
○ Abiotic​ factors (​nonliving​ things) - ​pH, humidity, temperature, pollutants, weather.
● Abiotic​ factors may be ​affected​ by b ​ iotic​ factors and be ​lethal​ at ​both​ ​extremes​ or o ​ ne​ ​extreme​.
○ Movement from l​ ess​ extreme ​→​ ​more​ extreme: ​reproduction → growth → survival.
● Ecosystems are ​dynamic​, as they c ​ hange​ due to changes in the ​biotic​/​abiotic​ ​factors​ affecting
them:
○ Cyclic​ changes - changes r​ epeat​ themselves in a ​rhythm​ (eg. tides and seasons).
○ Directional​ changes - ​non​ c ​ yclic​, occuring in ​one​ d ​ irection​ (eg. coastal erosion).
○ Unpredictable​/​erratic​ changes - n ​ o​ r​ hythm​ or ​constant​ ​direction​ (eg. hurricanes).

TRANSFER OF BIOMASS
● Materials are constantly r​ ecycled​ within ecosystems, eg. n ​ utrient​ ​cycles​ - ​carbon​ and n ​ itrogen​.
● Energy​ f​ lows​ through ecosystems, ​transferred​ between different f​ orms​:
○ Light​ energy - captured by p ​ lants​ and converted to o ​ rganic​ molecules by p ​ hotosynthesis​.
○ Chemical​ ​potential​ energy - ​photosynthesis​ ​products​ incorporated into tissues - ​store​ of
carbon​.
○ Heat​ energy - plants consumed and the organic products r​ espired​, releasing heat.
● Biomass​ - the ​combined​ t​ otal​ d ​ ry​ ​mass​ (​organic​ + i​ norganic​ molecules, ​excluding​ H ​ ​2​O​) of
organisms.
● At each ​trophic​ l​ evel​, ​biomass​ is l​ ost​, so is unavailable to the organism at the next level.
○ Calculated by h ​ eating​ in o ​ ven​, and r​ epeatedly​ r​ ecording​ organisms ​mass​ until ​constant​.
● Biomass is ​lost​ a ​ s​ h
​ eat​ energy through ​respiration​ and in w ​ aste​ products (both e ​ gested​ waste eg.
faeces​ - though this is available to d ​ ecomposers​ - and i​ ndigestible​ matter, eg.​ hair/bones​).
● Pyramid​ of n ​ umbers​ shows ​fewer​ ​consumers​ at ​higher​ l​ evels​ (​bar area ∝ no. of organisms​).
○ Does not show how much biomass at each level - p ​ yramid​ of ​biomass​ does.
Biomass at Higher T rophic Level
● E cological Ef f iciency = Biomass at Lower T rophic Level × 100%

MANIPULATING TRANSFER OF BIOMASS

● Productivity​ - measures the ​rate​ at which e ​ nergy​ ​passes​ t​ hrough​ each trophic level in a food chain.
● Gross​ ​primary​ p​ roductivity​ - measures the rate at which ​plants​ convert l​ ight​ energy ​→​ c ​ hemical
energy.
○ Inefficient​, as only 4 ​ 0%​ of ​light​ energy f​ rom​ the s​ un​ actually ​enters​ the l​ight dependent
stage, a
​ nd only​ ⅓ ​of ​glucose​ ​produced​ during p ​ hotosynthesis​ is r​ espired​.
● Net primary productivity​ - measures the p ​ ercentage​ of​ light​ e ​ nergy​ ​entering​ the f​ ood​ ​chain​ ≈ 8
​ %.
 ● Humans can m ​ anipulate​ e
​ nvironmental​ ​conditions​ to improve the efficiency of the conversion of
light energy to chemical energy, reduce energy loss and increase the biomass incorporated into
plants:
○ Light banks, planting crops earlier, irrigating crops, breeding drought-resistant strains,
greenhouses, crop rotation, pesticides, fungicides and herbicides.
○ Explain how these can increase biomass.

● Secondary​ p
​ roductivity​ - the ​efficiency​ of the t​ ransfer​ of ​biomass​ b ​ etween​ ​trophic​ l​ evels​.
○ Inefficient​, as n​ ot​ a
​ ll​ primary consumers are ​eaten​, and ​not​ ​all​ ​parts​ of the plant are e ​ aten​.
● Humans can m ​ anipulate​ energy transfer to increase secondary productivity:
○ Harvesting​ y ​ oung​ m ​ ammals​ j​ ust​ b
​ efore​ ​adulthood​ (they use most energy for growth),
selective breeding, treating with antibiotics, zero-grazing farming, temperature consistency.
● There are concerns about the t​ rade-offs​ between ​animal​ w ​ elfare​ and e​ fficient​ ​food​ p
​ roduction​.

RECYCLING WITHIN ECOSYSTEMS

● Bacteria​ and ​fungi​ are ​saprotrophic​ as they feed s​ aprophytically​ (on ​dead​ and w
​ aste​ o
​ rganic
material​):
○ Saprotrophs​ s ​ ecrete​ enzymes o ​ nto​ dead/waste material → enzymes ​digest​ ​material​ into
small molecules → ​absorbed​ into saprotrophs b ​ ody​ → molecules ​stored​/r​ espired​.
○ Describe this process.

○ Improves​ e ​ fficiency​ within the ecosystem and ​recycles​ ​nutrients​.

● Nitrogen​ is important in the s ​ ynthesis​ of ​proteins​ and n ​ ucleic​ a​ cids​ → important to recycle.
● Nitrogen​ ​fixation​: n ​ itrogen​ ​gas​ is u ​ nreactive​ → cannot be used directly by plants → needs to be
fixed​.
○ Fixed by ​lightning​ s ​ trikes​, the H ​ aber​ ​process​ (making fertiliser), nitrogen fixing b ​ acteria​ (eg.
Azotobacter​ in the s ​ oil​ and R ​ hizobium​ inside r​ oot​ n
​ odules​ - ​mutualistic​ ​relationship​).
● Ammonification​: c ​ hemotrophic​ b ​ acteria​ ​absorb​ a ​ mmonium​ i​ ons​ and ​release​ them in the
putrefaction​ of p ​ roteins​ (decaying proteins).
● Nitrification​: c
​ hemoautotrophic​ b ​ acteria​ obtain energy in ​oxidising​ ​ammonium​ ​ions​ to n ​ itrates
(​Nitrosomonas​),​ or o ​ xidising​ n ​ itrites​ to n
​ itrates​ (​Nitrobacter​)​ - only occur in well a​ erated​ ​soils​.
● Why are nitrates significant here?

● Denitrification​: bacteria convert nitrates back to nitrogen gas.

○ When bacteria grow under a ​ erobic​ conditions, ​nitrates​ are used as a s ​ ource​ of ​oxygen​ in
respiration​, producing ​nitrogen​ ​gas​ and ​nitrous​ ​oxide​.
● The ​carbon​ ​cycle​ is driven by ​photosynthesis​ and ​respiration​, with ​CO​2​ as the main vehicle for
carbon.
● Animals​, p​ lants​ and ​microorganisms​ ​respire​ to r​ elease​ C​ O​2​ into the ​atmosphere​ or ​water​.
● Plants​ ​remove​ C​ O​2​ from the ​atmosphere​ in p ​ hotosynthesis​, building up s ​ tores​ of c
​ arbon​ in their
tissues​ which are t​ ransferred​ to a​ nimals​ in f​ eeding​/​digestion​.
 ○ Terrestrial​ plants use g​ aseous​ ​CO​2​ in photosynthesis, ​aquatic​ plants use d ​ issolved
carbonates​.
● Death​ (and e
​ xcretion​) of ​animals​ and ​plants​ releases ​carbon →
​ d ​ ecomposed​ by ​microorganisms​,
releasing CO​2​ into atmosphere as they respire the organic molecules they’ve s ​ ynthesised​.
● Combustion​ of plant and animal matter, as well as fossil fuels ​releases​ ​CO​2​ into the a ​ tmosphere​.
○ Increased due to population increases → ​global​ ​warming​.
● Weathering​ of l​ imestone​ and ​chalk​ releases carbon into ​rivers ​and​ lakes​ as ​hydrogen​ c ​ arbonate​.
● Carbon is ​exchanged​ between the ​air​ and​ water​ as ​CO​2​ ​dissolves​ in ​water​ → c​ arbonic​ a​ cid​.
● Draw simplified diagrams of the carbon and nitrogen cycles.
SUCCESSION
● Succession​ - a g ​ radual​ d ​ irectional​ ​change​ in a ​community​ of organisms over time.
● Primary​ succession - the ​development​ of ​communities​ from b ​ are​ g​ round​.
1. Pioneer​ s ​ pecies​ (eg. a ​ lgae​/l​ ichens​) c ​ olonise​ a bare rock → develops a ​pioneer​ c ​ ommunity​.
● Pioneer​ ​species​ - f​ irst​ s​ pecies​ to c ​ olonise​ an a ​ biotic​ a
​ rea​ (​beginning​ ​succession​).
2. The ​rock​ is ​eroded,​ and d ​ ead​, ​rotting​, o​ rganic​ material r​ emains​, producing ​soil​ for l​ arger
plants​ such as m ​ osses​ and f​ erns​ to grow - these ​succeed​ the p ​ ioneer​ s
​ pecies​.
3. Larger​ p ​ lants​ continue to ​succeed​ s ​ maller​ ​plants​ until a c ​ limax​ c ​ ommunity​ is r​ eached​.
● Climax community - the ​final​, ​stable​ c ​ ommunity​ that ends the process of succession.
● Secondary​ s ​ uccession​ - succession on a ​previously​ c ​ olonised​ but d ​ isturbed​ and d ​ amaged​ habitat.
● Deflected​ ​succession​ - when s ​ uccession​ is s ​ topped​ or i​ nterfered​ with (eg. cutting grass).
○ Agriculture​/​gardening​ d ​ eflect​ succession → difficult to d ​ etermine​ if ​climax​ ​community
reached​ → difficult for p ​ re/conservationists​ to decide which habitats ​warrant
pre/conservation​.

STUDYING ECOSYSTEMS
● Ecologists ​study​ e ​ cosystems​ to d ​ etermine​ r​ elationships​ between the a ​ bundance​ and ​distribution
between​ s ​ pecies​, and in relation to e ​ nvironmental​ ​factors​ such as light intensity or soil pH.
○ Abundance​ - the p ​ resence​ or a ​ bsence​ of each species.
○ Distribution​ - n ​ umber​ of ​individuals​ of each species (% cover).
● Ecologists​ s ​ ample​ e
​ cosystems​ as it i​ sn’t​ p ​ ossible​ to c ​ ount​ e
​ very​ i​ ndividual​ of a species.
● Quadrats​ are (often) ​1m x 1m squares​, with ​strings​ every 1 ​ 0 cm​ → ​100 smaller squares.
○ Quadrat placing: ​random​ (Random Number Generator corresponding to coordinates),
systematic​ (regular intervals).
○ How many samples: p ​ ilot​ ​study​ - measuring numbers of ​new​ ​individuals​ found ​each​ ​time​.
■ Use the n ​ umber​ of ​samples​ for which ​no​ ​new​ i​ ndividuals​ are ​found.
M ean number of individuals of the species in each quadrat
● P opulation Size = F raction of total habitat area covered by a single quadrat
● Transects​ allow the c ​ hange​ in ​species​ to be c ​ ompared​ with a ​change​ in an ​environmental​ ​factor​.
○ Line​ t​ ransect​ - make a note of the species touching the tape at regular intervals.
○ Belt​ t​ ransect​ - place quadrat at intervals (​interrupted​) or at every point (​continuous​).
● Kite​ ​diagrams​ can be drawn to ​compare​ the a ​ bundance​ of species with the change in an
environmental factor → c ​ orrelation​ ​established​.
ADD EXTRA NOTES BELOW
SUMMARY: POPULATION AND
SUSTAINABILITY
DETERMINANTS OF POPULATION SIZE
● The ​balance​ between the d ​ eath​ and ​birth​ ​rate​ determines the size of a population.
1. Lag​ phase: p ​ opulation​ s ​ mall​, still a ​ cclimatising​ to their habitat, r​ eproduction​ rate ​low​, g ​ rowth​ s
​ low​.
2. Log​ phase: ​resources​ p ​ lentiful​ and c ​ onditions​ o​ ptimal​ → ​exponential​ i​ ncreases​ in population.
3. Stationary​ p ​ hase​: h ​ abitat​ c​ annot​ ​support​ ​larger​ ​population​ → ​levels​ out at c ​ arrying​ c ​ apacity​.
● Population stays s ​ table​, or ​fluctuates​ ​slightly​ in response to n ​ atural​ ​environmental​ ​variation​.
● Carrying​ ​capacity​ - ​upper​ l​ imit​ which a ​population​ can g ​ row​ to due to​ limiting​ f​ actors​.
● Limiting​ f​ actor​ - a factor whose m ​ agnitude​ s ​ lows​ down the r​ ate​ of a ​natural​ ​process​.
○ Density​ i​ ndependent​ - act ​equally​ ​strongly​, regardless of population size (eg. temperature)
○ Density​ d ​ ependent​ - factor i​ nfluences​ population more ​strongly​ as ​population​ size
increases​.
● k-Strategists​ - species whose ​population​ ​size​ is ​determined​ by the c ​ arrying​ c ​ apacity​.
○ Limiting factors exert a m ​ ore​ s ​ ignificant​ ​effect​ as the ​population​ a ​ pproaches​ ​carrying
capacity​.
○ Low reproductive rate​, slow development, late reproductive age, long lifespan, large body
mass.
● r-Strategists​ - species whose population i​ ncreases​ s ​ o​ q
​ uickly​ it can ​exceed​ the ​carrying​ ​capacity
before​ l​ imiting​ f​ actors​ begin to have an ​effect​, at which point p ​ opulation​ size f​ alls​ (​death​ p​ hase​).
○ High reproductive rate​, fast development, young reproductive age, short lifespan, small
mass.
● r-Strategist​ species tend to c ​ olonise​ a ​disturbed​ h ​ abitat​ before k ​ -Strategists​ due to q ​ uick​ p
​ op​.
growth​.

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN POPULATION

● Predators​ ​hunt​ other ​animals​ (​prey​) for ​food​, and so act as a l​ imiting​ ​factor​ on the size of the
population of the prey, which in turn limits the predator’s population size.
● → increase in predator population size → more prey eaten → decrease in prey population size →
less food for predators → fewer predators survive → predator population size decreases → less prey
hunted → prey population size increases → more food for predators → predator population size
increases →
● Competition​ - when r​ esources​ are ​not​ p ​ resent​ in a​ dequate​ ​amounts​ to s ​ atisfy​ the n​ eeds​ of all the
individuals​ who ​depend​ on these r​ esources​.
○ Intraspecific​ c ​ ompetition​ - competition between individuals of the ​same​ s ​ pecies​.
■ Keeps p ​ opulation​ ​size​ s
​ table​: → increase competition → decrease population →
decrease competition → increased population → etc.
○ Interspecific​ ​competition​ - competition between individuals of ​different​ ​species​.
■ Effects the ​size​ of populations and the ​distribution​ of these populations.
■ The ​more​ o ​ verlap​ in two species n ​ iches​, the m
​ ore​ ​intense​ the ​competition​.
● Competition exclusion principle​: two species ​cannot​ ​occupy​ ​exactly​ the ​same​ ​niche​, as they will
both be requiring e ​ xactly​ the ​same​ r​ esources​, and so one species will o ​ utcompete​ the other.
● Experiments in laboratory conditions do not consider the effects of the external environment.

CONSERVATION AND PRESERVATION

● Preservation​ - ​maintenance​ of ​habitats​/e ​ cosystems​ in their ​present​ ​condition​ - ​minimise​ ​impact​.
● Conservation​ - a​ ctively​ m
​ aintaining​ ​biodiversity​ and a v ​ ariety​ of and within ​habitats​ and
ecosystems​.
○ Raise carrying capacity by providing e ​ xtra​ ​food​, restrict dispersal using f​ encing​, control
predators​ and ​poachers​, ​vaccinate​ organisms against disease, prevent ​pollution​/​disruption​.
 ● Ethical​ reasons for conservation of biological resources: ​each​ ​species​ has v ​ alue​ and humans should
look after this as h ​ uman​ i​ mpact​ is a ​large​ ​reason​ ​for​ the ​problems​ of each population.
● Economic​ and ​social​ reasons: genetic d ​ iversity​ may breed ​disease​ ​resistance​ and ​increase​ y ​ ields​,
natural environments are a v ​ aluable​ s
​ ource​ of organisms (eg. in d ​ rug​ production), ​natural​ p
​ redators
of ​pests​, i​ ndirect​ v​ alue​ (eg. p
​ ollination​), e
​ cotourism​.

SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT
● Timber​ production is important, as timber is a c ​ ost-effective​, ​strong​ ​building​ m ​ aterial​.
○ Coppicing​ - stem of deciduous tree cut close to ground, new shoots grow from cut surface.
○ Pollarding​ - stems cut higher up to prevent animals (eg. deer) from eating new shoots.
○ Rotational​ c ​ oppicing​ - woodland managers divide woods into sections, cutting different
sections each year. Some big trees left to be harvested into timber. Helps biodiversity by
deflecting​ s​ uccession​, as woodland succession blocks out light to the floor reducing
biodiversity.
○ Selective​ c​ utting​ - only largest, most valuable trees are removed.
○ Modern​ f​ orestry​ p ​ rinciples​: any h​ arvested​ t​ ree​ r​ eplaced​, f​ orest​ as a w
​ hole​ must p​ erform​ its
ecological​ f​ unction​, ​local​ ​people​ should still be able to ​benefit​ ​from​ the ​forest​.
● Fishing​ is a massive industry, providing a large ​food​ ​source​ to many people.
○ Marine stewardship council principles​: fishing must occur at a l​ evel​ ​allowing​ it to occur
indefinitely​, fishing must maintain s ​ tructure​ p
​ roductivity​ and f​ unction​ of the ​ecosystem​,
fishery must a ​ dapt​ to c
​ hange​ in ​circumstances​ and r​ egulations​.
○ Aquaculture​ (​fish​ f​ arming​) is an expanding industry, preventing depletion of oceanic fish
stocks.

BALANCING THE CONFLICT BETWEEN HUMAN NEEDS AND CONSERVATION

● The ​Terai​ R
​ egion​ in the south of Nepal is made up of grasslands, savannas and forests.
● Densely​ ​populated​ - home to endangered species (eg. B ​ engal​ ​tigers​)
● Overexploited​ by a ​ gricultural​ ​pressures​ over past 10 years
● WWF and Nepalese government focused on conservation:
○ Local​ p ​ eople​ can u
​ se​ f​ orest​ but have to l​ ook​ ​after​ ​it
○ Developed w ​ aterholes​ and f​ orest​ ​corridors​ (manmade paths connecting rural areas).
○ Tiger​ p ​ opulation​ used forest corridors to migrate → ​increased​ in population size.
● The ​Maasai​ M ​ ara​ is a savannah region in Kenya.
● Surrounding communities suffer ​poverty​ - relying on​ tourism​ for wildlife watching.
● Conservation maintains biodiversity and helps local people financially:
○ Conservancies​ now p ​ aid​ by t​ ourism operators​ for l​ and​ set aside for ​conservation
○ Landowners​ must m ​ ove​ ​livestock​ out d​ uring​ ​tourism​ ​season
○ Constraints​ upon ​how​ the l​ and​ can be u ​ sed​.

CONTROLLING THE EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES

● The ​Galapagos​ I​ slands​ contain a high number of native species, which are endangered.
○ Effects​ of humans: ​demands​ on w ​ ater,​ e ​ nergy​, ​sanitation​, more ​waste​ and ​pollution
produced, demand for ​oil​ i​ ncreasing​ (​oil spilled in 2001​), b ​ uildings​ f​ ragmenting​ ​habitats​,
forests​ almost ​eradicated​ to make way for ​agricultural​ l​ and.
○ Controlling​ effects: prevent introduction of new species by s ​ earching​ b ​ oats​ on a ​ rrival​,
quarranting​ p ​ roblems​ caused by already introduced species.
● The ​Antarctic​ - polar region around the Earth’s south pole:
○ Effects​ of humans: ​boats​ land on k ​ rill​ making it hard for p ​ redators​ to find f​ ood​, ​pollution​ and
hunting​ threaten ​albatrosses​ and p ​ etrels​.
○ Controlling​ effects: ​antarctic​ t​ reaty​, k ​ rill​ h
​ arvested​ and given to predators, s ​ anctuaries
making it i​ llegal​ to ​hunt​/kill w
​ hales​, boats use ​scaring​ ​lines​ and s ​ treamers​ to a ​ void​ ​hurting
birds​.
● The ​Lake​ D
​ istrict​ - mountainous region in North West England.
○ Effects​ of humans: ​felling​, introduction of i​ nvasive​ s ​ pecies​, ​limestone​ pavements e ​ roded​.
○ Controlling​ effects: ​felling​ ​patterns​ are ​varied​, i​ nvasive​ s ​ pecies​ (eg. ​laurel​) are ​removed​,
limestone​ p ​ avements​ p​ rotected​, f​ armers​ ​paid​ to m ​ aintain​ hay ​meadows​ (support rich
diversity of flowers and grasses), ​vegetation​ ​burnt​ to m ​ aintain​ ​different​ a ​ ged​ h​ eathland​.
● Snowdonia​ ​National​ P
​ ark​ - largest national park in Wales.
○ Effects​ of humans: ​drainage​ d ​ itches​ ​blocked​ by hay bales, b ​ ranches​ of ​cut​ d ​ own​ t​ rees​ block
drainage​ d ​ itches​, ​fires​ on m​ oorland​ ​spread​, ​paths​ ​eroded​ by walkers and climbers.
○ Controlling​ effects: ​paths​ are ​maintained​, ​hay​ ​bales​ and ​cut​ d ​ own​ ​trees​ r​ emoved​ to i​ mprove
drainage​, moorland f​ ires​ c ​ ontrolled​ before heather gets too old and dry.