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Fractured Reservoirs
 The Geological Society of L o n d o n
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LONERGAN, L., JOLLY, R. J. H., RAWNSLEY, K. & SANDERSON, D. J. (eds) 2007. Fractured Reservoirs.
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 270.

WOODCOCK, N. H., DICKSON, J. A. D. & TARASEWICZ, J. P. T. 2007. Transient permeability and reseal
hardening in fault zones: evidence from dilation breccia textures. In: LONERGAN, L., JOLLY, R. J. H.,
RAWNSLEY, K. 8z SANDERSON, D. J. (eds) Fractured Reservoirs. Geological Society, London, Special
Publications, 270, 43-53.
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 270

Fractured Reservoirs

EDITED BY

L. L O N E R G A N
Imperial College, London, UK

R. J. H. JOLLY
BP Exploration, UK

K. R A W N S L E Y
Shell International Exploration and Production, The Netherlands

and

D. J. S A N D E R S O N
Imperial College, London, UK

2007
Published by
The Geological Society
London
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 Contents

Preface vi
Outcrop studies
STEPHENSON, B. J., KOOPMAN, A., HILLGARTNER,H., McQUILLAN, H., BOURNE, S., 1
NOAD, J. J. & RAWNSLEY, K. Structural and stratigraphic controls on fold-related
fracturing in the Zagros Mountains, Iran: implications for reservoir development
WENNBERG, O. P., AZIZZADEH,M., AQRAWI,A. A. M., BLANC, E., BROCKBANK,P., 23
LYSLO, K. B., PICKARD, N., SALEM, L. D. & SVANA, T. The Khaviz Anticline: an outcrop
analogue to giant fractured Asmari Formation reservoirs in SW Iran
WOODCOCK, N. H., DICKSON, J. A. D. & TARASEW1CZ,J. P. T. Transient permeability and 43
reseal hardening in fault zones: evidence from dilation breccia textures
ROTEVATN, A., FOSSEN, H., HESTHAMMER,J., AAS, T. E. & HOWELL, J.A. 55
Are relay ramps conduits for fluid flow? Structural analysis of a relay ramp in Arches National
Park, Utah
Geophysics
WORTUINGTON, M. H. & LUBBE, R. The scaling of fracture compliance 73
EMSLEY, S. J., SHINER, P., ENESCU, N., BECCAC1NI, A. & COSMA, C. Using VSP surveys 83
to bridge the scale gap between well and seismic data
PETTITT, W. S. & KING, M. S. Laboratory measurements of acoustic emissions and wave 93
velocities associated with the formation of fractures in sandstones
Numerical and analogue modelling studies
OLSON, J. E., LAUBACH, S. E. & LANDER, R. H. Combining diagenesis and mechanics to 101
quantify fracture aperture distributions and fracture pattern permeability
LECKENBY, R. J., LONERGAN,L., ROGERS, S. F. & SANDERSON,D. J. Study of fracture-induced 117
anisotropy from discrete fracture network simulation of well test responses
DEE, S. J., YIELDING, G., FREEMAN, B., HEALY, D., KUSZNIR, N. J., GRANT, N. & 139
ELLIS, P. Elastic dislocation modelling for prediction of small-scale fault and fracture network
characteristics
BAZALGETTE, L. & PETIT, J.-P. Fold amplification and style transition involving fractured 157
dip-domain boundaries: buckling experiments in brittle paraffin wax multilayers and
comparison with natural examples
Reservoir case studies
CASABIANCA,D., JOLLY, R. J. H. & POLLARD, R. The Machar Oil Field: waterflooding a 171
fractured chalk reservoir
ROGERS, S., ENACHESCU, C., TRICE, R. & BUER, K. Integrating discrete fracture network 193
models and pressure transient data for testing conceptual fracture models of the Valhall
chalk reservoir, Norwegian North Sea
BARR, D., SAVORY, K. E., FOWLER, S. R., ARMAN, K. ~; MCGARRITY, J.P. 205
Pre-development fracture modelling in the Clair field, west of Shetland
DE KEIJZER, M., HILLGARTNER,H., AL DHAHAB, S. t~ RAWNSLEY,K. A surface-subsurface 227
study of reservoir-scale fracture heterogeneities in Cretaceous carbonates, North Oman
OZKAYA, S. I. • MINTON, K. R. Flow potential of fracture corridors and large conductive 245
fractures in a clastic reservoir, Oman
RAWNSLEY, K., DE KEIJZER, M., WEI, L., BETTEMBOURG, S., ASYEE, W., MASSAFERRO, J.-L., 265
SWABY, P., DRYSDALE, D. 8z BOETTCHER, D. Characterizing fracture and matrix heterogeneities
in folded Devonian carbonate thrust sheets, Waterton tight gas fields, Western Canada
Index 281
 Preface

Fractured reservoirs contain an important and ever the role of fractures is important. Some clues may
increasing proportion of the world's hydrocarbon come from drilling (such as mud loss events and
reserves. This is largely because of the huge gas kicks), flow data (such as pressure build-up
volume of remaining reserves concentrated in the tests, spinner logs) and well data (such as image
Middle East, including reservoirs dominated by logs and core). A major aim in fractured reservoirs
fracture flow. The current increasing global gas is to find ways of recognizing fractures at the apprai-
demand has meant that fractured reservoirs have sal stage and some success has been obtained from
found an increasingly significant role as a global analysis of seismic attributes based on amplitude,
energy source outwith the Middle East, in tight velocity and shear wave birefringence, which
gas basins of North and South America and areas display a strong directional response.
of emerging gas production in North Africa. Many Another major characteristic of fractured reser-
fractured reservoirs have relatively low recovery voirs is their unpredictable and often extreme beha-
factors, typically around 20% or lower (compared viour. Management of these fields requires clear and
with ~50% for sandstone reservoirs in the North careful definition of the full range of uncertainties. It
Sea for example). Thus, even a small improvement is important to quantify the uncertainties associated
in recovery factor would result in a large increase in with a development plan, and base the economics on
oil and gas production. this range, rather than to have one "predictive"
Fractured reservoirs are generally considered to model that might immediately be disproved by the
be reservoirs in which fractures provide per- next well that is drilled. Defining and quantifying
meability and the rock matrix tends to provide the the uncertainty associated with fractured reservoir
main storage capacity and/or those in which frac- management is an area of much current interest
tures significantly enhance the permeability of a within industry that will continue to grow in import-
reservoir that already has good matrix porosity and ance and sophistication. A number of the case studies
permeability. In parts of some fields, or more in the final section of this volume address ways of
rarely even entire fields (such as those in crystalline assessing uncertainty associated with fracture
rocks), fractures can provide both the essential geometry and connectivity, and how that uncertainty
storage and permeability where the matrix has little can be incorporated into reservoir simulations of the
porosity and permeability. In general fractured reser- field. The solution to challenges we briefly mention
voirs are rarely of one simple type and may exhibit here must involve the close interaction of subsurface
a range of behaviours within different layers or geoscientists and engineers and the integration of
different geographic sectors of the same field. their diverse datasets and technologies.
The characterization and modelling of fractured This volume arose from a Petroleum Group
reservoirs is widely recognized as challenging to meeting of the same title held at the Geological
geoscientists and engineers alike. A key issue in Society, London in November 2004, where the inten-
these reservoirs is the transfer mechanism of the tion of the convenors was to provide a forum at which
hydrocarbons from the rock matrix to the fracture. the range of views and experiences of geoscientists
This mechanism is often poorly constrained and and engineers who manage fractured reservoirs
requires careful choice of simulation methods to and/or work on fractured rock could be presented
capture the range of flow physics in the complex and discussed. Two of the recurring themes of the
system. The geological problem most often cited conference were, firstly, the necessity to get the best
in the context of the development and exploitation understanding possible of the fracture network and
of fractured reservoirs is the difficulty in defining its impact on the fluid flow in fractured reservoirs
the geometry of the fractures that impact the flow, using a range of data types, covering all scales
especially when a significant component of the frac- available (e.g. seismic, well-logs, image logs, core,
tured network is beneath the imaging resolution of outcrop analogues, drilling and production data)
standard three-dimensional reflection seismic tech- and, secondly, the integration of technologies and
niques. Fractured reservoirs have a wide range of work flows across the geoscience and engineering dis-
production characteristics. Generally rates of pro- ciplines. The 17 papers that comprise this volume
duction from wells vary across the field, with mainly locus on addressing the firstxof these themes.
many wells experiencing rapid decline following However the second theme features in a"number of
initially high flow rates. In such situations only a the reservoir case studies presented in the final
few wells dominate production and many production section of the volume where production and drilling
wells may experience early water breakthrough. In data are integrated into reservoir models and reservoir
these cases the early recognition and prediction of management issues are discussed.
 PREFACE vii

Outcrop studies of appropriate reservoir ana- in three-dimensional reflection seismic datasets.

logues provide important insights into the distri- They apply their methodology to two reservoirs in
bution and role of fractures in reservoirs. The four extensional fault blocks (North Sea and Tunisia)
papers in the first section focus on studies of this and a reservoir in a thrust anticline in Venezuela.
type, two of which are related directly to important The last paper in this section by Bazalgette &
subsurface Iranian reservoirs and document the Petit discusses the use of analogue models to evalu-
fracture systems that formed in carbonates during ate fracture development during the growth of
the development of thrust-related folds in the multi-layer folds.
Zagros Mountains (Wennberg et al. & Stephenson The final section comprises six reservoir case
et al.). Both of these papers highlight the importance studies drawn from a variety of geographic
of 'mechanical' stratigraphy in controlling the locations, including the Middle East, the North
development of the fracture systems described. A Sea and North America. Casabianea et al. describe
paper in the final section of the volume (de the data and uncertainty assessments used by the
Keijzer et al.) demonstrates how detailed outcrop team developing the Machar oil field (a fractured
data can be used to constrain the fracture model chalk reservoir above a salt diapir in the UK
developed for a subsurface reservoir in the same North Sea) to review their development and field
formation, in this case the lower Cretaceous Natih management plans when reservoir performance
Formation limestone reservoir of Oman. The other was unexpectedly affected by a fast rise in water
two papers in this section provide detailed studies production. Rogers et al. investigate the uncertain-
of fracturing related to normal faulting (Rotevatn ties in the controls and location of the main flow
et al.) and the impact of flow on a single fault zone conduits in the Valhall chalk field in the Norwegian
(Woodcock et al. ). North Sea for a planned water flood project, by con-
The papers in the second section present geophy- ducting a series of simulations of a range of possible
sical techniques that aid in fracture detection and conceptual fracture models with a discrete fracture
imaging in the subsurface. Worthington & network model calibrated to well tests. Barr et al.
Lubbe report a variety of field and laboratory esti- describe the facture analysis and modelling used
mates of fracture compliance, the parameter that in preparation for the initial development phase
controls the seismic visibility of fractures (includ- (early 2005) of the Clair oil field in a fractured sand-
ing faults). Emsley et al. present a case-study of a stone reservoir on the UK continental shelf, West of
fractured carbonate reservoir where VSP processing Shetland. The study incorporated outcrop data,
techniques were used to bridge the scale-gap fracture data from wells and seismic data (includ-
between image log data and variable quality reflec- ing azimuthal velocity information from a four
tion seismic data. The final paper in this section component three-dimensional seismic survey) to
(Pettitt & King) describes a set of experiments build a series of fracture-matrix flow modes used
that measured acoustic emissions during fracturing in the reservoir simulator. The next study, of a
in a polyaxial test system, that allowed the distri- Palaeozoic clastic reservoir in Oman by Ozkaya
bution, orientation and type of fracturing to be cal- & Minton shows how borehole image data, open-
culated during crack growth in the low-permeability hole logs and dynamic data can be used to define
sandstones used for the test. a water breakthrough risk map where individual
The next section comprises papers on numerical fluid-conductive faults or large fractures cannot be
and analogue modelling techniques. The first of identified with certainty. The final paper in this
these by Olson et al. describes the modification of section (Rawnsley et al.) investigated the extre-
flow within modelled fracture networks when dia- mely variable well performance in the Waterton
genesis (e.g. quartz cementation) is incorporated carbonate gas reservoirs in anticline structures
into the geomechanical models. When smaller aper- within an imbricate thrust stack, in the Canadian
ture fracture segments are preferentially cemented, Rocky Mountain foothills. Geophysical, structural,
flow connectivity is significantly reduced in the stress, matrix and dynamic datasets were reinter-
network. Leekenby et al. report the results of a preted and used to build flow simulations of
series of numerical experiments that investigated sectors of the West Carbondale field. Aside from
the effect of anisotropic fracture geometries on tran- one zone of enhanced flow attributed to a major
sient pressure derivatives (simulating well test data) seismic-scale fault, the fracture system was not
for single phase flow. They conclude that to detect found to contribute significantly to the observed
anisotropic fracture geometries from well-test data flow in the wells.
long draw-down/build-up times are required. Dee Any endeavour of this sort requires the help of a
et al. use geomechanical modelling based on large number of people. We would like to thank the
elastic dislocation theory to predict the distribution Conference Office at Burlington House for their
of small-scale faults from a knowledge of the geo- help in organizing the Fractured Reservoirs
metry and slip distribution on large faults imaged meeting in November 2004, colleagues who
viii PREFACE

chaired sessions, and the conference sponsors Lagalaye, E. Liu, T. MacRoberts, L. Maerten, G.
(Badleys Geoscience, BP, CGG, PGL, Roxar and Makel, T. Manzocchi, J. Muller, T. Needham, R.
Shell). We also thank Shashi Luther at Imperial Nelson, K. McCaffrey, S. Raikes, P. Richard, S.
College and staff of the Geological Society Publish- Rogers, C. Sayers, Z. Shipton, R. Singleton, S.
ing House for their assistance in producing this Stewart, P. Styles, R. H. Sibson, G. Tuckwell, O.
volume. Finally we thank the following colleagues Walderhaug, E. Willemse, L. Wei, M. Worthington
in academia and industry who gave their time to and three anonymous referees.
review the papers published here: D. Barr, A. Best,
S. Berbauer, Boerrigter, P. Bourbiaux, Lidia Lonergan
D. Casabianca, C. Childs, J. Cosgrove, G. Couples, Richard Jolly
S. Dee, D. Dewhurst, M. Fischer, D. Foulon, Keith Rawnsley
O. Gosselin, M. Gross, T. van Heel, S. Jolley, Y. David Sanderson
 Contents

Preface vi
Outcrop studies
STEPHENSON, B. J., KOOPMAN, A., HILLGARTNER,H., McQUILLAN, H., BOURNE, S., 1
NOAD, J. J. & RAWNSLEY, K. Structural and stratigraphic controls on fold-related
fracturing in the Zagros Mountains, Iran: implications for reservoir development
WENNBERG, O. P., AZIZZADEH,M., AQRAWI,A. A. M., BLANC, E., BROCKBANK,P., 23
LYSLO, K. B., PICKARD, N., SALEM, L. D. & SVANA, T. The Khaviz Anticline: an outcrop
analogue to giant fractured Asmari Formation reservoirs in SW Iran
WOODCOCK, N. H., DICKSON, J. A. D. & TARASEW1CZ,J. P. T. Transient permeability and 43
reseal hardening in fault zones: evidence from dilation breccia textures
ROTEVATN, A., FOSSEN, H., HESTHAMMER,J., AAS, T. E. & HOWELL, J.A. 55
Are relay ramps conduits for fluid flow? Structural analysis of a relay ramp in Arches National
Park, Utah
Geophysics
WORTUINGTON, M. H. & LUBBE, R. The scaling of fracture compliance 73
EMSLEY, S. J., SHINER, P., ENESCU, N., BECCAC1NI, A. & COSMA, C. Using VSP surveys 83
to bridge the scale gap between well and seismic data
PETTITT, W. S. & KING, M. S. Laboratory measurements of acoustic emissions and wave 93
velocities associated with the formation of fractures in sandstones
Numerical and analogue modelling studies
OLSON, J. E., LAUBACH, S. E. & LANDER, R. H. Combining diagenesis and mechanics to 101
quantify fracture aperture distributions and fracture pattern permeability
LECKENBY, R. J., LONERGAN,L., ROGERS, S. F. & SANDERSON,D. J. Study of fracture-induced 117
anisotropy from discrete fracture network simulation of well test responses
DEE, S. J., YIELDING, G., FREEMAN, B., HEALY, D., KUSZNIR, N. J., GRANT, N. & 139
ELLIS, P. Elastic dislocation modelling for prediction of small-scale fault and fracture network
characteristics
BAZALGETTE, L. & PETIT, J.-P. Fold amplification and style transition involving fractured 157
dip-domain boundaries: buckling experiments in brittle paraffin wax multilayers and
comparison with natural examples
Reservoir case studies
CASABIANCA,D., JOLLY, R. J. H. & POLLARD, R. The Machar Oil Field: waterflooding a 171
fractured chalk reservoir
ROGERS, S., ENACHESCU, C., TRICE, R. & BUER, K. Integrating discrete fracture network 193
models and pressure transient data for testing conceptual fracture models of the Valhall
chalk reservoir, Norwegian North Sea
BARR, D., SAVORY, K. E., FOWLER, S. R., ARMAN, K. ~; MCGARRITY, J.P. 205
Pre-development fracture modelling in the Clair field, west of Shetland
DE KEIJZER, M., HILLGARTNER,H., AL DHAHAB, S. t~ RAWNSLEY,K. A surface-subsurface 227
study of reservoir-scale fracture heterogeneities in Cretaceous carbonates, North Oman
OZKAYA, S. I. • MINTON, K. R. Flow potential of fracture corridors and large conductive 245
fractures in a clastic reservoir, Oman
RAWNSLEY, K., DE KEIJZER, M., WEI, L., BETTEMBOURG, S., ASYEE, W., MASSAFERRO, J.-L., 265
SWABY, P., DRYSDALE, D. 8z BOETTCHER, D. Characterizing fracture and matrix heterogeneities
in folded Devonian carbonate thrust sheets, Waterton tight gas fields, Western Canada
Index 281
 Structural and stratigraphic controls on fold-related fracturing in
the Zagros Mountains, Iran: implications for reservoir development
B E N J. S T E P H E N S O N ~3, A N T O N K O O P M A N ~, H E I K O H I L L G A R T N E R ~,
H A R R Y M C Q U I L L A N 2, S T E P H E N B O U R N E l, J O N J. N O A D t & K E I T H R A W N S L E Y 1
1Shell E&P International Centre, Carbonate Development Team, Kessler Park 1,
2288GS Rijswijk-ZH, The Netherlands
2Zagros Orchard, R.D. 1, Upper Moutere, Nelson, New Zealand
3Present address: Shell Canada Ltd, 400 4th Avenue S.W., Calgary, Alberta,
Canada T2P 2H5 (e-mail: [email protected])

Abstract: New observations of fracture corridors > 150 m tall and planes of bedding-parallel slip
are integrated with sedimentological descriptions of the Asmari Formation to understand the main
controls on the development of fractures in the Zagros Mountains of Iran. In the Kuh-e Pahn, fold-
related fracture corridors are axis-parallel (NW-SE) and occur in the crest of the anticline. They
form by neutral surface folding, but at a critical dip of the beds (c. 15~ bedding-parallel slip by
flexural slip folding is the predominant mechanism. This relationship is substantiated by curvature
calculations. Crestal fractures have a large vertical extent in mechanical unit B (> 150 m), primar-
ily due to the lithological homogeneity of massive packstones within the Asmari Formation.
Northerly and easterly trending fracture corridors, interpreted from satellite imagery, are spatially
unrelated to the detachment folding of the cover series, but represent the distributed effect of deep-
seated basement reactivation related to fault movement. These trends define high production zones
in the nearby Gachsaran super giant oilfield. Observations from an adjacent eroded box fold, the
Kuh-e Mish, with steeper dipping limbs (60~ revealed a contrast in the style of deformation, and
we interpret these folds to represent different stages in box fold evolution.

The Asmari Formation is an Oligocene-Early small-scale fractures does not vary with spatial
Miocene age platform carbonate. It is the most position across the fold, although the plunges of
prolific oil reservoir in kan and, moreover, it is com- the folds and the hinge zones showed the greatest
monly regarded as one of the classic fractured carbon- density of fracturing. A fracture study team was set
ates in the world, with production rates strongly up by the oil company consortium, OSCO in the
influenced b y t h e presence, or not, of fractures (e.g. 1970s, and some of their fracture distribution maps
McQuillan 1985). Figure 1 shows a projection of are presented by Gholipur (1994), although most of
the sub-surface oil fields on the surface, and the their work remains unpublished. The importance of
location of the study areas. Given the dry climate axis-parallel and axis-orthogonal mode I fractures
and lack of vegetation, the superb exposure of the in map view is highlighted, as well a model for the
Zagros Mountains is ideally suited for an outcrop- location of feeder fractures in the axial zones
based fracture study. Furthermore, the value of an (hinge lines) of a box fold.
outcrop analogue is greatly increased for a hydro- Observations by Inger et al. (2002) over the Kuh-e
carbon province in a mountainous terrain where Meymand and the Kuh-e Sefidar in northern Fars
there may be technical difficulties in acquiring good also recognize the predominance of axis-parallel
quality seismic data and hence resolution limits on mode I fractures in the crestal areas and shear frac-
the imaging of structural geometries at the reservoir tures associated with a component of fight-lateral
scale. shear acting in the region. Furthermore, they dis-
There are relatively few dedicated reservoir-scale tinguish between fractures associated with pre- and
fracture studies on the Zagros in the published post-fold faulting.
literature. McQuillan (1973) measured many small- Fold-axis parallel and fold-axis orthogonal mode
scale fractures from numerous folds in the Zagros, I fractures are a common theme of previous models
including The Kuh-e Pahn and the Kuh-e Asmari, and mechanisms of fold-related fracturing (sum-
and concluded that the density of small-scale frac- marized by, for example, Cosgrove & Ameen
tures remains constant in individual beds. A detailed 2000; Bazalgette 2004).
study of the Kuh-e Asmari using aerial photographs This paper presents new observations on the
(McQuillan 1974) pointed out that the density of spatial distribution of fracturing from satellite

From: LONERGAN,L., JOLLY,R. J. H., RAWNSLEY,K. & SANDERSON,D. J. (eds) FracturedReservoirs.

Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 270, 1-21.
0305-8719/07/$15.00 (~ The Geological Society of London 2007.
2 B. STEPHENSON E T AL.

Fig. 1. Geological map of Khuzestan region in the Zagros Mountains superimposedby a projection of the
sub-surface locations of the main oil fields in red (from NIOC map, 1978). Green, Jurassic + Cretaceous; orange,
Asmari Formation (Oligocene-Early Miocene); purple, Gachsaran Formation (Miocene); yellow, Aga Jahri and
Bakhtiari Formations (Late Miocene-Quaternary). Landsat images in Figures 3 and 4 are located by blue boxes. Inset
map: regional location and stress data from the Gulf region. Azimuth of lines represents the direction of the maximum
horizontal stress (from CASMO, World Stress Map, www-wsm.physik.uni-karlsruhe.de/pub/casmo/
casmo_frame.html).

images over two folds, the Kuh-e Asmari and the Mesopotamian-Arabian foreland in the SW. The
Kuh-e Pahn, and outcrop observations of sector- amount of shortening is estimated to be about 5 0 -
scale fractures from the Kuh-e Pahn and the Kuh-e 85kin (Blanc et al. 2003; McQuarrie 2004),
Mish, which could be analogous to producing frac- mainly based on model-driven section balancing.
tures in the adjacent Gachsaran and Bibi Hakimeh The inset map in Figure 1 shows the orientation of
giant oil fields. Furthermore, depth constraints present-day maximum horizontal stress (OH. . . . ),
of the mapped fractures are obtained from a gorge, inferred from earthquake focal mechanisms and
the Tang-e Basht, that cuts across strike through borehole measurements, which is N E - S W directed
the Kuh-e Pahn, providing a unique cross-section in the Kuh-e Mish/Kuh-e Pahn region (CASMO
through the crest of a buckle fold. 2004). The evaporites of the Infracambrian
Hormuz Formation, referred to as the Lower
Mobile Group, is a d6collement layer that detaches
Structure and style of Zagros folds the deformation in the basement from the thick
sequence of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sediments,
The Zagros orogenic belt formed by Alpine-aged referred to as the Competent Group. At the top of
(Late Tertiary-Quaternary) folding of a very thick the Competent Group is the Oligo-Early Miocene
passive margin sequence accumulated on the NE age Asmari Formation, which is overlain by the
edge of the Arabian plate (e.g. Colman-Sadd Miocene age Gachsaran Formation, also referred to
1978). Compressive deformation advanced as the Upper Mobile Group (Colman-Sadd 1978).
progressively from NE to SW and, accordingly, the The Zagros orogenic belt is often cited as the
intensity of deformation decreases towards the classic example of double plunging concentric to
 FOLD-RELATED FRACTURES IN THE ZAGROS 3

Fig. 2. Cross-sections across the Kuh-e Pahn and the Kuh-e Mish to show the style of folding. Lines of section
shown in Figure 1.

cylindrical buckle folding. The detachment folds extension) (Edgell 1996). The influence of basement
have a relaying to en-echelon spatial organization trends on the geological processes in the Zagros has
(e.g. Price & Cosgrove 1990) in what is generally been cited by a number of authors (e.g. Jackson
known as the Simply Folded Belt. More recently, 1980; Jackson & Fitch 1981; Hessami et al. 2001).
other folding mechanisms have been proposed as McQuillan (1991) described the effect of basement
well, including fault propagation folds and fault- tectonics on the evolution of sedimentary facies
bend folds (Mitra 1990; Suppe 1983; McQuerrie and the emplacement of salt plugs. In addition,
2004). Forced folding, defined as folding over an McQuillan (1985) recognized the control of pre-
active basement fault, is used to explain some of Zagros basement-lineaments on production rates
the geometrical peculiarities associated with from the Bibi Hakimeh and Gachsaran oil fields.
Zagros folds in map view (Sattarzadeh et al. 2000). To constrain the possible role of these basement
Our outcrop observations from the Zagros reveal trends on fracture development, satellite images
that many folds in the Zagros are neither cylindrical, (Landsat-7 TM) were evaluated over two folds in
nor concentric. The anticlines in the study area actu- the Simply Folded Belt - the anticlines of the
ally approach a box fold geometry, characterized by Kuh-e Asmari and the Kuh-e Pahn, located in
planar limbs at either side of a relatively flat to mildly Figure 1. The resolution of the Landsat data is in
arched crestal area (Fig. 2). The planar limbs are the order of 15-60 m. Hence, only linear features
defined by conjugate kink bands between relatively longer than ~ 100 m can be detected, as shown by
fixed kinked hinge zones. Diagnostic criteria of the the minimum length of the interpreted lineaments.
structural domains associated with the box fold geo- The Asmari Formation, a light-grey coloured
metries in the Zagros will be described below. limestone devoid of vegetation and a primary reser-
voir in the Zagros, forms a prominent carapace, or
upper surface, of the whaleback anticlines in the
Trends of regional basement faults studied areas. Overlying evaporites of the Gachsaran
from Landsat Formation, representing a strong seal to the Asmari
hydrocarbon reservoirs in the region, are typically
Basement trends in the Zagros collisional belt devel- preserved in scarcely vegetated badlands represent-
oped by reactivation of pre-existing anisotropies. ing the synclinal areas surrounding the surface
Present-day convergence between the Arabian and culminations of the anticlines. Physiographic
Iranian plates is associated with a right-lateral expressions of most of the lineaments are drainage
sense of motion along the Main Zagros Reverse channels, to a variable extent controlled by structural
Fault. Four distinct trends are commonly recognized grains. Accordingly, ground-truthing of the satellite
across the Zagros and its Arabian foreland with interpretation by collection of hard data and closer
different modes of origin: Arabian (north-south observation were necessary to validate their origin.
extension), Aulitic (NE-SW sinistral), Erythraean Two principal orientations of lineaments are particu-
( N W - S E dextral) and Tethyan (east-west larly dominant over the Kuh-e Asmari, fold-axis
4 B. STEPHENSON ET AL.

parallel and fold-axis orthogonal (Fig. 3). Both developed in the broadly arched crestal area of
orientations were confirmed by field mapping to be the fold.
fractures of mode I origin. The fold-axis parallel A lineament interpretation based on satellite
set is best developed in the central crestal domain images across the anticlines of the Kuh-e Palm and
of the anticline, defining discrete structures the Kuh-e Dil (Fig. 4) reveals the same axis-parallel
between 100 m and 5 km in length. The fold-axis and axis-orthogonal lineaments, at a comparable
orthogonal set is primarily developed on the fold range of length-scales to the interpretation across
flanks and discrete structures are between 100 m the Kuh-e Asmari (Fig. 3). A major difference,
and 3 km in length. Both sets of fractures are inter- however, is that there are two main regional trends
preted to be related to the Alpine folding and have across the anticlines, c. north-south and c. east-
a similar geometrical relationship to the fold as the west. A larger area around both anticlines was there-
mode ! fractures described by Stearns (1964) for fore interpreted, including the anticlines of the
the Teton anticline in Montana, and the conceptual Kuh-Ze Mish and the Kuh-e Khami, in order to
geometries presented by Bazalgette (2004). As deduce the extent and lateral persistency of these
there are no gorges crosscutting the Kuh-e Asmari, trends (purple lineaments on Fig. 4). Interpreted
any depth constraints of the two fractures sets over lineaments are generally 5 - 1 0 km long and appear
the anticline are not easy to define. to have no relation to the structural grain of the
A comparison between the Landsat lineament fold-belt, continuous and crosscutting several adjoin-
interpretation here and the aerial photograph ing fold axes. Some of the north-south trending
interpretation across the Kuh-e Asmari anticline lineaments crosscutting the Kuh-e Mish in the SE
by McQuillan (1974) immediately shows that of the interpreted area are short, discontinuous fea-
many more fractures can be resolved by aerial tures, verified by outcrop observations in various
photography. However, stereographic projections places. Based on the spatial di stribution and consider-
of the small-scale fracture trends from different able lateral persistency of these fabrics, we infer their
structural domains across the anticline presented association with reactivation of deep-seated pre-
by McQuillan (1974) consistently show the same existing anisotropies, in structural basement or the
two orientations as the lineaments observed from immediately overlying overburden. Strain accommo-
Landsat data, with little spatial variation. We dation of this reactivation is distributed in an upward
conclude now, as did McQuillan (1974), that direction across the heterogeneous mechanical strati-
these are the predominant characteristic trends of graphy of the thick cover sequence. This resulted in
fold-related mode I fractures in the Zagros. the network of regional-scale fracture trends, rela-
Primary and secondary fracture fabrics are axis- tively spread across the area. This interpretation
parallel and cross-axial, respectively, preferentially agrees with the results of analogue models of

Fig. 3. Landsat image (left) and lineament interpretation (right) over the Kuh-e Asmari (see NW box on Fig. 1
for location). The orange line marks the contact between the Asmari and the Gachsaran formations, and defines the
outline of the anticline. Red lines show lineament trends, which are structural and not drainage. Green lines show
lineaments, which could be structural or drainage.
 FOLD-RELATED FRACTURES IN THE ZAGROS 5

Fig. 4. Landsat image (left) and lineament interpretation (right) over the Kuh-e Pahn and adjacent folds (see
centre box in Fig. 1 for location). The turquoise colour on the Landsat image is snow. Orange lines show the outline of
anticlines. Dark red lines show lineament trends, which are structural and not drainage. Green lines show lineaments,
which could be structural or drainage (only shown over the Kuh-e Pahn and the Kuh-e Dil folds for clarity).
The blue box shows the location of Figure 5.

distributed strike-slip, which typically produce Differentiation and distribution of these trends is
diffuse fabrics of relaying and interfering synthetic partly an artefact of the dip change across the
and antithetic trends in upper parts of the cover surface of the fold. For example, the axis-orthogonal
(Mandl 1988; Richard 1991; Richard et al. 1995). drainage channels are most pronounced on the flanks
In summary, a comparison of lineament orien- of the anticline, where the gradients are the steepest,
tations between the Kuh-e Pahn and the Kuh-e and only in part related to fracture trends.
Asmari domains of the Zagros Simply Folded Belt Structures resolved by the Landsat data as dis-
shows the importance of northerly and easterly crete lineaments are present on the Quickbird
striking regional trends for local fracture develop- image as zones of distributed deformation, com-
ment, in addition to the fold-axis parallel and monly with a relaying to en-echelon spatial arrange-
fold-axis orthogonal fracture fabrics. ment. For example, there are two discrete east-west
trending lineaments on the NW plunge of the fold
discerned from the Landsat image, which appear
Fracture lineament interpretation on the Quickbird image as relatively closely
over the Kuh-e Pahn spaced, discontinuous mode I fracture sets, cross-
cutting the entire anticline. Again, these laterally
High-resolution satellite imagery persistent trends of discontinuous fractures are
interpreted to be remotely controlled by an e a s t -
To further investigate the local development of
west trending sinistral wrench fault in the basement,
fractures across the Kuh-e Pahn anticline a high-
which has propagated upwards through the multi-
resolution Quickbird satellite image was acquired
layered cover sequence. At low resolutions these
over the fold with four bands Pan sharpened at
fractures appear to merge into one through-going
0.7 m resolution at 11 bit, with a 12.75 x 12.5 km
structure, some of which are laterally persistent
aerial extent. Interpreted lineaments were sub- across adjoining folds.
divided and colour-coded on the basis of orien-
tation. Four sets of lineaments were observed and
are preferentially developed in different domains, A kinematic model for the Kuh-e Pahn
shown in Figure 5:
The far-field maximum horizontal stress, which
9 NW fold plunge - e a s t - w e s t trend (red); caused the folding of the Zagros is N E - S W
9 Flanks - N E - S W trend (blue); directed, still reflected by the present-day state of
9 Central crestal area - N W - S E trend (orange); stress across the orogenic belt (Fig. 1, inset map).
9 SE fold plunge - N N E - S S W trend (green). Figure 6a shows an idealized ellipse of orthogonal
6 B. STEPHENSON ETAL.

Fig. 5. Quickbird satellite image (left) and lineament interpretation (right) over the Kuh-e Pahn fold.
The resolution of the image is 0.7 m.

plane strain and associated orientation of faults and high-resolution Quickbird interpretation of
fractures, given this orientation of the horizontal Figure 5. It is hypothesized that the secondary frac-
stress field. They are N W - S E trending normal tures are preferentially reactivated in the fold-
faults and/or mode I fractures (because of outer related strain model, thus explaining the occurrence
arc extension), NNE-SSW and E N E - W S W trend- of W N W - E S E trending lineaments (red) and
ing fabrics of (incipient) lateral shear, and N W - S E NNE-SSW trending lineaments (green), and the
trending thrusts or reverse faults. The thrusts relative absence of the east-west and north-south
develop beyond the locking position of the box regional trends (purple) that were interpreted from
folds at relatively advanced states of fold develop- L a n d s a t imagery in Figure 4.
ment. In this scenario, many of the N E - S W For ground control, we measured the orientations
oriented lineaments (colour-coded blue) on the of fractures from outcrop on the SE plunge of the
surface of the Kuh-e Pahn could be mode I fractures Kuh-e Pahn anticline. Two fracture orientations
that formed at the same time as folding and have were consistently observed - W S W - E N E and
subsequently been enhanced by weathering. NNE-SSW. From the outcrop photograph in
However, the northerly and easterly trending Figure 7, NNE-SSW trending, mode I fractures
regional fabrics and local deviations about these, prove to be generally dominant, with a spacing
which are generally laterally persistent across between 20 cm and 1 m, and laterally persistent up
adjoining folds, are not as readily explained by to tens of metres. The northerly trending fractures
this compressive, fold-related (i.e. essentially interfere with a second set of mode I fractures,
plane strain) model. trending WSW-ENE, and therefore predate them.
Figure 6b and c display two possible strain Reactivation has occurred and displacements along
models that would develop when a maximum hori- any single NNE-trending fracture are a few centi-
zontal stress according to a N E - S W azimuth would metres (maximum). There is no cement in either
favour reactivation of northerly and easterly trend- fracture set. In some places the WSW fracture set
ing anisotropies in the structural basement. forms ladder joints, forming short orthogonal
Figure 6b represents a model of conjugate simple mode I fractures that abut against fractures of the
shear, with an en echelon arrangement of overbur- NNE set.
den fabrics, whereas Figure 6c shows the geometri- It is inferred that both fracture sets initiated early
cal configuration of extensional relays that would in the strain history of the anticline. The NNE set
develop in the overburden between discontinuous formed first and was subsequently cross-cut by the
inherited basement trends. Both models are valid WSW set, which may have developed due to local
representations of overburden fabrics in the study stress changes causing them to be perpendicular,
area. Figure 6d combines elements of the separate analogous to the fracture evolution at Nash Point
strain models in a resultant kinematic interpret- in the Bristol Channel in England (Rawnsley et al.
ation, displayed in schematic similarity with the 1992). The geometrical relationship between the
 FOLD-RELATED FRACTURESIN THE ZAGROS 7

Fig. 6. (a) Ellipse of orthogonal plane strain with a NW-SE maximum horizontal stress and associated
orientations of normal faults (brown), reverse faults (purple) and fractures (blue and orange). (b) En echelon
arrangement of secondary shears (green and red) produced by reactivation of a basement-rooted fault (grey) under
simple shear. (c) Extensional relays between discontinuous, overlapping basement trends. (d) Model for the
interpretation of the lineament map (Fig. 5 right) over the Kuh-e Pahn, which has undergone NE-SW directed
compression with a right-lateral torque.

fractures and the stress field changes through time In summary, it appears that the anticlines in the
as the anticline is increasingly affected by the study area are affected by a small, but geometrically
effect of deep-seated lateral shear. The early near- significant, right-lateral torque, probably imposed
orthogonal fracture fabrics are reactivated and by a deep-seated effect of right-lateral shear.
often slightly rotated by the diffuse effect of fight- Associated strain is accomplished by reactivation
lateral strike-slip. This leads to local displacements of fracture fabrics related to early stages of ortho-
of the fracture fabrics along specific alignments, in gonal detachment folding. The torque deformation
many places controlled by the crosscutting fracture appears to be overprinting, as major lateral shear
fabric. Accordingly, the resulting pattern of domi- trends are laterally persistent, extending across a
nant regional trends, illustrated in Figure 6d, number of adjoining anticlines in the study area.
resembles the relatively small-scale fracture Elements of right-lateral shear and associated
fabrics in Figure 7. torque in overburden detachment folds are
8 B. STEPHENSON ETAL.

interpreted and correlated with a high confidence

based on the evolution and well-expressed facies
changes at sequence boundaries. Six smaller,
medium-scale sequences show only very subtle
facies changes at their boundaries and thus confi-
dence in their interpretation are significantly lower.
The base of the logged section is dominated by for-
aminifer-rich, partly marly limestones that are well
bedded. Shallow water depths and high-energy
depositional environments are indicated by lami-
nation and cross bedding and are interpreted as the
late high stand deposits of sequence I. The prominent
change in facies and stacking pattern to massive beds
of lagoonal mud to packstones is associated with a
slow increase of accommodation and water depth
Fig. 7. NNE and WNW trending mode I fractures on in the transgressive part of sequence II. At about
the SE end of the Kuh-e Pahn fold. NNE fracture set 80-120 m in the measured section, a coral reef
offset WNW set. The hammer is 40 cm long for scale. facies is abundant, indicating open-marine con-
ditions. The reef structures themselves are difficult
to identify in the field due to a very homogeneous
expressed in many structures of the Zagros, at a limestone mineralogy probably caused by wide-
variety of scales. The most obvious examples are spread recrystallization. The high stand part of
associated with major northerly trending disturb- sequence II is dominated again by monotonous
ances across the Zagros fold belt, including the lagoonal wacke to packstones with some intercalated
right-lateral Kazerun and Izeh lines. coral patches. Only at the very top of the sequence do
erosional surfaces, some marls and tidal flat facies
point to a shallowing. This trend is interpreted as a
Fracture and sedimentological sequence boundary. The transgressive part of
characterization of the Kuh-e Pahn sequence III continues with thick bedded, commonly
lagoonal packstones with some smaller shallowing
Satellite imagery allows extraction of the spatial dis- events indicated by high-energy grainstones and
tribution and lateral extent of lineaments related to tidal flats. A clear change in stacking pattern and
regional-scale fracture fabrics to be determined, facies to thinner, slightly more marly dolomite
but does not reveal the vertical controls on fracture beds occurs just before the interval of maximum
development. To address this, we carried out a com- flooding. The top of the sequence is clearly marked
bined sedimentological and structural log of the by an erosional surface overlain by thick tidal flats.
Asmari Formation, which forms the ,-~400 m thick The surface shows intense staining and leaching
roof of the fold, along the Tang-e Basht. The deep suggesting diagenetic alteration during sub-aerial
antecedent incision of the gorge and its orientation exposure. The top of the section is formed by the
perpendicular to the fold-axis provides a unique fourth large-scale sequence. It is dominated by
cross-section through a typical Zagros anticline strongly dolomitized, well-bedded lagoonal wacke
without significant erosion of the crest. to packstones. Locally thick oyster beds are interca-
lated. The contact with the overlying evaporitic
Gachsaran Formation does not outcrop in the
Sedimentological logging of the Tang-e Basht but further down the eastern flank of
Asmari Formation the anticline. It is estimated that not more than
10-20 m of Asmari are missing in the section. The
A complete sedimentological section was logged strong dolomitization of the top of the section is
along the Tang-e Basht, at a scale of 1:100 most probably related to early reflux dolomitization,
(Fig. 8). The depositional facies of the Asmari For- commonly associated with evaporite deposition.
mation in the Kuh-e Pahn is dominated by carbonate In summary, the Asmari Formation exposed in
platform-top environments. Eight facies associ- the Tang-e Basht has little lithological hetero-
ations were distinguished ranging from open geneity. Accordingly, the layering anisotropy and
marine lagoon with various energy levels, through subdivision into mechanical units is relatively
coral reefs and shallow high-energy shoals to inter- poor. Indeed it will be shown that the massive,
tidal mudflats. homogeneous properties of the beds in sequence
Four large-scale sequences, probably representing II is an important factor for the vertical extent of
depositional sequences on the third order, are large-scale fracture fabrics.
 FOLD-RELATED FRACTURES IN THE ZAGROS 9

Fig. 8. Sedimentary log through the Asmari Formation in the Tang-e Basht. Eight depositional facies and
four large-scale sequences were interpreted. Scale in metres (labelled in the fifth column).

Sector-scale fracture corridors and tend to cut the entire thickness of a mechanical unit
mechanical units without significant offset. It is well established that
vertically persistent fractures on a length scale of
The fracture fabrics exposed in the Tang-e-Basht hundreds of metres affect production from Asmari
were logged in detail. The gorge contains textbook hydrocarbon reservoirs. For example, the recovery
examples of sector-scale fracture corridors, some of process of Gas Oil Gravity Drainage is in part con-
which have propagated across > 150 m of Asmari trolled by the height and spacing of sector-scale
section. Fracture Corridors have been defined by fractures (e.g. Wit 1978).
Petit et al. (2002) as clusters of more or less parallel, A photo-panorama of the Tang-e Basht section
usually large and persistent mode I fractures, which (Fig. 9) shows the preferential development of
10 B. STEPHENSON E T AL.

Fig. 9. Panorama of section through the Kuh-e Pahn along the Tang-e Basht. The view is to NW, angle of panorama
180~ height of cliff 250 m. Sub-vertical mode I fractures, 150 m tall, are located in the crest of the fold.

mode I sector-scale fractures in the central part of sequence III. It is impossible to say unequivocally
the gorge. This area covers the crest of the fold which is correct, without very precise constraints
where the dip of the beds is less than some 10 ~ on the timing of fracturing with respect to exhuma-
Most prominent fractures are predominantly fold- tion. If the fracturing occurred prior to significant
axis parallel and are thought to have formed erosion, then the same mechanical behaviour of the
because of outer-arc extension related to relatively fractures would be expected in the sub-surface.
mild buckle folding above a neutral surface, Hence, we conclude that not all of the largest frac-
but only in the relatively gently dipping portion tures present in the sub-surface, even a few metres
of the anticline. The spacing of the sector-scale below surface, will be recognized from satellite
fractures is extremely small, a few metres, in com- imagery. This bias can only be detected if there is
parison to their vertical extent. Unusually, these significant vertical cross-section through the
fold-axis parallel fractures do not have a strong anticline, such as in the Tang-e Basht.
surface expression on the Kuh-e Pahn, as shown The large vertical dimension of the sector-scale
by the lineament interpretation (colour-coded fracture corridors in the Kuh-e Pahn, and moreover
orange in Fig. 5), except in the vicinity of the in the Asmari Formation in general, relates to the
gorge, where they are incised and preferentially massive, homogeneous limestone unit, which
enhanced by the erosion pattern. This is partly characterizes sequence II. Within the limestone
related to the lack of drainage enhancement of frac- there are interbeds, but there are no well-defined,
tures across the intact part of the surface carapace discrete bedding planes, commonly associated
of the anticline, but also because of the change in with the lithological changes to marly sediments,
bedding character near the top of the Asmari, as which could act as a mechanical barrier to fracture
described below. propagation.
None of the sector-scale fractures were observed Not all of the fracture corridors in the Tang-e
to have propagated all the way through the Asmari Basht are fold axis-parallel, however. The two sets
Formation. The upward propagation of fractures is of W N W - E S E and N N E - S S W regional fracture
inhibited by a change in stacking pattern within trends interpreted from the satellite images are verti-
large-scale sequence III. Across marly interlayers cally persistent as well. They are generally of the
the outer arc extension is distributed, expressed same order of height as the axis-parallel structures,
by many smaller bed-bound mode I fractures which can be mapped extending away from the
(Fig. 10), for which there are two possible gorge on the surface carapace of the anticline.
explanations. Either the propagation of the fracture Based on a comparison between our observations
is influenced by the reduction in confining stress from the satellite images and in the Tang-e Basht, it
near the surface, thereby forming a wider zone of appears that a fracture map in the thickest mechan-
tensile failure, or fracture propagation is inhibited ical unit (i.e. sequence II at mid-Asmari level)
by the changes in mechanical properties of the most reliably represents subsurface reservoir
thinly bedded ( 1 0 - 1 0 0 c m ) , Asmari layers of characteristics.
 FOLD-RELATED FRACTURES IN THE ZAGROS 11

Fig. 10. Detail of sector-scale, fold-axis parallel, mode I fracture corridors, in the Asmari Formation.
The fracture corridors propagate across sequence II and terminate at sequence III.

Bedding parallel slip and shear fabrics strain in the incompetent strata subjected to folding.
in the Kuh-e Pahn Slickensides, or indications for recrystallization and
diagenetic mineral growth, are not generally devel-
As well as tensile fracturing, bedding-parallel slip is oped in association with the space cleavage fabric.
the other mechanism for brittle failure in the Tang-e Patterns like these may only be incipient in the sub-
Basht. Figure 11 shows some of the different struc- surface, and difficult to recognize from cores.
tural expressions of the associated shear fabrics. It However, without exception, angular relationships
is inferred that these shear fabrics have a strong between bedding planes and the fractures comply
influence on the vertical fracture development, par- with the sense of bedding-plane slip associated with
ticularly away from the crestal zone. the folding. The disjunctive cleavage patterns,
Where bedding plane slip occurs, all fractures have however weakly developed, are considered reliable
been observed to terminate against it. In Figure 11 a, indicators of bulk shear strain and sense of
mode I fractures all abut below the lower slip surface. bedding-plane slip.
Fractures above the upper slip plane have initiated at In Figure 1 lc, there is a dipping cleavage that has
the slip plane and terminate in the middle of the bed. developed within a 3 m thick dolomite bed. The
Shear fabrics are associated with layer parallel slip. In cleavage is not developed in the adjoining more
Figure l lb, shearing has occurred within a 40 cm competent limestone units, which contain mode I
thick marl, causing the development of a spaced dis- sub-vertical fractures abutting against the more pro-
junctive cleavage indicating a top-to-NE sense of minent bed-boundaries.
shear. Again, mode I fractures are observed to abut Transfer of slip also occurs between planes fol-
against the slip planes. Arrays of spaced disjunctive lowing bed-boundaries, as in Figure 1 ld. The slip
cleavage may also develop over a larger interval, in on the upper surface has caused intense fracturing
the form of more or less penetrative fabrics of above it, which shows how sub-vertical, mode I
quasi-planar fractures. The fracture surfaces are gen- fractures can be caused by shear. Changes in lithol-
erally very irregular on a small scale, but on an ogy may facilitate transfer of slip between two slip
outcrop scale the fabrics may be statistically planar. planes. Alternatively, slip transfer may occur
This fabric has been described as reticulate cleavage without the involvement of lithological changes,
(Crook 1964; Borradaile et al. 1982), or spaced by either lateral local stress changes, or by the
cleavage (Geiser 1974; Geiser & Sansone 1981; propagation of the slip surfaces towards and
Koopman 1983), developing in response to bulk across each other.
12 B. STEPHENSON ET AL.

Fig. 11. Different physical expressions of bedding-parallel slip. (a) Abutting of fractures against planes of
bedding-parallel slip (32 m logged height). (b) Shear fabric within a 40 cm thick marl bed, indicating top-to-the-NE
shear-sense (32 m logged height). (e) Spaced disjunctive cleavage within a 3 m thick dolomite bed. Bed-scale
mode I fractures abut against the lithological contact (71 m logged height). (d) Concentration and initiation of
mode I fractures above an upper slip plane and the transfer of slip between slip planes (160 m logged height).
(e) A discrete surface of bedding parallel slip within a homogeneous limestone (211 m logged height).

Marly lithologies and dolomitic units appear to are not only controlled by lithology. We observed
be more prone to bedding-parallel slip, but in that the critical dip angle for slip to occur in the
some places, layer-parallel slip occurs on a Kuh-e Pahn is approximately 15 ~ and infer that
surface in the middle of a massive limestone shear stress across the layers, the dip of the units
bed with no apparent lithology change (Fig. 1 l e). and the influence of surrounding structures may
Therefore, slip planes and associated shear fabrics influence local stress conditions.
 FOLD-RELATED FRACTURES INTHE ZAGROS 13

The converse is also true. Where the bed-forms Impact of mechanical units on
are non-planar, bedding-parallel slip is inhibited. fracture development
For example, in the coral patch reefs at the base
of the section, there are no planar beds developed The result of the combined sedimentological and frac-
and no evidence of bedding-parallel slip was ture logging is shown in Figure 12, which represents a
observed. It is hypothesized that the local stress schematic cross-section along part of the Tang-e
state controls the occurrence of bedding parallel Basht. Note that the dashed red line marks the struc-
slip and associated disjunctive shear fabrics. The tural level of the fiver in the gorge and therefore the
slip will preferentially occur in the more marly picture is a blind interpretation below this line. The
intervals, or the more thinly bedded units if these main result of this study is that it demonstrates that par-
are present. Where weak and/or thin interbeds are titioning of deformation occurs both vertically within
not present, slip will occur on the distinct bedding the anticline and laterally between the flanks and
surfaces with lowest contact strengths in the more crestal area. Accordingly, the thickness and definition
massive limestone beds, generally accompanied of mechanical units in the Tang-e Basht section, which
by intense fracturing, or even brecciation. would control the vertical height of fractures, is

Fig. 12. Conceptual model for the relationship between fracturing, folding and stratigraphy in the Kuh-e Pahn.
The dashed red line indicates the structural level of the exposed section through the gorge. Vertical scale 4 horizontal
scale. Four main mechanical units were recognized in the crest, and multiple units off crest.
14 B. STEPHENSON ET AL.

different in the crest and in the flanks as a consequence the crestal parts of the anticline, has several
of folding and bedding plane slip on the limbs. bedding planes along which bedding parallel slip
Based on the sedimentological and structural occurred. We suggest that these are mechanical
characteristics a subdivision into four first-order boundaries, which affect vertical fracture propa-
mechanical units can be made over the crest of gation partly because bonding between beds was
the anticline: (A) a lowermost marly wackestones significantly reduced and partly related to the devel-
to grainstone unit; (B) a thick interbedded pack- opment of more or less pervasive disjunctive shear
stone unit; (C) a more thinly bedded dolomitised fabrics.
packstone unit; and (D) an uppermost well-
bedded, more marly dolomitized packstone unit.
Diagnostic sedimentological and stratigraphical cri- Curvature calculations for fracture
teria for the mechanical stratigraphy in the crest of prediction
the anticline are as follows.
Unit A is defined by discrete bedding planes with Curvature across folds is often calculated for fracture
facies changes to more incompetent marly beds prediction (e.g. Lisle 1994; Fischer & Wilkerson
serving as mechanical boundaries. Unit B is composed 2000), based on the concept that bending of a layer
of a massive, homogeneous limestone unit with dolo- causes a strain, which can be expressed as a fracture.
mite interbeds that lack sharp bedding planes with The failure may be accommodated by one large frac-
lithological changes to marly sediments. Beds, if dis- ture or many small fractures. We posed the question:
tinguishable, are generally thick. Many internal discon- can curvature analysis predict the location of the
tinuity surfaces are well bonded by diffuse cementation largest fractures in the Kuh-e Pahn, as these would
and recrystallization. The coral patch reef interval be those most important for flow in the sub-surface?
lacks laterally continuous bedding planes, thus favour- Curvature was calculated over the Kuh-e Pahn at
ing a massive appearance. Mechanically, an interval three length scales using a digital elevation model
with thinner beds around the top of sequence II did (DEM). The Aster sensor (Advanced Spaceborne
not create enough contrast to stop large-scale fractures. Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer)
Unit C is characterized by an upward change in lithol- from the Landsat series of satellites has a long
ogy to dolomite accompanied by much more discrete track stereo capability, from which the DEM was
bedding and small lithological changes across the calculated at a resolution of 15 m (Fig. 13). The
bedding planes. Unit D is defined by a section of (argil- erosion level is relatively uniform across the
laceous) limestones with discrete bedding planes and Asmari carapace of the Kuh-e Pahn, as the drainage
more abundant facies changes to more incompetent, channels are generally shallow. The topographic
thin, marly interbeds. surface approximates to a bedding surface near
The flanks of the anticline (dip > 15 ~ display a the top of the Asmari Formation, which validates
very different mechanical subdivision. It appears its applicability for a curvature calculation.
that many more mechanical units are present with The coloured contours on the curvature maps in
an overall more limited vertical persistence of the Figure 14 represent the absolute values of minimum
fractures. Mechanical unit B, which is massive in curvature (Kmin), defined as the change from a

Fig. 13. Image of the Digital Elevation Model over the Kuh-e Pahn. The area of coverage of Quickbird
satellite image is shown by the yellow box.
 FOLD-RELATED FRACTURES IN THE ZAGROS 15

Fig. 14. Curvature and dip maps, calculated over the topography of the Kuh-e Pahn. (a) Curvature at a 50 m
length-scale; (b) curvature at a 500 m length-scale; (c) curvature at a 1000 m length-scale. Coloured contours represent
the values of Kmin,which reflect the change from a positive dip to a negative dip over a convex slope (e.g. an anticline).
The blacked out area masks the Tang-e Basht, and is not included in the calculation. (d) Dip map of the top
surface of the Kuh-e Pahn showing dips between 5 and 20 ~ and (e) dips between 12 and 20 ~

positive dip to a negative dip over a convex slope N W - S E normal fault/extensional fracture direc-
(e.g. an anticline). The values of maximum curvature tion, caused by outer arc extension of the anticline.
(Kma,,), defined as the change from a negative dip to a In summary, 50 m curvature picks out drainage pat-
positive dip (e.g. syncline), are not shown. A curva- terns, which can be fracture lineament trends where
ture calculation on the topographic surface over the the lineament spacing is > 5 0 m.
synclines has no geological meaning due to the
different levels of erosion in the synclines.
Curvature at a 1000 m length-scale

Curvature at a 50 m length-scale The 1000 m calculation (Fig. 14c) shows smoothed

contours, apparently unaffected by the roughness of
The 50 m calculation (Fig. 14a) mainly picks out the surface of the fold. The colours indicate that
the drainage pattern, which is partly controlled by the area of maximum curvature is over the crest
the fracture system and partly by the topography. of the fold, but slightly offset to the SW from the
The drainage system of small gullies is more pro- main fold axis. This reflects the asymmetry of the
nounced on the southern side than on the northern fold, which has a more steeply dipping fore limb
side, probably because of the hydraulic head accom- (SW flank) than back limb (NE flank). A practical
panying the greater relief and steeper slope to the recommendation to come out of this would be to
SW. In terms of fracture lineament directions, this always locate crestal wells slightly off-crest,
length-scale of curvature is predominantly influ- towards the foreland, if the target is large fractures
enced by the east-west trend, as seen in the centre in anticlines. The width of the zone of greatest curva-
of the anticline, indicative of the late torque ture (Kmin < -0.0001) at this length scale is about
imposed by distributed deep-seated basement 1000 m, which is related to the width of the crestal
strike-slip tectonics. It is also affected by the part of the anticline.
16 B. STEPHENSON ET AL.

Curvature at a 500 m length-scale lineaments are relatively absent in the area of

maximum curvature. This reflects the control of
Curvature calculated at a 500m length-scale the layering on the development of the main fracture
(Fig. 14b) is the least obvious to interpret as it fabrics. As discussed in the above sections, the large
reflects a mixture of processes. The Kmin curvature fracture corridors in the Tang-e Basht do not pene-
maximum on the northern plunge of the fold trate to the Upper Asmari as single structures,
(marked 1 on Fig. 14b) is related to the linear drai- because of the more heterogeneous nature of lithol-
nage trends that are dominant in the 50 m curvature ogies and bedding in mechanical layers C and D,
calculation. Curvature maximum 2 (Fig. 14b) is which inhibit fracture propagation. Furthermore,
related to a subtle kinked hinge line, associated fractures in the crest are less likely to be enhanced
with a weak expression of box fold geometry of by differential erosion than those on the more
the Kuh-e Pahn anticline. The structural expression steeply dipping flanks. If the fracture corridors, indi-
of this hinge line in the SE is an axis-parallel cated by orange lines in Figure 5, are projected along
normal fault with a small offset (few metres) that strike, however, they occur in an axis parallel zone
has been eroded forming a drainage gully (shown corresponding to the width of highest curvature at
on Fig. 9). The curvature maximum marked a 1000 m length-scale (Fig. 14c). Therefore in this
3 on Figure 14b is an artifact of the normal fault case, curvature does predict the location of axis-
drainage gully and does not reflect structural parallel fracture corridors. A comparison between
changes. the dip maps (Fig. 14e) and the lineament map
In summary, two effects influence the pattern of (Fig. 5) shows that the sector-scale fracture corridors
curvature at the 5 0 0 m length-scale, fracture- occur in a structural domain where the dip is < 15~
related drainage trends and a kinked hinge line to This was confirmed by the outcrop observations in
a box fold geometry. Following this interpretation, the Tang-e Basht, where 15 ~ is the critical dip
we conclude that 500 m is not a long enough angle above which formation-scale fractures do not
length-scale to distinguish the fold-related curva- form. However, curvature does not predict the poten-
ture from the fault-related effects. Folds with a tial location of sector-scale fractures associated with
wavelength less than the main pericline can be dis- remote basement control, which may be vertically
cerned; however they must be interpreted with persistent off-crest, and even laterally persistent
caution. On first appearance the exposed part of across adjoining anticlines.
the Kuh-e Pahn anticline is a pericline with a In summary, curvature analysis is applicable for
single central fold axis. However, our curvature sub-surface fracture prediction in the Zagros,
calculation suggests that the structure also bears provided that the calculations are based on a
evidence for an incipient box fold. length-scale applicable to the size of the fold and
the thickness of the mechanical unit involved.
Across the Kuh-e Pahn anticline, the Asmari For-
Dip maps
mation is a rigid carbonate about 1 km thick under-
Maps of the dip of the top surface of the Kuh-e lain and overlain by incompetent Pabdeh-Gurpi
Pahn are shown in Figure 14d and e. Intuitively, shales and Gachsaran evaporates, respectively. It
one would expect the largest dips on the flanks is assumed that the Asmari is the controlling
of the fold. A dip map is useful for discerning competent layer. Fracture prediction by curvature
the structural domains based on the deformation analysis in the Asmari should be calculated on a
structures that are most likely to form. The length-scale of ~ 1 kin. Even then, sector-scale frac-
exposed part of the foreland (SW) limb dips ture corridors as observed in the Kuh-e Pahn will
between 15 and 20 ~ whereas the dip of the NE only develop if the Asmari Formation deforms as
limb is between 10 and 15 ~ Bedding-parallel slip one single mechanical unit and the beds are not
is more likely to develop in regions with relatively too steeply dipping.
high dips (i.e. the SW flank), and vertically persist- The dip of the beds is an important indicator of
ent fractures in regions of lowest dip (i.e. the whether bedding-parallel slip will occur or not, con-
crestal zone). trolled by the interplay between the shear stress
resolved on a particular layer and on the friction
between layers. There may be high curvature
Correlation between curvature and fracture away from the crest, onto the flanks of the anticline,
corridors on the Kuh-e Pahn but the tendency for bedding-parallel slip will
inhibit the propagation of vertically pervasive frac-
A comparison between curvature calculated across tures. It follows that curvature only has predictive
the Kuh-e Pahn at a 1000 m length-scale (Fig. 14c) power for detecting through-going fractures and
and the lineament interpretation from the Quickbird fracture corridors in the absence of significant
satellite image (Fig. 5) shows that laterally persistent bedding dips.
 FOLD-RELATED FRACTURES IN THE ZAGROS 17

Fracture characterization of the dolomitization in the upper part, and the thick
Kuh-e Mish tidal flats and abundant sub-aerial exposure indi-
cators in the upper third of the section. The thick-
The Kuh-e Mish anticline is located between the ness of the section is roughly the same in both
anticlines of the Kuh-e Pahn and the Kuh-e Dil to locations, with the Tang-e Gurguda section slightly
the W, and the Kuh-e Khami to the E (Fig. 4). thicker, because of more complete exposure of the
Unlike the Kuh-e Pahn, the Kuh-e Mish anticline basal part of the Formation. Large clinoforms are
is much more elevated, and its core has been well exposed in this section at the base of the
deeply eroded (Fig. 2). Accordingly, there is no Asmari Formation and bedding is strongly pro-
smooth carapace for an aerial fracture interpret- nounced as a result of erosion (Fig. 15). Owing to
ation. However, the Kuh-e Mish is an excellent their similar evolution, it is easy to correlate
example of a well-developed box fold geometry, sequence stratigraphy between the two sections,
characterized by steeply dipping (60 ~) planar which are only a few kilometres apart. The
limbs at either side of a relatively mildly arched absence of major lateral facies changes suggests
crestal zone. A section through the Tang-e that, (1) the platform was very flat, and (2) both sec-
Gurguda, which cuts across strike, shows the tions are regionally located along the same facies
relationship between deformation and stratigraphy. trend, probably roughly parallel to the palaeo-
strike direction. Diagenesis does not show any sig-
Sedimentology nificant variation between the two sections either.
This suggests that from a rheological point of
A sedimentological section of the entire Asmari view the Asmari Formation should have had com-
Formation has been logged at a 1:200 scale in the parable characteristics in both locations before the
Tang-e Gurguda, which cuts trough the steep SW onset of compressive deformation.
limb of the anticline. The facies types and facies Whereas the sedimentology of the Asmari
evolution of the Asmari Formation in the Tang-e Formation in the Kuh-e Mish is similar to that in
Gurguda are very comparable to their development the Kuh-e Pahn, the structural style between the
in the Tang-e Basht, and therefore they are not two folds bears very little relationship. This is prin-
presented here. All main sedimentological cipally because the logged beds in the Tang-e
elements can be correlated, for example the zone Gurguda section are dipping 60-70 ~ whereas
of coral patch reefs in the lower half of the in the Kuh-e Pahn the dips of the beds do not
section, the thin high-energy interbeds and major exceed 20 ~.

Fig. 15. Clinoforms in the basal 50 m of the Asmari Formation in the Tang-e Gurguda (Kuh-e-Mish).
18 B. STEPHENSON ET AL.

Tensile fractures and deformation upper part of the Asmari, where a change in the stack-
ing pattern impedes their vertical propagation.
Mode I fractures in the steep forward limb of the Maximum curvature at the longest length-scales is
Kuh-e Mish anticline are subordinate in numbers, localized over the central crest of the gentle anticline.
compared with those in the Kuh-e Pahn. There are The amount of horizontal shortening across the 10~
relics of bed-orthogonal fractures, which do not dipping flanks is estimated to be of the order of 3%.
generally exceed 1 m in height. These orthogonal
fractures are all contained by bedding planes, and
are interpreted to have formed relatively early, Stage 2:20 ~ dip, incipient box folding with
when the dip of the beds was more gently inclined. fixed kinked hinges
They have since been closed as the bed rotated and
the normal stress component across the fracture With progressively increasing dip of the flanks of
increased. There is no evidence of shear along the structure the process of distributed buckling is
these fractures. replaced by the development of a box-fold geome-
It might be expected that the relatively weak try, defined by fixed kinked hinges at either side
marls of the Pabdeh-Gurpi Formations in the steep of a relatively flat crestal zone. The flanks of
limb of the Kuh-e Mish are more susceptible to the structure remain relatively planar and resemble
detachment and shearing, yet no evidence of signifi- large-scale conjugate kink bands, as they rotate
cant deformation, such as shear fabrics, or folding, away from the core of the developing anticline.
is seen in these beds. It is postulated that the The crest and the flanks of the anticline are increas-
Pabdeh-Gurpi Formations were able to accommo- ingly separated into discrete structural domains.
date any bending and bulk shear stress rather Increasing dip of the planar flank domains is
easily (i.e. without visible expression). Conversely, accompanied by enhanced flexural slip on bedding
the brittleness and rock strength of the Asmari For- planes. In the general area of the fixed hinges this
mation, causes it to deform by brittle failure by flexural slip tends to interfere with the vertically
mode I fracturing. As the Asmari Formation in the persistent tensile fracturing by continuous outer
Kuh-e Mish anticline is the same thickness as in arc extension over the central crestal zone. Mode I
the Kuh-e Pahn section, this is direct evidence fractures may be initiated as wing-cracks at the
that no layer-parallel shortening has occurred, as terminations of the slip planes on the flanks of
might be expected in a steep anticline limb. the anticline, but they will abut against the next
plane of slip and are therefore unlikely to be as ver-
tically extensive as fractures in the central part of
Controls on fracture development and the crest.
the evolution of a box fold Local areas of maximum curvature at short
length-scales may be concentrated at the fixed
A model for the evolution of a hypothetical Zagros hinges of the developing box fold. The amount of
anticline and its internal fabrics has been devel- horizontal shortening, due to buckling, across the
oped, based on a combination of observations fold with 20 ~ dipping flanks is ~ 12%.
from the Kuh-e Pahn and Kuh-e Mish anticlines
(Fig. 16). It is assumed that these anticlines are
representative of the different stages of fold devel- Stage 3:30 ~ dip, crestal extension and
opment as the relatively planar flanks progressively initiation of shear fabrics on the flanks
steepen. The model shows the evolution of struc-
tures along a N E - S W cross-section in the centre Continued compressive deformation may cause
of the fold, and is less likely to be applicable further tensile strain in the outer arc of the anticline.
across the fold plunge. This may lead to localized collapse of the crestal
zone by normal faulting, if the local maximum prin-
cipal stress is vertical. Crestal normal faults were
Stage 1:10 ~ dip, gentle buckle folding and previously described by McQuillan (1973, 1974)
mode I fracture development from the Kuh-e Pahn and the Kuh-e Asmari struc-
tures, and from the Kuh-e Shah Nishan by
Initially anticlines are formed by concentric buckling. Colman-Sadd (1978). Bedding parallel slip
Tensile fracturing by outer arc extension above a becomes the dominant folding mechanism along
neutral surface is confined by the mechanical strati- the flanks of the anticline, at places accompanied
graphy of the Asmari Formation. The massive by the formation of small-scale shear fabrics, gener-
middle to lower part of the Asmari allows the for- ally expressed by a spaced, disjunctive cleavage.
mation of vertically persistent fractures, parallel Increasing layer parallel compression along the
to the axis of the buckle fold, in the absence of any flanks tends to close the early mode I fractures.
mechanical boundaries and layers of bedding-plane The amount of horizontal shortening across the
slip. Bed-bound mode I fractures dominate in the fold with 30 ~ dipping flanks is ~27%.
 FOLD-RELATED FRACTURES IN THE ZAGROS 19

Fig. 16. Schematic model for the evolution of a box fold in the Zagros during progressive deformation as the
dip of the flanks increases. Areas in blue indicate the region of maximum curvature at an appropriate
length scale (here, 1000 m). Areas in green indicate the region of maximum curvature related to kink band
deformation. Areas in red indicate the zone of compression.

Stage 4 : 4 0 ~ dip, crestal collapse mechanisms such as Gas Oil Gravity Drainage.
Superb exposure across the smooth Asmari carapace
With increased inclination of the planar flanks, flex- of the Kuh-e Pahn and the natural cross-sections of
ural slip becomes increasingly inefficient along the the Tang-e Basht remove some of the biases
poorly developed bedding in the massive mechan- usually associated with an outcrop study, providing
ical unit of the Asmari Formation. Crestal collapse a fracture lineament map at a constant structural
may occur with the development of normal faults in level with depth constraints.
the hinge zones of the box fold. The amount of hori- Based on our outcrop observations fracture
zontal shortening across the limbs of a fold with a characteristics vary according to different structural
40 ~ dip is ~ 4 7 % . domains in the anticlines of the Kuh-e Pahn and the
Kuh-e Mish. The main controls on fracture develop-
ment are listed below.
Conclusions
9 Sector-scale, axis-parallel fractures occur in the
The Kuh-e Pahn anticline is an excellent analogue for crest of the folds. The main control on the lateral
sector-scale fracture fabrics in subsurface Asmari variation of these fractures is the interplay
hydrocarbon reservoirs, which influence recovery between the mechanisms of flexural slip
20 B. STEPHENSON ET AL.

(bed-parallel slip) and outer arc extension (mode BORRADAILE, G. J., BAYLY, M. B. & POWELL,
I fracturing). C. McA. 1982. Atlas of Deformational and Meta-
9 Bedding parallel slip at bed dips > 15 ~ in the morphic Rock Fabrics. Springer, Berlin, 551.
Kuh-e Pahn creates mechanical barriers and pre- CASMO 2004. World Stress Map; World Wide Web
Address: www-wsm.physik.uni-karlsruhe.de/pub/
vents the vertical propagation of fractures.
casmo/casmo_frame.html (accessed 1 March,
Bedding-parallel slip can occur in any lithology, 2004).
although it is preferentially developed in the COLMAN-SADD, S. P. 1978. Fold development in
more marly beds. Zagros simply folded belt, SW Iran. American
9 Where a basement rooted fault intersects a fold Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 62,
it will strongly influence both the height and 984-1003.
orientation of fractures, due to reactivation, irre- COSGROVE, J. W. & AMEEN, M. S. 2000. A comparison
spective of the structural domain of the fold in of the geometry, spatial organization and fracture
which they are developed. The north-south patterns associated with forced folds and buckle
and east-west basement trends are best devel- folds. In: COSGROVE, J. W. & AMEEN, M. S. (eds)
Forced Folding and Fractures. Geological Society
oped in the Kuh-e Pahn region and reactivation of London, Special Publication, 169, 7 - 2 l .
of secondary shears associated with these CROOK, K. A. W. 1964. Cleavage in weakly deformed
trends is common. mudstones. American Journal of Science, 262,
9 The large vertical dimension of both the sector- 523-531.
scale fracture corridors (~150 m tall) in the EDGELL, H. S. 1996. Salt tectonism in the Persian Gulf
crest of the Kuh-e Pahn and reactivation struc- Basin. In: AESOP, G. I., BLUNDELE, D. J. &
tures linked to basement faults is due to the DAVISON, I. (eds) Salt Tectonics. Geological
homogeneity of mechanical unit B within the Society of London, Special Publication, 100,
Asmari Formation. These fractures and fabrics 129-151.
FISCHER,M. P. & WILKERSON,M. S. 2000. Predicting
will likely terminate against the thinly bedded the orientation of joints from fold shape: results of
Upper Asmari. pseudo-three-dimensional modelling and curvature
9 Lithological change, which creates mechanical analysis. Geology, 28, 15-18.
interfaces, is important for the development of GEISER, P. A. 1974. Cleavage in some sedimentary
fractures off - crest at bedding dip angles rocks of the Valley and Ridge Province, Maryland.
> 15 ~ in the case of the Kuh-e Pahn, where Geological Society of America Bulletin, 8, 1399-
the fractures will be bed-bound and therefore 1412.
less important for production. GEISER, P. A. & SANSONE,S. 1981. Joints, microfrac-
tures and the formation of solution cleavage in
We suggest that these outcrops are valid analogues limestone. Geology, 9, 280-285.
for nearby producing hydrocarbon fields, such as GHOLIPUR, A. M. 1994. Patterns and structural
the Bibi Hakimeh and Gachsaran giant oil fields, positions of productive fractures in the Asmari
which produce from fractures in the Asmari Reservoirs, Southwest Iran. Proceedings of the
Formation. Canadian SPE/ CIM/ CANMET Conference,
Recent Advances in Horizontal Well Applications,
Calgary, Paper HWC94-43, 10.
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to the HESSAMI, K., KoYI, H. & TALBOT, C. 2001. The sig-
National Iranian Oil Company for giving us permission nificance of strike slip faulting in the basement of
to carry out this fieldwork. Our thanks also go to Shell the Zagros Fold and Thrust belt. Journal of Pet-
Development Iran for permission to publish this paper. roleum Geology, 24, 5-28.
This paper greatly benefited from incisive reviews and INGER, S., BLANC, E. & HASSANI, H. 2002. Structural
editorial suggestions by J. Cosgrove, G. Makel & observations from Kuh-e Meymand (Naura) and
L. Lonergan. Kuh-e Sefidar, Northern Fars, Zagros, Iran.
Cambridge Arctic Shelf Programme (CASP)
report, Zagros Series, Report 3.
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McQUmLAN, H. 1974. Fracture patterns on Kuh-e Geology, 13, 459-470.
Asmari Anticline, Southwest Iran. American Associ- RICHARD, P., NAYLOR, M. A. & KOOPMAN, A. 1995.
ation of Petroleum Geologists"Bulletin, 58, 236-246. Experimental models of strike-slip tectonics.
McQUmLAN, H. 1985. Fracture-controlled production Petroleum Geoscience, 1, 71 - 80.
from the Oligo-Miocene Asmari Formation in
SATTARZADEH, Y., COSGROVE, J. & VITA-F1NZI,
Gachsaran and Bibi Hakimeh Fields, SW Iran. In:
C. 2000. The interplay of faulting and folding
ROEHL, P. O. & CHOQUETTE,P. W. (eds) Carbonate
Petroleum Reservoirs. Springer, Berlin, 513-523. during the evolution of the Zagros deforma-
McQUILLAN, H. 1991. The role of basement tectonics tion belt. In: COSGROVE, J. W. & AMEEN, M. S.
in the control of sedimentary facies, structural pat- (eds) Forced Folds and Fractures. Geological
terns and salt plug emplacements in the Zagros Society of London Special Publication, 169,
Fold belt of SW Iran. Journal of Southeast Asian 187-196.
Earth Sciences, 5, 453-463. STEARNS, D. W. 1964. Macrofracture patterns on the
MITRA, S. 1990. Fault-propagation folds: geometry, Teton anticline. NW Montana (abstract). EOS
kinematic evolution, and hydrocarbon traps. Transactions, American Geophysical Union, 45,
American Association of Petroleum Geologists 107-108.
Bulletin, 74, 921-945. SupPE, J. 1983. Geometry and kinematics of fault-
NIOC 1978. Geological Map of Iran, 1:1,000,000 bend folding. American Journal of Science, 283,
scale. National Iranian Oil Company publication. 684-721.
PETIT, J. P., BAZALGETTE, L. ET At. 2002. Fracture WIT, K. 1978. Gas/Oil Gravity Drainage of Matrix
Corridors: What are They? Abstracts volume, Blocks in Fractured Carbonate Reservoirs. Status
Inaugural Meeting of SFERA, 2 - 6 September report III of project 1; gravity drainage and imbibi-
2002, Pescara, Abruzzo, Italy. tion: NIOC/Shell joint research publication.
The Khaviz Anticline: an outcrop analogue to giant fractured Asmari
Formation reservoirs in SW Iran

O. P. W E N N B E R G t, M. A Z I Z Z A D E H 2, A. A. M. A Q R A W I 1, E. B L A N C 3, P. B R O C K B A N K 1,
K. B. L Y S L O 1, N. P I C K A R D 4 , L. D. S A L E M 1 & T. S V A N A 1

lStatoil ASA, N-4035 Stavanger, Norway (e-mail: [email protected])

2RIPL Tehran, lran
3CASP, 181A Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 0DH, UK
4Cambridge Carbonates, Gullviveviigen 5, 756-55 Uppsala, Sweden

Abstract: The carbonate reservoirs in the Late Oligocene-Early Miocene Asmari Formation in
the Dezful Embayment of SW Iran are characterized by low matrix permeability, and effective
drainage is dependent on the occurrence of open fractures. Limited information on fracture orien-
tation and fracture density is available from core and borehole image data, and high-quality/high-
resolution three-dimensional seismic is often lacking in this area. Well and core data do not
contain information on important fracture parameters like length distribution, crosscutting
relationships, fracture density v. lithology and bed thickness. The understanding of fracture distri-
bution and formation in the region and their effects on fluid flow has been greatly improved by the
use of outcrop analogue data. Exposures of the Asmari Formation in the Khaviz Anticline are in
close vicinity to the giant hydrocarbon fields. The Khaviz Anticline has a similar geometry and
structural history to the major hydrocarbon fields in the area, and represents an excellent analogue
for these. Two types of fracture features were observed: diffuse fracturing and fracture swarms.
The diffuse fractures form networks and comprise structures grouped into four fractures sets,
which are the typical for this type of anticline. Two orthogonal fracture sets are oriented parallel
and perpendicular to the fold axis, and two conjugate fracture sets are oblique to the fold axis with
their obtuse angle intersecting the trend of the fold axis. The fractures are typically stratabound,
sub-perpendicular to bedding and commonly about the bounding stratigraphic surfaces. To a large
extent the density and height of fractures in the Asmari Formation are controlled by the mechan-
ical stratigraphy, which is controlled by the depositional environment and cycles. These outcrop
data have been essential in the generation of discrete fracture network (DFN) models and the
population of the fracture properties in the reservoir models.

Several giant oil fields in the Dezful Embayment in outcrops, the Khaviz Anticline, was carried out to
SW Iran (Fig. 1) produce from the carbonates of the improve the database for the different fracture par-
Asmari Formation (Late Oligocene-Early Miocene), ameters, and to improve the understanding of the
where production properties depend strongly on the relationships between deformation mechanism,
existence of fracture networks. The formation of the structural position, lithology and the fracture
fracture system is a result of a major compressional systems. Ultimately, the aim of this study was to
event during the Late Miocene to recent collision contribute to the generation of more realistic static
between the Arabian Plate and Eurasia. However, a geological models and dynamic reservoir simulation
limited dataset on static parameters like fracture orien- models in the region.
tation and fracture density from core and image logs is
available. Seismic coverage is in general poor and con-
Geological setting
sequently the structural definition is coarse. Also, well
and core data in general do not contain information on Structure
important fracture characteristics like length distri-
bution, crosscutting relationships and fracture The Zagros m o u n t a i n chain including the Dezful
density as a function of bed thickness or facies. E m b a y m e n t represents the northeastern part of
Fortunately, outcrops of the Asmari Formation the Arabian Plate. The Zagros developed as a
are found in close proximity to the giant oilfields result of plate convergence, particularly during
in the outer part of the Zagros Mountain Chain. the Late M i o c e n e - P l i o c e n e orogenic phase
Therefore, a detailed investigation of one of these (Hessami et al. 2001).

From: LONERGAN,L., JOLLY,R. J. H., RAWNSLEY,K. & SANDERSON,D. J. (eds) FracturedReservoirs.

Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 270, 23-42.
0305-8719/07/$15.00 9 The Geological Society of London 2007.
24 O.P. WENNBERG E T AL.

Fig. 1. Main structural elements in the Dezful Embayment area with major oil fields and the location of the Khaviz
Anticline. MFF, Main Frontal Fault; BFZ, Balarud Fault Zone; HF, Hendijan Fault; KF, Kazerun Fault; RF,
Ramhommz Thrust Fault; RSF, Rag-e-Safid Thrust Fault.

The structural development of the Zagros area The Dezful Embayment has a significant topo-
is strongly influenced by Precambrian events: graphic expression as it physically represents an
(1) terrane accretion and assemblage of the embayment in the Zagros mountain front (Fig. 1).
Arabian plate (715-610 Ma; Nehlig et al. 2002); The structural evolution of the Dezful Embayment
and (2) initial rifting (Najd Rift Phase) and depo- has been controlled by a combination of thin-
sition of the Infra-Cambrian Hormuz Salt (Husseini skinned tectonics, involving cover sediments above
& Husseini 1990). The deep-seated basement grain a main detachment zone, and thick-skinned tectonics,
created during these events has had a strong involving a larger part of the crust including the crys-
control on the later superimposed structural styles. talline basement by inversion of pre-existing normal
A major rifting event took place in the Early faults (Bahroudi 2003; Blanc et al. 2003; Sepehr &
Permian time between the Arabian Plate and the Cosgrove 2004). In the Dezful Embayment area
Sanandaj-Sirjan and central Iranian continental several local ddcollement zones were active during
plates. Continued extension resulted in continental the formation of the fold-and-thrust belt. The basal
separation and the formation of the Neo-Tethys dEcollement is suggested to lie within the Lower
Ocean in Mid-Permian, and the northeastern part of Palaeozoic, although other important detachments
the Arabian Plate developed into a passive are found in Triassic evaporites, Albian shales and
continental margin (Sharland et al. 2001; Sepehr & Eocene marls (Sherkati & Letouzey 2004). The
Cosgrove 2004). The Neo-Tethys Ocean bordered upper d6collement forms in the thick evaporites of
the Arabian platform since its opening until its col- the Gachsaran Formation.
lision with the Eurasian margin, including the The anticlines at reservoir level (Asmari For-
Central Iran Block, during Early Miocene (Stocklin, mations and below) in this area are in general asym-
1968). Passive continental margin conditions along metric with a steep SW limb often exceeding 60 ~
the NE Arabian Plate persisted until Late Cretaceous and a shallower dipping NE limb of 2 0 - 3 0 ~ The
when ophiolites were obducted onto the Arabian anticlines are likely to be controlled by underlying
continental margin (Hooper et al. 1995; Sepehr & thrust faults as fault-propagation, fault-bend folds
Cosgrove 2004). Continent-continent collision and/or by old normal faults reactivated with a
between Arabia and Eurasia probably began in the reverse movement.
Oligocene to the NW of the Zagros (Yilmaz 1993) The Khaviz Anticline represents a typical Asmari
and in Miocene in the SW (Stoneley 1981). Formation fold in the foreland fold-and-thrust belt
The collision continued through Pliocene-Pleisto- of the Zagros Mountains (Fig. 2). The Khavis Anti-
cene time and resulted in the formation of long cline is well suited as an outcrop analogue for the
parallel anticlines and synclines, which is character- giant fractured carbonate fields in the Dezful Embay-
istic for the Zagros fold-and-thrust-belt, The main ment area. Firstly, the main reservoir unit, the Asmari
oil accumulations in the Zagros are in these anticlinal Formation, is well exposed, and outcrops of this unit
traps in the Asmari Formation. Current seismicity are exposed in all structural positions on the anticline.
and folding indicate that the deformation continues These outcrops provide good exposures of bedding
today (Hessami et al. 2001; Mann & Vita Finzi surfaces as well as vertical profiles. The area is
1982). easily accessible, and satellite image and aerial
OUTCROP ANALOGUE TO FRACTURED RESERVOIRS 25

.<

t"q

,<
NI
.,,,~

,,,,~

e4
26 O.P. WENNBERG ET AL.

photographs are available. Also, the structural setting carbonate platform deposits, and in the southwestern
and geometry of this anticline is very similar to those part of the Dezful Embayment and inner part of the
of major fields in the area. Persian Gulf also by silisiclastic deposits interpreted
to be sourced from the Arabian Shield to the SW
(Horbury et al. 2004).
Stratigraphy Mixed carbonate and marginal marine silisiclastic
deposits continued to accumulate in the southwestern
The Asmari Basin area during Aquitanian and much of the Burdigalian
stage, while deposits dominated by shallow marine
Figure 3a shows a generalized stratigraphic overview carbonates occur in areas less influenced by silisiclas-
of the succession in the Dezful Embayment. From tic input. Towards the northeastern parts of the
Late Cretaceous through the Eocene period the area Dezful Embayment the occurrence of deeper water
was part of a N W - S E trending basin, which is carbonate deposits is evidence of a rapid increase in
likely to be a remnant of the Late Cretaceous fore- subsidence rate. Accumulation of evaporite deposits,
deep created when ophiolite obduction took place including halite, filled in remaining basinal areas
on the northeastern margin of the Arabian Plate. during periods of regional basin restriction (Kalhur
This basin was filled by flysch type sediments Formation, Lower and Middle Anhydrite members).
(Amiran flysch) in the internal parts of the Zagros During the Burdigalian stage convergence of the
and by pelagic marls in the central and southern plates and closing of the Neo-Tethys continued.
parts (Gurpi and Pabdeh formations). Continued sub- This led to basin-scale restrictions in marine circu-
sidence during deposition of the Asmari Formation lation, and resulted in deposition of a thick evapori-
may be related to the latest stages of closure of the tic succession across the Dezful Embayment
Neo-Tethys and the early stages in the formation of foreland basin. These evaporites belong to the
a foreland basin. During the Oligocene period Gachsaran Formation, and they form an effective
much of this basin was filled in with prograding cap rock in the region (Beydoun et al. 1992).

Fig. 3. (a) Stratigraphic overview, SW Iran (modified from Bordenave and Burwood 1995). (b) Sedimentological
section through the Asmari Formation in NE part of the Tang-e-Takab profile (Marun Dam section).
 OUTCROP ANALOGUE TO FRACTURED RESERVOIRS 27

A s m a r i Formation in the Khaviz Anticline after dissolved anhydrite nodules are indications
of periods with sabkha-type deposition. Increased
Fracture network characteristics are related to the bed thickness and sedimentation rate may be
mechanical stratigraphy, which is controlled by the caused by the regional rapid increase in subsidence
depositional environment and diagenetic history of that occurred towards the northeastern margin of
the fractured unit. The Asmari Formation in the the Dezful Embayment.
Khaviz Anticline is mainly described based on field The contact between irregularly laminated dolo-
logging and analyses of a complete 378 m long mitic mudstones in the uppermost decimeters of
profile through the Asmari Formation in the NE the Asmari Formation and massive anhydrite beds
limb of the anticline (Tang-e-Takab). Using micropa- assigned to the Gachsaran Formation is sharp. The
laeontological investigation, strontium isotope age nature of the contact does, however, suggest con-
dating (Ehrenberg et al. 2004) and regional corre- tinuous deposition in a sub-aqueous setting.
lation (Pickard et al. submitted), three sequence stra- The succession has been affected by variable
tigraphic units are defined (Fig. 3b). degree of dolomitization. Most dolomitization has
The Chattian sequence (213 m) may be split into occurred in the lower part of the Chattian and in
three lower-order sequences: the Aquitanian sequences (Fig. 3b; see Aqrawi
9 A basal 34 m thick unit containing thick massive et al. 2006 for details).
carbonate beds with sharp contacts to a few
marly and shaly horizons. A characteristic
feature of this interval is the occurrence of
coral reefs and coral-rich horizons that locally The Khaviz Anticline - structural
display a topographic relief on the top surface. description
9 Two massive cliff-forming sequences that are
separated by a distinct nearly 2 m-thick dolomi- Fold geometry
tic mudstone bed located ca. 130 m above the
base of the Tang-e-Takab section. The dolomitic The anticline is approximately 40 km long and 6 -
mudstone is interpreted as a low-energy peritidal 8 km wide and it is a non-cylindrical fold displaying
deposit, and contrast the under- and overlying a periclinal geometry, trending W N W - E S E (Fig. 2).
packstone and grainstone dominated sequences Despite the general non-cylindric nature of the fold,
that contain mainly open marine coral and red the limbs of the fold can have a rather constant orien-
algae-rich facies. Internal bedding in the tation over a large distance, e.g. the NE limb does not
middle sequence varies from 5 to 25 m, while appear to change its dip by more than c. 3 ~ over a dis-
the upper sequence has slightly thinner (5- tance of > 10 km. The crest is sub-horizontal for
15 m) and generally better defined bedding 40 km, and plunges c. 15 ~ in both ends, resulting in
planes. Another difference is more common rather abrupt terminations. In general the southern
elements of shallow-water and sometimes limb (c. 40 ~ is somewhat steeper than the northern
lagoonal-type facies in the upper sequence. limb (c. 30~ However, close to the ESE termination
of the anticline, the dip of the northeastern limb is
The Aquitanian sequence (99 m) reflects import- locally up to 80 ~.
ant changes both in depositional evolution and corre- Two profiles across the anticline have been
sponding changes in mechanical stratigraphy. The studied in detail (Fig. 2). The first is a well
sequence boundary marks transition into overall exposed profile through the structure in Tang-e-
lower sedimentation rates in a platform top setting. Takab, which is a valley that cuts through the
More well-defined bedding planes and generally entire anticline. In this profile the anticline has a
thinner layers (up to 5 m thick) with rapid changes box fold-like geometry with two hinges (Fig. 4).
in textures covering the range from marl and lami- The most marked hinge is between the NE limb
nated peritidal mudstone deposits to bioclast and with an average dip angle of 38 ~ towards an
ooid grainstones occur in this interval. The thicker azimuth of 029 ~ and the crest area. The crest area
grainy layers are cliff-forming, while the recessive is a 2-3-km-wide relatively complex structural
intervals contain more mudstones. Vugs after dis- domain, which contains rotated fault blocks
solved anhydrite nodules are common, and several between normal faults (Fig. 4). A less defined
indications of periods with sub-aerial exposure hinge, more gentle flexure, is present between the
occur in this sequence. crest area and the SW limb with an average dip of
The Burdigalian sequence (66m) contains 38 ~ towards an azimuth of 207 ~ The Tang-e-Ab
generally thicker (1-8 m) and cliff-forming beds profile is located further to the SE, and here the
with well-defined planar bedding planes. Fine- fold is slightly asymmetric with the steepest dip
grained mud-, wacke- and packstones characterize on the SW limb of c. 43 ~ while the NE limb has
this sequence. Strata-bound intervals with vugs a dip of c. 32 ~
28 O.P. WENNBERG ET AL.

Fig. 4. Photo of a profile through the Khaviz Anticline at the WNW side of Tang-e-Takab. The Asmari Formation
is the cliff-forming unit.

Faults Most faults dip NNE, and the rotated fault blocks
between the faults have a structural dip of c. 20 ~
Most of the anticlines in the Zagros capped by the towards SSW (dip azimuth 215~ A relatively
Asmari Formation have normal faults on or near high degree of structural complexity is found in
their crests (Colmann-Sadd 1978). Similar normal the crestal area as a result of this configuration of
faults are observed within the Asmari Formation normal faults and rotated fault blocks (Fig. 5a).
in the steep cliffs in the Tang-e-Takab (Figs 4 and However, the combination of NNE dipping faults
5a), concentrated in the crestal area and striking and rotated fault blocks results in that the average
sub-parallel to the anticlinal axis. level of the Asmari Formation is relatively constant
The largest throw is observed on a fault NW of over the 2 - 3 km width of the crest area. The orien-
the Tang-e-Takab and is estimated to be c. 150 m. tation of these faults is indicative for extension

Fig. 5. Photos of structural features from the Khaviz Anticline. (a) Normal faults in the Asmari Formation
in the cliffs on the WNW side of Tang-e-Takab. (b) Partly open fractures. (e) Cliff-face with nearly the entire
Asmari Formation. Tang-e-Takab. Marun Dam in the foreground. (d) Fracture network in the backlimb
position. Tang-e-Ab profile.
 OUTCROP ANALOGUETO FRACTURED RESERVOIRS 29

normal to the fold axis, i.e. normal to the Zagros different lithologies, i.e. in rocks, which had
contraction. different mechanical properties during defor-
Extensional faults are also observed on the both mation. Beds of different thickness have been
SW and in particular NE fold limbs in the Tang-e- sampled to test the effect of mechanical bed thick-
Takab profile. The extensional faults in this NE ness in scan lines along bedding surfaces and ver-
limb have two orientations: sub-vertical and tical profiles. Data registered for each scan line
dipping approximately 30 ~ SSW. The sub-vertical were: distance along the scan line at the fracture
faults dip towards NNE or SSW, and hence with intersection, dip direction, dip angle, fracture
their present orientation they are steep normal or trace length, aperture and termination (intact
steep reverse faults. As the bedding dip in this rock or against other fracture). Furthermore, the
area is currently around 35-40 ~ NNE, the faults proportion of different fracture sets crossing
appear to have formed c. 60 ~ relative to initial struc- bedding planes, and the proportion of different
tural dip. A similar relationship between bedding fracture sets cross cutting each other was deter-
and faults are observed at the Tang-e-Takab mined. Mechanical layer thickness was measured
entrance at the SW fold limb. in two profiles (NE limb at the Tang-e-Takab
Transverse faults (with a high angle to the fold profile and SW limb at the Tang-e-Ab profile).
axis) observed elsewhere in the Zagros, e.g. the
Asmari Anticline, have not been mapped in the
Khaviz Anticline (Macleod & Akbari 1970). Results
Despite the overall contractional setting, the vast
majority of faults observed in the Khaviz Anticline Occurrences of fractures
are normal, whereas reverse faults are very sparsely Fractures were in most cases observed on weathered
observed. Indications of layer parallel slip have been surfaces, where the fracture apertures commonly
observed at several levels in the Asmari Formation were enlarged due to solution of meteoric water and
especially in the well-bedded upper Aquitanian
the true aperture not could be measured. However,
and Burdigalian units. The underlying more fractures in fresh exposures appeared to be filled or
massive Chattian sequence does not contain a mech- partly filled with carbonate cement (Fig. 5b).
anical stratigraphy prone to bedding parallel slip.
The measured fractures have been grouped into
two major types: diffuse fracturing and fracture
Data sampling swarms (Fig. 6). Diffuse fracturing is the distributed
fractures within the reservoir, and contains several
To have a sound basis for fracture modeling a sys-
fracture sets with different spatial characteristics.
tematic data sampling approach is necessary for a
These fractures are to a large degree stratabound
proper statistical analysis of fracture parameters. An
and controlled by the mechanical stratigraphy, and
objective of this study was, therefore, to measure
they are oriented close to perpendicular to the
fractures at several stations systematically distributed
bedding independently of the present structural
around the outcrop analogue field area. A line
dip. Diffuse fracturing is particularly developed
sampling technique (scan-lines) was used for the
in the well-bedded Aquitanian and Burdigalian
main data collection, following the procedures of
units in the upper half of the Asmari Formation
Priest (1993). The data presented in this paper are
(Fig. 5c). Fracture swarms are larger scale features,
condensed from measurements obtained on a series
which cut through larger parts of the reservoir. In a
of scan lines in both vertical and bed parallel sections.
fractured hydrocarbon reservoir a fracture swarm
Line sampling like any other directional
may be responsible for the major influx of fluids in
sampling of data (e.g. along well trace) introduces
a well as being seen on the spinner from a PLT
a bias on the data. Geometrical correction of this
log, or for a major loss of drill mud. In the Khaviz
directional bias was applied, but fractures with a
Anticline outcrop fracture swarms can be defined as:
strike sub-parallel to the sample line azimuth will
anyway be under represented in the data set. (1) Fault damage zones, i.e. the intense fracturing
Sampling of two or more scan lines at several of surrounding faults.
the stations reduced the effect of this directional (2) A narrow zone with a very high frequency
bias. Line sampling is also relatively time consum- of fractures - in the Tang-e-Takab profile,
ing, and statistically significant datasets for large large-scale fractures have been observed
parts of the Asmari Formation are difficult to cutting through large parts of the massive
achieve in a practical timeframe. Chattian units (Fig. 5c). The edges of the
The strategy for data sampling was to acquire triangular "flatiron" facets at the steeper part
measurements in different structural positions, of the fold limbs appear to be controlled by
i.e. back limb, forelimb crest area and hinge larger-scale fractures cutting through parts of
zone, at different stratigraphic levels and in the Asmari Formation.
30 O.P. WENNBERG ETAL.

Fig. 6. An ideal shallowing up cycle of the Asmari Formation with a typical fracture pattern in a forelimb of a Zagros
anticline.

These major features are commonly associated with locally. Dissolution features are present along all
extensive dissolution and precipitation of calcite, indi- the fracture sets, indicating localized channel-like
cating that their features have been major conduits for openings along most fracture planes.
fluid flow in the subsurface at some stage.
The vast majority of fractures tends to be dila-
tional, since they do not show any indication of F r a c t u r e sets
shear movement. Shear fractures displaying a
clear lateral offset are observed only at a few A fracture set comprises a number of approximately
localities. However, minor shear movement on parallel fractures of the same type and age, and frac-
some fracture sets has been inferred based on orien- ture sets represent the dominant fracture orientations.
tation relative to other fracture sets (e.g. conjugate In the orientation analysis, number frequency, length
fractures, as described below). Fractures are in weighting and sampling bias correction have been
general observed to be relatively planar. En used. The definition of fracture sets is not always
echelon sigmoidal fractures are observed only clear-cut, and in several locations there is a rather
 OUTCROP ANALOGUETO FRACTURED RESERVOIRS 31

smooth transition between different fracture strike

directions evident in the rose-diagrams.
In general, the fracture orientations in the Khaviz
Anticline can be classified according to the scheme
of Price (1966). Most fractures are oriented close to
perpendicular to the bedding. Furthermore, the frac-
tures may be subdivided into T fracture sets and R
fracture sets in the forelimb and backlimb of the
folds (Fig. 7a).
T fracture sets occur in one set sub-perpendicular
to the axis of the fold, which have been termed T2 in
the forelimb and T4 in the backlimb. T1 and T3 ten-
sional fractures strike parallel to the axis of the fold,
have opposite dip-direction, and occur in the fore-
limb and back-limb of the fold respectively. Tl is
perpendicular to T2 in the forelimb and T3 is per-
pendicular to T 4 in the backlimb. The orientation
and kinematics of the T fracture sets suggest that
they are tensional in origin. The current data set Fig. 7. (a) Price's classification of fracture sets typical
indicates that the T fracture sets are most prominent for asymmetric anticlines. See text for discussion
in the backlimb of the Khaviz Anticline. (modified from Price 1966). Stearn's classification
of fracture types in anticlines (modified from
R fracture sets occur as conjugate sets oriented
Stearns 1967).
symmetrically around T1 and T2. These are termed
R1 and R2 in the forelimb, R3 and R4 in the backlimb.
These fractures commonly define triangular erosional also important, whilst T~ is not present as a distinct
facets (flatirons) on the flanks of the anticlines, which single set. However, the number of data points in
are observed on the limbs of the Khaviz Anticline as this part of the fold is relatively low compared to
elsewhere in the Zagros. These triangular surfaces the hinge area and the backlimb.
tend to be best developed on the steeper dipping In the NE backlimb of the Tang-e-Ab profile on,
limbs. The conjugate appearance of the T fracture fractures were measured in two areas: down limb
sets suggests that these are shear fractures, although close to the contact between the Asmari and
displacement is rarely observed. Gachsaran Formations, and an area higher on the
Stearns (1967) has presented a more comprehen- mountain close to the hinge (Fig. 8). In the lower-
sive classification of fractures in anticlines most of these areas, the dominant fracture orien-
(Fig. 7b), which actually fits the fracture pattern on tation close to the T3 direction (rotated c. 10~
the Khaviz Anticline better. However, in this study, clockwise), and T 4 and R4 sets are also clearly
the simplified classification scheme of Price (1966; present. Close to the hinge, two orthogonal sets
Fig. 7a) is preferred, due to practical reasons for the are present. These are slightly rotated, c. 10~ rela-
input to the discrete fracture network modelling. tive to the typical T3/T4 fracture directions.
In particular, type 3a of Stearns (1967) comprises In the Tang-e-Ab profile in the forelimb there is a
three separate fracture sets (Fig. 7b) and has been large spread in fracture orientation, similar to what
grouped together as set T1 in the forelimb and T3 in is observed in the same structural position at the
the backlimb. Type 3a fractures cannot be differen- Tang-e-Takab profile. The classical fracture sets
tiated on a larger scale (Fig. 8), although in several of Stearns (1967) or Price (1966) are not recognized
cases they are well defined at a separate locality. In in rose diagrams of fracture strike. Instead the two
the discrete fracture network modelling the effect of dominating fracture set is oriented in between the
this grouping of fracture sets was compensated for R2 and T1 (or between type 1 and type 2 of
by use of a relatively high degree of dispersion in Stearns), and a third set between R1 and T 1 .
dip azimuth.
The patterns of fracture distribution in the Tang- Fracture spacing and fracture intensity
e-Takab profile are shown in Figure 8. The TI/T3
fracture set dominates in the backlimb (Fig. 5d) Fracture spacing distribution was analysed for each
and in the crest area, whereas T2/T 4 fractures are individual fractures set. The degree of clustering in
secondary. Compared with the dominant T1/T3 fracture distributions can be analysed using the
direction, the other azimuths are relatively infre- relationship between mean fracture spacing
quent. In the forelimb (SW limb) there is a signifi- (S . . . . ) and the standard deviation of spacing
cant spread in fracture strike (Figs 5e and 8). Here (Sstdv; Odling et al. 1999). If Sstdv/S . . . . = 0 then
the dominant fracture set is the R1 set, with R2 the fracture spacing is even (i.e. a perfect regular
32 O.P. WENNBERG ET AL.

Fig. 8. Geological map of the Khaviz Anticline, with summary rose diagrams of measured fracture orientation
from the main areas of investigation.

pattern), and if Sstdv/Smean = 1 the fracture spacing material properties and bed-thickness of stratigraphic
has a random distribution. As this relationship units in addition to the strength of their interfaces
increases above 1 the tendency of clustering (Corbett et al. 1987; Gross et al. 1995; Cooke and
increases. The Sstdv/S . . . . fracture spacing distri- Underwood 2001). The mechanical stratigraphy in
bution ranges from 0.4 to 1.8, i.e. from moderately general does not necessarily correspond to the sedi-
even to moderately clustered, with the majority of mentary stratigraphy. A mechanical layer represents
fracture spacing close to random distribution. At one or more stratigraphic units that fracture indepen-
one locality, where an extra-long scanline was dently of other units (Underwood et al. 2003). Frac-
measured (>30 m), the spacing of the T3 fracture tures are typically stratabound and span the thickness
set has a log-normal distribution (details in of the mechanical layer and commonly abut the
Wennberg et al. 2006). bounding stratigraphic horizons. The bounding strati-
Fracture intensity (FI) is here defined as numbers graphic horizons are here termed mechanical layer
of fractures per metre line length. FI is related to boundaries (MLB).
average fracture spacing (S. . . . ) by FI = 1 / S m e a n . To a large extent the density and height of fractures
FI has been calculated for the total fracture popu- in the Asmari Formation in the Khaviz anticline are
lation and for each of the main fracture sets controlled by the stratigraphy. Well-defined bedding
observed at all stations. FI has also been corrected and thinner beds are most frequent in the upper Aqui-
by applying a weighting factor of 1/cos c~, where tanian and Burdigalian units, whereas thicker and
a is the angle between the trend of the scanline more massive beds dominate in the underlying
and the dip-direction of the individual fractures. Chattian sequence (Figs 5c and 10). Major fractures
FI shows a large spread for all sets. This is largely in the lower part tend to be long and cut through
a response to the effects of mechanical stratigraphy. large parts of the stratigraphy. In the upper parts the
However, the T fracture sets tend to have the largest fractures are to a larger extent stratabound.
FI in the backlimb and in the crest area, whereas MLBs in the Asmari Formation in the Khaviz
average FI show similar values for all fracture Anticline are characterized by: (1) interfaces
sets in the forelimb position (Fig. 9). between layers with different lithology, e.g.
between thicker mudstone layers and grainstone
Mechanical stratigraphy
layers, which may be laterally extensive; (2) rela-
tively thin carbonate mud layers of 1-5 cm separ-
Many studies show that fracture pattern is controlled ating more brittle grainstones, which often
by the mechanical stratigraphy, and depends on the represent exposure surfaces that do not necessarily
 OUTCROP ANALOGUE TO FRACTURED RESERVOIRS 33

have a large lateral extent; and (3) thin ( 1 - 5 cm)

layers with frequent layer parallel stylolites,
which also tend to be relatively local with a
limited lateral extent.
Consequently, on a local scale the mechanical
layer thickness (MLT) varies laterally as the
MLBs disappear, e.g. two mechanical layers may
be replaced by one layer laterally. Furthermore,
the MLBs are undulating surfaces, which also
cause lateral variations in the MLTs.
The MLT was measured in a profile through
Asmari Formation at Tang-e-Ab. In general, the
MLT decreases upwards from the base of the
Asmari Formation (Fig. 10), The c. 200 m-thick
lower Chattian sequence is characterized by rela-
tively thick mechanical layers with binned averages
(25 m intervals) between 3 and 11 m, and with a
large spread in values. The overlying Aquitanian
and Burdigalian sequences are characterized by
thinner layers with MLT averages of approximately
1 m. However, a significant spread in MLT is also
present in this interval.
In the Tang-e-Takab Profile MLT was measured
in the interval between 239 m and 311 m above the
base of the formation mostly within the Aquitanian
sequence. Here the MLT varies between 0.10 and
3.70 m with a mean of 0.94 and a standard deviation
of 0.80 m. This is in accordance with the results
from the same level in the Tang-e-Ab profile,
which had max and rain values of 7.00 and
0.08 m, and mean and standard deviations of 0.82
and 1.05 m, respectively.
A general decrease in fracture intensity (FI) with
increasing MLT in the NE-limb can be interpreted

Fig. 10. Mechanical layer thickness distribution

through the Asmari Formation in the Tang-e-Ab (blue)
Fig. 9. Average fracture intensity in different structural and Tang-e-Takab (pink) profiles. Yellow dots are
positions: (a) backlimb; (b) crest area; and (c) forelimb. average MLT for intervals of 25 m.
34 O.P. WENNBERG ET AL.

NE.limb stations

30.00
IJ
9 Unspecified
25,00 ,, Mudstone

Wackestone
20.00 BD
• Packstone
O
F115.oo

10.00

5.00

0.00
0 1O0 200 300 400 500
Mechanical layer t h i c k n e s s (cm)

Fig. 11. MLT v. FI for different textures, all stations in the backlimb position.

from Figure 11. The highest FI is found in thin whereas the other textures have lower FI, and
layers, and the thickest layers have very low frac- show a large degree of overlap (Fig. 11). The mud-
ture intensity. However, there is a large spread in stone layers are generally thinner, but have signifi-
FI and this spread increases with decreasing MLT. cantly higher FI than the other texture types with
The thinnest layers cover almost the full range of similar MLT. More data is required to strengthen
FI values. To a large extent this appears to be these conclusions, and refine our model to incorpor-
related to sediment texture since the highest FI ate other variables.
values are found in the mudstones. In contrast, the
wackestones and packstones have a low and rela-
F r a c t u r e length
tively constant FI for a large range of MLT
(details in Wennberg et al. 2006). Stratabound fractures commonly follow l o g -
normal size distribution with respect to their
length (Aarseth et al. 1997; Gillespie et al. 2001).
F r a c t u r e intensity v. texture / l i t h o l o g y
The dataset collected in this study also indicates a
To investigate the effect of limestone texture and log-normal distribution of fracture lengths with
lithology on fracture intensity and to attempt to lengths ranging from few centimetres to approxi-
exclude the effect of different strain paths in mately 22 m and with most fractures having a
different parts of the structure, it is important that length of around 1 m. However, long fractures are
a data set is acquired in the same structural position. under-represented in this data set due to the nature
In this study we have sampled most data from the of the exposed surfaces, i.e. fracture terminations
backlimb (NE limb) of the Khaviz Anticline, and are often covered (by the next bed/erosional pro-
have studied the relationship between texture ducts) or eroded.
and fracture distribution in the backlimb in the
Tang-e-Takab profile. F r a c t u r e terminations
Ideally, we would conduct a complete multi-
variate analysis taking all factors into account, Fracture termination may be defined as fractures
including texture, degree of dolomitization, struc- terminate in intact rock, in other fracture sets or
tural position, MLT and FI for all the identified by being obscured in some way (e.g. covered
fracture sets. Although the amount of data collected or eroded). On bedding surfaces, approximately
is not sufficient for this purpose, some clear trends 45% of all measured fractures terminated against
are apparent. Mudstones have the highest FI for another fracture, while 35% terminated in intact
all the fracture sets in the backlimb position, rock and less than 20% was covered. Of the
 OUTCROP ANALOGUE TO FRACTURED RESERVOIRS 35

All terminations More than 80% of the total population was found to
be stratabound, and c. 20% of the fractures contin-
ued to the next layer; 2% of the fractures did cut
70,0 through two or more mechanical bed boundaries.
t rqCovered Approximately 60% of the terminations in the first
60.0 B Intact layer were in intact rock internally in the layer,
m Fracture 25% at a mechanical layer boundary and 14 at
50.0 another fracture.

40.0
% Fracture distribution in the vicinity of
30.0 normal faults
The NE fold limb of the Tang-e-Takab profile
20.0 exposes a series of normal faults and associated
structures (Fig. 13a). The faults, which have rela-
10.0 tively small displacements ( 1 - 7 m), appear to be
typical of the northeastern limb of the Khaviz Anti-
0.0 cline. The faults can be compared with larger dis-
I
placement structures seen in the crest and hinge
All Observed zones of the anticline (Figs 4 and 5a). In this area
terminations the bedding dips 40 ~ towards an azimuth of 020
Fig. 12. Percentage distribution of all fracture (NNE). Two fault sets can be defined: one dipping
terminations from measurement on bed surfaces. 40 ~ towards an azimuth of 210 (SSW) and another
are sub-vertical with a similar strike direction.
Both fault sets are extensional relative to initial
non-covered terminations 57% was against another (pre-folding) orientation of the bedding, and the
fracture and 43% in intact rock (Fig. 12). majority of lineations indicate dip-slip movement.
These observations strongly suggest that the However, the sub-vertical fault set appear to be
fracture system in the Khaviz Anticline is well con- reverse faults in the present day.
nected, in accordance with visual impression from There is no evidence of drag or rotation of
bedding surfaces (Fig. 5d). Furthermore, the per- bedding in either footwalls or hanging walls adja-
centage of fractures terminating against other cent to the faults. This may be due to the brittle
fractures increases across the structure from the nature of the faulted stratigraphy, which fractures
backlimb, to the crest area and into the forelimb. rather than folds, and the relatively low displace-
Of the non-covered fracture terminations c. 45% ment values.
was against another fracture in the backlimb, The fault zones observed in this area consist of
increasing to 60% in the crest area and to almost three main elements: (1) slip surfaces, smooth and
80% in the forelimb. Hence, the degree of connec- sometimes polished surfaces, often with slicken-
tivity increases in the same direction. slides; (2) fault breccia, forming lenses up to
All the defined fracture sets are observed to 15 cm thick (perpendicular to the fault plane) and
terminate against each other. There is no clear evi- 2 m long (parallel to the fault plane); and (3) fault
dence of a sequential formation for the different zone 'horses', lenses of different lithologies,
fracture sets, and all fracture sets in the Khaviz which have been dragged and rotated into the
Anticline are interpreted to have formed coevally. fault zone (up to 15 cm thick, 2 m long). The poros-
ity and permeability characteristics of this type of
fault zone can therefore be expected to be
Crosscutting probability complex, and vary rapidly in three dimensions.
To quantify variations in fracture frequency
Crosscutting probability is here defined as the prob- associated with faulting, cumulative fracture fre-
ability of a fracture cutting through a mechanical quency has been plotted against scan-line distance
layer boundary. The aim has been to quantify the (Fig. 13b). The gradient of the slope corresponds
numbers of stratabound fractures (i.e. contained in to the local fracture density, and two distinct gradi-
one mechanical layer). The main sources of data ents are present: diffuse network density, observed
for such analysis are the 10 scanlines, which were as a roughly constant gradient of four fractures/
measured within one layer in a sub-vertical section. metre (a in Fig. 13b) and fracture swarm network
The percentage of stratabound fractures varies density, observed as locally steeper gradients of
between 55 and 100% with > 7 0 % at most stations. 25 and 29 fracturesmetre (b and c in Fig. 13b).
36 O.P. WENNBERG ETAL.

(a)

(b)

i
140
._>= 12o ...
100
"5
E 8o ! i i :: i i i ~: i ! i i :: ~ i :: ~: ~: ~ ~= :: :: ! i :: i i i :: i

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 '11 12 13 14 '15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Length(m)

Fig. 13. (a) Photograph of extensionalfaults in red in the NE limb in the Tang-e-Takab profile. The measured scanline
is in green (30 m). (b) Cumulative fracture frequency v. distance along traverse for the scan-line marked in a.

Discussion Anticline in the Foothills of Western Canada

(Jamison 1997). In both cases the fractures have a
Previous outcrop fracture studies high angle to the bedding and they are dominantly
aligned with the axis of the fold in the backlimb
McQuillan (1973, 1974) provides the most compre- position (set T3), while the forelimb shows a
hensive published work on fracture distribution in larger spread in fracture orientation (Fig. 8).
the Asmari Formation in anticlines in the Zagros
area. McQuillan (1973) concluded that fracture
density has an inverse logarithmic relation to bed
thickness. The data from the current study suggests Fracture formation
that bed thickness is not the only factor controlling
the fracture density or FI. FI is also largely con- The systematic variation in FI for the different frac-
trolled by the sediment texture (Fig. 11), and that ture sets within the Khaviz Anticline (Fig. 9) indi-
FI in packstone and wackstone are not significantly cates that fracture formation is related to folding.
influenced by MBT. However, cross-cutting relationships for the
McQuillan (1973) in agreement with Jamison described fracture sets do not suggest any clear
(1997) also concluded that fracture density in pattern or sequence of formation, and field relation-
anticlines is independent of structural position. ships suggest that all fracture sets have been active
However, the data from the Khaviz Anticline during the same period of time. This represents an
shows that if one separates out the individual frac- apparent kinematic conflict: T1 and T3 indicate hori-
ture sets there is a clear structural control on zontal extension normal to the axis of the structure,
several of the fracture parameters, e.g. the data whereas Tz-T4 and R1-R4 indicate horizontal con-
show a systematic variation in FI (Fig. 9) and type traction perpendicular to the axis. However, Price
of termination. and Cosgrove (1990) note that the development of
The results from the Khaviz Anticline are in even simple folds, such as the Zagros anticlines, is
accordance with the findings from the Monkshead a complex process in which rock stresses and fluid
 OUTCROP ANALOGUE TO FRACTURED RESERVOIRS 37

pressures are in a continuous state of flux, and so the folding. Slip surfaces during flexural folding
observed patterns are not necessarily inconsistent. will largely behave like other faults with
Fracture formation in the Asmari Formation is repeated stick-slip movements and different
generally related to the plate convergence and parts of the slip surface active during each
folding during the Zagros Orogeny, which probably individual slip event. Each slip event will
started in Late Miocene time and is still active. cause stress perturbations, especially at the
Folding is most likely related to a combination of termination of the active area of slip, which
thrusting and reverse reactivation of earlier will be extensional in parts and compressional
normal faults (Sherkati & Letouzey 2004). in the other parts. The subsequent slip events
In the Zagros anticlines a combination of orthog- along one slip surface will overlap in area
onal flexure and flexural slip have been suggested with earlier ones, resulting in rock volumes
by Colman-Sadd (1978) as the most important along this surface through time being affected
folding mechanism of the sedimentary succession by variously extensional and compressional
in the Zagros. This view is supported by observations local stresses. Thus, both the R1-R4 shear
from the Khaviz Anticline outcrops, where there are fractures and the T1 and T3 tensional fractures
numerous indications of flexural slip. Extensional may form at different events in the same rock
faults have been observed and mapped in the crest volume during the duration of the folding.
area of the anticline as well as in other parts of the Assuming a pin-plane through the fold crest,
Zagros, and are taken as a strong indication of an increased dip results in increased flexural
orthogonal flexure mechanism. slip, which further results in increased degree
Fractures will initiate and propagate when the of fracturing caused by this mechanism.
stresses become equal to the strength of the rock, (4) Active faults - Stress perturbations occur
and fractures will form in a rock as tensile fractures around faults when activated. Fracture den-
or as shear fracture (e.g. Scholz 1990). The rock sities are in general higher in the vicinity of
strength is closely related to the mechanical strati- such faults, which are likely to represent frac-
graphy. The main factors controlling the effective ture swarms from a fluid flow point of view.
stress during the formation of the Zagros anticlines (5) Fluid pressure - variations during the folding
including the Khaviz Anticline are: may in principle influence the fracturing of a
rock mass.
(1) Plate scale - the overall N - S directed con-
traction between the Arabic plate and R e l e v a n c e f o r h y d r o c a r b o n f i e l d s in the
Eurasia with its amalgamated micro- Dezful Embayment
continents. In the Dezful Embayment area
this contraction is oriented in a more N N E - The Asmari Formation is well exposed in the Khaviz
SSW direction (Mueller et al. 2000). This Anticline, and outcrops of the reservoir formation are
component of the stress field can explain the found in all structural positions on the anticline. Since
formation of the T2 and T 4 tensional fractures the Khaviz Anticline also has a similar geometry,
normal to the axis of the Bibi Hakimeh Anti- structural setting and deformation history to major
cline and the conjugate R1-R4 shear fractures. oil fields in the Dezful Embayment, the mechanism
(2) O r t h o g o n a l flexure f o l d i n g - folding of of fracturing is to a large extent expected to be
relatively stiff layers like the Asmari and broadly analogous. In general it is concluded that
Bangestan carbonates may cause extension the Khaviz Anticline is a good outcrop analogue for
in the outer arc above the neutral surface. the oil fields in the area. However, there are some
This component of the stress field can limitations in the use of the outcrop data in subsurface
explain the formation of the T~ and T3 frac- fracture models in the Dezful Embayment area.
ture sets, which are parallel to the axis of Firstly, the Asmari Formation in outcrop has been
the anticline and normal to the bedding, exhumed and now lies exposed at the Earth's
and which have their highest FI in the crest surface. This process of uplift and overburden
area. The sedimentary succession in the removal is associated with pressure release and prob-
Dezful Embayment contains several stiff ably the formation of new fractures. This limitation
layers separated by less competent marls will exist for any fracture study based on surface
and shales in the cenozoic and the Mesozoic. outcrop. Secondly, several of the oil fields in the
Therefore, more than one neutral surface Dezful Embayment display a marked asymmetry
may be present, but the exact levels, where with a steep forelimb (50-70 ~ and a shallowly
these are located, have not been established. dipping backlimb, e.g. the Marun and Bibi
(3) Flexural slip f o l d i n g - RI-R4 shear fractures Hakimeh Fields (McQuillan 1985; Lyslo et al.
sets have been suggested by Couples et al. 2004; Wennberg et al. 2004). Such a marked asym-
(1998) to be controlled by flexural slip metry is not observed in the Khaviz Anticline.
38 O.P. WENNBERG ETAL.

A further complicating factor is the lateral vari- Fracture length is a difficult parameter to deter-
ation in Asmari Formation mechanical stratigraphy mine from well and core data, and therefore
within the Asmari basin. Fields such as the Marun the fracture length distribution in this study has
and Ahwaz structures in the SW part of Dezful been used to guide the input parameter to the
Embayment are compositionally different from the DFN model. The distribution of fracture length
Khaviz stratigraphy, since the Asmari Formation in outcrop was log-normal. However, fracture
contains significant silisiclastic sections (e.g. lengths measured in outcrop tend to under-sample
Linjordet et al. 2004; Lyslo et al. 2004). The the longer fractures (because of truncation), and a
sandstones and shales can be expected to show larger mean fracture length has been used in the
dissimilar mechanical behaviour during the DFN models than measured in the outcrop. The
folding to the limestone and dolomites exposed fracture network in the outcrop was well connected,
in the study area. Although the main tectonic and this feature has also been incorporated in the
processes are likely to match those outlined models.
above, larger contrasts in mechanical properties
through the reservoir are expected in the mixed
carbonate-siliciclastic system, which may result Some implications f o r f l u i d f l o w in the
in some differences in fracture formation within subsurface
the carbonate rocks. However, the Asmari For-
mation in the Khaviz outcrops is expected to have The observed fracture pattern in the Khaviz Anti-
a similar mechanical stratigraphy to the oil fields cline displays small- and large-scale heterogene-
in close proximity. ities, which will certainly affect the fluid flow in
similar sub-surface hydrocarbon reservoirs. In par-
ticular, a widespread well-connected background
Application in fractured reservoir diffuse fracture system is developed in the Aquita-
characterization nian and Burdigalian platform top carbonates.
Similar deposits in an anticline in the subsurface
In some of the hydrocarbon fields in the Dezful are likely to contain similar highly connected frac-
Embayment there exist large limitations in fracture ture networks. The faults are associated with a
data. Out of > 100 wells, image logs are typically narrow damage zone with high fracture intensity.
from three to four wells and core from the Asmari A wellbore intersecting such a highly fractured
Formation in eight to 11 wells, of which none are fault damage zone would be expected to have a
oriented. Owing to these shortcomings in static very high production rate over a short well interval.
fracture data, the conceptual fracture models of The fault damage zones are likely to be connected
the fracture systems in the subsurface hydrocarbon to and fed by the diffuse background fracture
fields had to be based on the data from the outcrop network, which may enable a high production
study. In particular, the understanding of fracture rate over a considerable time. Highly conductive
formation and lateral distribution of fracture inten- features like these intersected by wells are also
sity of the different fracture sets, achieved in this commonly associated with rapid water or gas break-
study, has been used during the fracture modelling. through. In the Khaviz case the faults are domi-
Whenever available, hard well data from the actual nantly striking parallel to the axis of the structure
hydrocarbon fields have been regarded as the and mostly located in the crest area. In a similar
primary and most important data source. The subsurface structure such conductive faults are
outcrop data have been used to guide the modelling more likely to pull gas from a gas cap rather than
only as a secondary, supporting supply of causing water breakthrough by pulling up water
information. from the deeper parts of the fold limbs.
Our outcrop analogues are mainly relevant for When one dominant fracture orientation is
the definition of parameters for inclusion in simu- present in an area, the flow pattern will be anisotro-
lations of discrete fracture network (DFN) model- pic with the maximum fracture permeability paral-
ling (Cacas et al. 2001). One of the key inputs lel to the strike of the dominating fracture set. In a
into fractured reservoir modelling is the fracture Khaviz Anticline-type reservoir, a moderate aniso-
sets defined (Fig, 7a) and their relative intensity as tropic flow is likely to be present in the backlimb
function of structural position (Fig. 9). Another where the T3 fracture set has the highest fracture
important outcome of the outcrop study, which is intensity (Fig. 9). Here, the maximum fracture
used to guide the DFN models, is the relationship permeability is likely to be parallel to the axis of
between fractures and the mechanical stratigraphy, the structure. In the crest area two orthogonal sets
and fracture spacing distribution within a mechan- are equally developed, and in the forelimb the
ical layer. These features are both difficult to four fracture sets have similar fracture intensity.
determine from core and image logs. Anisotropic flow is not expected to be caused by
 OUTCROP ANALOGUETO FRACTURED RESERVOIRS 39

the diffuse fracture network in these structural In the following some aspects of the orientation
positions. of the fracture blocks are discussed. A case with a
The fractures in the Khaviz Anticline are in relatively thin matrix block has been considered
general filled or partly filled with carbonate (Fig. 14). In the forelimb position the R fracture
cement, and their apertures have locally been sets dominate and consequently the top surfaces
enlarged along the fracture plane. This indicates of the matrix blocks tend to be shaped as rombs
that the flow along a fracture plane is more likely with the longest axis in the dip direction parallel
to be channel like in an anastomosing network, to the structural dip (Fig. 14). In the backlimb,
rather than flow in a fissure with parallel sides. A where T fracture sets dominate, the top face
large proportion of the fractures is completely matrix blocks tend to be quadratic or rectangular
filled with carbonate cement and will not act as con- with the edges parallel and normal to the strike
duits for fluid flow. Consequently, understanding of line. A similar block geometry will be present in
the diagenetic history of fractures and the adjacent the crestal area, although the inclination (dip-mag-
wall rock is important for a complete understanding nitude) will be significantly less. If the matrix
of the fluid flow pattern. This is, however, beyond blocks in the different structural positions have
the scope of this paper. the same volume, capillary curve and all other
matrix parameters, the ultimate oil recovery will
be controlled purely by the shape and orientation
Implications for recovery of the matrix blocks. The column of the un-
drained matrix (h) will be constant for the different
The ultimate recovery and choice of drainage strat- cases and independent of matrix block orientation.
egy in a fractured oil reservoir are dependent on In contrast, the ultimate recovery is highly variable
several factors. One of the most important ones is and strongly dependent on the orientation of the
the degree of capillary continuity, i.e. to what matrix blocks (Fig. 14). For this particular block
extent the individual fracture bounded blocks shape the volume of capillary bound oil (green in
(matrix blocks) are in capillary communication. In the figure) will be smallest and the ultimate recov-
the case of non-connected matrix blocks the ery largest (in red) in the steep forelimb where the
spatial variation in the size, shape and orientation rombic shaped blocks dominate. The ultimate
of the matrix blocks also contributes. The size, recovery will be smallest for the rectangular/quad-
shape and orientation of the matrix blocks are func- ratic blocks in the crestal area, whereas the similar
tions of the mechanical layer thickness, structural but more inclined blocks in the backlimb have an
dip and length/spacing of the fracture sets. intermediate degree of ultimate recovery.

Fig. 14. Schematic block diagram displaying the general structure of the Khaviz Anticline. Small blocks display the
preferred shape and orientations of matrix blocks in different structural positions. Red represents the ultimate
recoverable volumes in the matrix blocks and green represent un-drained volumes. See text for discussion.
40 O.P. WENNBERG E T AL.

Summary and conclusions crest area, with the T2/T4 fractures as the secondary
set. In the forelimb (SW limb) there is a significant
The Asmari Formation in outcrops of the Khaviz spread in fracture strike, and the R 1 and R2 sets
Anticline is analogous to productive fractured car- have high frequencies. A lack of systematic termin-
bonate reservoirs in same formation within the ation or abutting relationships between different frac-
Dezful Embayment of SW Iran. Broad similarities ture sets suggests no obvious sequence of fracture
are also found in fold geometry, structural setting, formation, and we conclude that all the measured
deformation history and fracture types. As the fracture sets formed more or less coevally.
exposed fold structures provide good three- The dataset indicates a log-normal distribution
dimensional exposures, they represent an excellent of fracture lengths with lengths ranging from few
laboratory for the study of fracture systems, and centimetres to approximately 22 m and with most
an opportunity to observe details unavailable in fractures having a length of around 1 m. However,
conventional well and seismic data from nearby long fractures are under represented in this data
fields. set due to the nature of the exposed surfaces, and
The spatial distribution of fractures in a folded this should be accounted for in subsurface models.
carbonate unit like the Asmari Formation is a To a large extent the density and height of
truly multivariate problem, were fracture par- fractures in the Asmari Formation in the Khaviz
ameters for each fracture set such as orientation, anticline are controlled by the mechanical stratigra-
length, spacing, aperture, etc., are functions of pos- phy. In the Khaviz area the Asmari Formation is
ition within the fold, sedimentary texture, mechan- 378 m thick and can broadly be divided into
ical bed thickness and so on. Although the amount three parts corresponding to three depositional
and range of data collected in this study were not sequences. The lower 213 m-thick Chattian
sufficient to satisfy a full multivariate analysis of Sequence comprises thick massive carbonate
all the parameters above, several conclusions can layers (up to 25 m thick). The Aquitanian (99 m
be drawn, which can reduce uncertainties during thick) and Burdigalian (66 m thick) sequences are
reservoir modelling. lithologically more varied and with well-defined
Measured fractures have been grouped into two thinner layers with average layer thickness of c.
major types based on their inferred influence on 1 m. Major fractures in the Chattian sequence tend
fluid flow behavior: diffuse fracturing and fracture to be long and cut through large parts of the strati-
swarms. Diffuse fracturing describes distributed graphy. In the overlying units the fractures tend to
fracture populations, which in general contain one be stratabound, and < 20% of the fractures did con-
or more of several sets with distinct spatial charac- tinue to the next layer. Despite a large scatter, the
teristics. Diffuse fractures are to a large degree data from the backlimb indicate that there is a
stratabound and controlled by the mechanical strati- general decrease in FI with increasing MLT for
graphy. Fracture swarms are larger-scale features, all lithologies and all fracture sets. A large spread
which dissect significant parts of the reservoir stra- in F! was found for all sets, which mainly is a
tigraphy. In the Khaviz Anticline fracture swarms response of the textural/lithology effect. Mudstone
are represented by faults with displacements of a has higher fracture intensity ( > 1 0 fractures/m)
few metres up to 150 metres, and are associated than wackestones and packstones ( < 7 fractures/
with relatively narrow damage zones with locally m). Locally, increased fracture intensity was
very high fracture frequency. Normal faults striking observed in the vicinity of the normal faults, and
sub-parallel to the fold axis are present in the fold the characteristics of the damage zone appear to
limbs, but are particularly well developed in the be lithology dependent.
crest area. Despite the overall contractional setting The main factors controlling the effective stress
for the fold deformation, reverse faults are remark- during the folding of the Khaviz Anticline are:
ably uncommon. plate-scale NNE-SSW contraction, orthogonal
Diffuse fractures are in general sub-perpendicular flexure folding, flexural slip folding, stress pertur-
to bedding, and have been subdivided into tensional bation around active faults and fluid pressure
T fracture sets and R fracture sets according to the variation. The resulting effective stress field respon-
scheme of Price (1966). T fracture sets occur in one sible for the fracture generation in the Khaviz Anti-
set sub-perpendicular to the axis of the fold (T2 in cline was at a continuous state of flux and did vary
the forelimb and T4 in the back-limb). T1 and T3 through time and space.
tensional fractures strike parallel to the axis of the The outcrop data have been very useful in the mod-
fold, and occur in the forelimb and backlimb of the elling of the fracture properties in oil fields in the
fold respectively. R fracture sets develop as conju- Dezful Embayment. In particular, the definitions of
gate sets: R1 and R 2 in the forelimb and R3 and R4 the main fracture sets, their orientation and the
in the backlimb. The Ta/T3 fracture set is strongly associated dispersions have been used in the discrete
dominating in the backlimb (NE limb) and in the fracture network modelling. The mechanical
 OUTCROP ANALOGUE TO FRACTURED RESERVOIRS 41

stratigraphy has been used to guide the vertical distri- of Austin chalk, Texas. American Association of
bution of mechanical layers, and the relationships Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 71, 17-28.
between fracture intensity and mechanical layer COUPLES, G. D., LEWIS, H. & TANNER, P. W. G.
thickness have guided the fracture spacing. In 1998. Strain partitioning during flexural slip
addition, the understanding of fracture formation folding. In: COWARD, M. P., DALTABAN, T. S. &
relative to mapped fold geometry and mechanical JOHNSON, H. (eds) Structural Geology in Reservoir
Characterization. Geological Society, London,
stratigraphy has been used to control the spatial
Special Publication, 127, 149-165.
characteristics of fracture distribution, which are
EHRENBERG, S. N., MCARTHUR, J. M. e r AL. 2004.
reflected in upscaled models of fracture parameters Strontium isotope dating of the Asmari Formation
for dynamic simulation. (Oligocene-Miocene) in Ahwaz, Bibi Hakimeh
and Marun oilfields, southwestern Iran. GeoArabia,
The authors would like to thank Statoil ASA and RIPI for 9,61.
the permission to publish the paper. We thank S. Ogilvie GILLESPIE, P. A., WALSH, J. J., WATTERSON, J.,
for helpful comments on earlier versions of the manuscript. BONSON, C. G. & MANZOCCH1, T. 2001. Scaling
The paper has also benefited from constructive reviews from relationships of joint and vein arrays from the
R. Nelson, S. Rogers and R. Jolly. Burren, Co. Clare, Ireland. Journal of Structural
Geology, 23, 183-201.
GROSS, M. R., FISHER, M. P., ENGELDER, t . &
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Basin: a late Tertiary foreland basin overprinted Geo-Sciences, GE094, Gulf Petro Link, Bahrain
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H. 2003. Structural styles in the Zagros simple Infracambrian salt basins of the Middle East. In:
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Other documents randomly have
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Rasputin
the Rascal Monk
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Title: Rasputin the Rascal Monk

Author: William Le Queux

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Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RASPUTIN THE

RASCAL MONK ***
William Le Queux
"Rasputin the Rascal Monk"
 "Disclosing the Secret Scandal of the
Betrayal of Russia by the mock-monk
Grichka and the consequent ruin of the
Romanoffs. With official documents
revealed and recorded for the first time."
 Preface.
Why this Book is Written.

In the following pages I have attempted to take the reader

behind the veil of the Imperial Russian Court, and to
disclose certain facts which, in this twentieth century, may
appear almost incredible.

As one who knows Russia, who has traversed the Empire

from Virballen to the Pacific coast, and who has met
personally both the ex-Emperor and his consort, as well as
many of the persons herein mentioned, I confess that I
myself have often been astounded when examining the
mass of documents which this dirty Siberian peasant—the
convicted horse-stealer who rose to be the secret adviser of
Nicholas II—had happily secreted in the safe in his cellar in
the Gorokhovaya, in Petrograd, so that the real truth of his
traitorous dealings with the Kaiser might be chronicled in
history.

I had hoped to be able to reproduce many of the cipher

telegrams and letters in facsimile, but the present shortage
of paper has precluded this, and it could only be done if this
book were issued in expensive form.

To me, it seems best that the British public should have

access to it in a cheap and popular form, and hence I have
abandoned the idea of facsimiles.

I here publish the story of the mock-monk’s amazing career

as a further contribution to the literature upon Germany’s
spy system and propaganda so cleverly established as an
insidious adjunct to her military attack upon the civilisation
of our times.
The conversations herein recorded have been disclosed by
patriotic Russians, the truth has been winnowed out of
masses of mere hearsay, and the cipher telegrams and
letters I have copied from the de-coded originals placed at
my disposal by certain Russians, Allies of ours, who desire,
for the present, to remain anonymous.

William Le Queux.

Devonshire Club, London, S.W.

November, 1917.
 Chapter One.
The Cult of the “Sister-Disciples.”

The war has revealed many strange personalities in Europe,

but surely none so sinister or so remarkable as that of the
mock-monk Gregory Novikh—the middle-aged, uncleanly
charlatan, now happily dead, whom Russia knew as
Rasputin.

As one whose duty it was before the war to travel

extensively backwards and forwards across the face of
Europe, in order to make explorations into the underworld
of the politics of those who might be our friends—or
enemies as Fate might decide—I heard much of the
drunken, dissolute scoundrel from Siberia who, beneath the
cloak of religion and asceticism, was attracting a host of
silly, neurotic women because he had invented a variation of
the many new religions known through all the ages from the
days of Rameses the Great.

On one occasion, three years before the world-crisis, I

found myself at the obscure little fishing-village called
Alexandrovsk, on the Arctic shore, a grey rock-bound place
into which the black chill waves sweep with great violence
and where, for four months in the year, it is perpetual night.
To-day, Alexandrovsk is a port connected with Petrograd by
railway, bad though it be, which passes over the great
marshy tundra, and in consequence has been of greatest
importance to Russia since the war.

While inspecting the quays which had then just been

commenced, my friend Volkhovski, the Russian engineer,
introduced me to an unkempt disreputable-looking “pope”
with remarkable steel-grey eyes, whose appearance was
distinctly uncleanly, and whom I dismissed with a few polite
words.

“That is Grichka (pronounced Greesh-ka), the miracle-

worker!” my friend explained after he had ambled away. “He
is one of the very few who has access to the Tsar at any
hour.”

“Why?” I asked, instantly interested in the mysterious

person whose very name the Russian Censor would never
allow to be even mentioned in the newspapers.

My friend shrugged his broad shoulders and grinned. “Many

strange stories are told of him in Moscow and in Petrograd,”
he said. “No doubt you have heard of his curious new
religion, of his dozen wives of noble birth who live together
far away in Pokrovsky!”

I glanced back at the receding shock-haired figure in the

long black clerical coat and high boots, little dreaming that I
had met the mock-Saint whose evil influence was to cause
the downfall of the Imperial House of Romanoff.

Strange it is that to-day I have before me the amazing

official reports of his career from revolutionary and private
sources—reports from which I intend to here set out certain
astounding facts.

First, it is quite beyond question that the Pravoslavny

Church, with its malign influences and filthy practices, is, in
the main, responsible for Gregory Novikh’s success as a
worker of bogus “miracles.” The evil-minded libertine upon
whom his fellow-villagers in Pokrovsky, in the Siberian
Province of Tobolsk, bestowed the name of Rasputin (or in
Russian, “Ne’er-do-well-son),” was a fisherman who
possessed an inordinate fondness for the village lasses, and
also for vodka. A mere illiterate mujik, disgusting in his
habits and bestial in his manners, he grew lazy and
dissolute, taking to theft and highway-robbery, for which,
according to the official report of the Court of Tobolsk,
before me, he was imprisoned twice, and a third time was
publicly flogged and so degraded that he was compelled to
bid farewell to Pokrovsky, much to the relief of the villagers.
Behind him he left a peasant wife, a little son, named
Dmitri, and two daughters. He also left behind him a
handsome young peasant woman known as Guseva, a
person who was destined to contribute a few years later in
no small measure to his dramatic death. Sins always follow
the sinners.

After a year or two of wandering as a rogue and vagabond,

committing thefts where he could, and betraying any
woman he came across, he suddenly conceived the brilliant
idea of posing as a “holy man.” This idea came to him
because, while in Pokrovsky, he had had as boon companion
and fellow-drunkard a certain market-gardener who had
joined the Pravoslavny Church and is to-day by his influence
actually a bishop!

In most Eastern countries, especially in India and China,

there are many wandering “holy men,” and modern Russia
is no exception. To lead a “gospel life” of endless
pilgrimages to “holy” places and to collect money for
nonexistent charities appealed to the fellow as an easy
mode of lazy sensual self-indulgence. Therefore he adopted
it, being aided by the ex-market-gardener, who was already
in the Church. So both prospered exceedingly well.

Rasputin had by this time discovered himself possessed of

quite extraordinary powers. Indeed a report upon him
written by a great Russian alienist who knew him intimately,
has recently reached London, and from its voluminous
pages which I have had before me, I gather that both
physiologically and psychically he was abnormal, while his
natural hypnotic influence was marked by the rare power he
possessed of being able to contract the pupils of his steel-
grey eyes at will, regardless of sunlight or shadow. Few
persons can do this. It is a sign well known to alienists that
the person is a criminal degenerate. Rasputin never smiled,
even when he drank heavily. He could consume three
bottles of champagne and still be quite sober! With vodka,
his favourite spirit, he became talkative, but never
indiscreet. He was a lunatic of an intensely erotic type; a
satyr who possessed a truly appalling influence over women
of all ages, and even at his word men in high positions did
not hesitate to cast off their brilliant uniforms and
decorations and mortify their flesh!

From this man, crafty, cunning and elusive, a fiendish satyr

whose hypnotic influence was irresistible, no woman,
however high-born, high-minded, or highly religious was
safe. He lived upon his wits, and lived well. With that
amazing cunning usual in such criminals he affected a deep
piety, so that at the various monasteries where he sought
hospitality he was welcomed. In Russia many of the
religious houses still unfortunately savour of the most
disgraceful debauchery, as they did in England before the
Reformation, and at such institutions Rasputin became a
popular figure. At certain convents the mock-monk, with the
connivance of the Pravoslavny Church, was eagerly
entertained by the dissolute nuns, more especially at Novo
Tchevkask, on the Don, as well as at Viatka, and at Saratov,
in Kasan.

From the convent of Novo Dievichy (The Convent of the

Virgins) near the last-mentioned town, a great place which
overlooks the Volga half way to Wolgsk, some terrible
scandals leaked out, when the Mother-Superior, probably to
save herself from the public indignation, brought in four
sturdy mujiks from the countryside, who pitched the “Saint”
out into the road, and administered such a severe kicking
that the “Holy Father”—as the Tsaritza afterwards called him
—could only creep about in pain for many days after!

Two months later, according to a report countersigned by

Paul Dragomrioff, superintendent of the Secret Police of
Moscow—a screed which, being somewhat ill-written, is
difficult of translation—Rasputin was in that city. I here
quote from it:—

“Report of Ivan Obroutcheff, Police-agent, Number 1287, of

the 2nd Division, Secret Police, stationed at Moscow. April
2nd:—

“According to instructions from Police Headquarters, I

visited at orders of Superintendent Dragomrioff, Number
136, Tverskaia, next to Loukonture’s papier-maché factory
at 1:35 a.m. to-day. I there found in a carpeted but barely
furnished room an assembly of the cult of the Naked
Believers kneeling before the monk, Gregory Novikh.
Twenty-eight persons, all being women, fourteen of them
ladies of birth and education, were present, and as I
entered with my eight assistants the ‘holy man’ stood at the
lectern, reading passages from the Gospel of St. Luke,
interspersed with his own exhortations of the trials of the
flesh. The walls of the room were decorated with disgusting
pictures of a nature which would shock the modesty of all
but the demi-monde, while behind the monk Novikh hung a
copy of the Holy Ikon of Novgorod.

“In accordance with instructions all present were arrested

after they had dressed, and I ordered them to be conducted
to the Central Police Bureau, where their names and
addresses were taken, and they were interrogated singly.
Most of the midnight worshippers expressed indignation,
and more especially the ‘Saint’ Rasputin, who demanded in
the name of the Tsar that he might telegraph to the
Empress. My superior officer, Nemiloff, Chief of Secret Police
of Moscow, could not deny him this privilege. The result has
been that by eleven o’clock next day an order came from
the Tsar for the release of all the prisoners, and orders that
no facts should be permitted to appear in the Press. Grichka
has left for the capital by the 4:15 express this afternoon.

“Signed: Ivan Obroutcheff.”

The report above quoted shows Rasputin in the early stages

of his shameless debauchery. In London we have had the
notorious Swami, with her male accomplice, practising
similar acts upon innocent girls, but in Moscow the drunken
and verminous monk with his hair-shirt, a rope around his
waist and sandals upon his bulging feet, had attracted a
select coterie of society women, daughters and wives of
some of the greatest nobles of Russia, who, in secret and
with gold in their hands, vowed themselves as docile
followers of this Siberian fisherman whom nature had
equipped as a satyr of such a type that happily none has
ever been known in Britain in all its glorious years of
history.

I readily admit that the career of Grichka, the man whose

name the Censor does not allow to be mentioned, the
sinister power that later on so suddenly appeared behind
the Russian throne and whose true story I am here
revealing, will appear incredible to my readers. I have
written many works of fiction which some, of you may have
read. But no work of mine has ever contained facts so
extraordinary as the real life of this unwashed charlatan
who, under the active protection of his debauched Church—
and I write here with a true and reverent sense of our
Christian religion—succeeded in establishing himself in the
apartments of the favourite lady-in-waiting upon the
Empress, and further, to teach his horrible “religion” to the
innocent daughters of the Tsar in turn!

Much has already appeared in the newspapers regarding the

sturdy unkempt rogue, but the greater part of it has
emanated from the brains of writers who have not had
access to official documents.

In these present articles my intention is to tell the British

public the bare unvarnished truth culled from documentary
evidence at my disposal, and to leave them to form their
own conclusions. Russia, our great Ally, is, alas, still
mysterious and much behind the times. True, she has a
press, a Duma, and many modern social institutions. Yet
her civilisation is only upon the surface. The Empire is,
unfortunately, still the same as England was under the
Tudors, an underworld of profligacy, plotting, and strange
superstitions. The latter have, of course, been recently
revived in London, as is proved by the prosecution of the
fortune-tellers of Regent Street and St. John’s Wood. Again,
were not the scandals of the “Abode of Love” much the
same as that of Rasputin’s dozen-wived harem which he
established in Pokrovsky?

The criminal records of Holy Russia teem with amazing

stories of this “holy” scoundrel who from a drunken Siberian
fisherman rose, by erotic suggestion, to become the
greatest consolation to the Empress, and the lever by which
“Nikki the Autocrat” was flung from his throne.

I remember how, when in Sofia, in the pre-war days with

Sir George Buchanan, then our Minister to Bulgaria, and
now ambassador to Russia, a cultured and clever diplomat
to whom Great Britain owes more than she can ever know,
and hence cannot acknowledge, we discussed the mystery
of Russia and of the subtle influences near the Throne.

Little did either of us dream that he would now be

ambassador to the Russian Court, and I would be writing
this exposure of the evil life of the blasphemous satyr
Rasputin.

The cult established by the pilgrimages of this illiterate

peasant grew apace. The “holy father” whose disgraceful
past is recorded in the police dossiers at Tyumen and
Tobolsk had, by his astounding power of hypnotism,
gathered around him a crowd of “Sister-disciples,” mostly of
the upper and leisured classes, to whom the new religion of
nature strongly appealed.

Upon his constant pilgrimages to Jaroslav, Vologda, Vitebsk,

Orel and other places, he made converts everywhere. He
declared that no woman could obtain favour of the Almighty
without first committing sexual sin, because that sin was
the one which was forgiven above all others. At his weekly
séances at which, strange to say, the highest born ladies in
the Empire attended in secret, the most disgraceful scenes
were witnessed, the dirty unwashed monk, a most repellent
creature to all save his “disciples,” acting as the high-priest
of this erotic sisterhood.

Soon the disgusting rogue began to perform “miracles.” Into

his confidence he took a young man named Ilya Kousmitch
—who, be it said, afterwards made certain statements to
those who at last meted out justice and who provided me
with certain details—and with the young fellow’s connivance
he succeeded in bamboozling a number of perfectly
respectable and honest women in Petrograd, as well as in
Moscow and Kiev, where he effected some really mysterious
“cures.”
In one instance at the house of a certain Madame Litvinoff,
in the Sergiyevskaya, the most fashionable quarter of
Petrograd, the man known as “the Stareb,” or “Grichka,”
held a select meeting of his followers. The shameless
charlatan treated the ladies who had assembled to worship
him and to contribute lavishly to his imaginary charities,
with the greatest disdain and most brutal contempt. This
man, guilty of the most appalling vices, addressed them as
usual in a strange illiterate jumble, urging them to follow
the new religion which he called “the trial of the flesh,”
interspersing his remarks with occult jargon from works
upon black magic, interlarded with those self-same
scriptural quotations which will be found marked in that big
Bible used by the Swami and her fellow-criminal—a volume
now preserved in the Black Museum at Scotland Yard.

One of the women present, a certain Baroness Korotki, was

suffering from acute rheumatism. The “Saint” placed his
hands upon her, looked into her eyes with that intense
unwavering stare of his, uttered some strange incantation,
and lo! the pains left her, and she declared herself healed!
The effect was electrical. Others declared themselves
suffering from various imaginary maladies, and after
performing certain rites as laid down by the “Holy Father,”
he laid hands upon them one after the other, and
hypnotised them into a belief that they were cured.

Next day reports of these amazing “cures” ran like wildfire

through Petrograd, and the superstitious lower-classes were
at once seized by a belief that the Saint “Grichka,” head of
the fast-growing organisation of thinly disguised sensuality,
was really a holy man and could work miracles. Around him
crowded the halt and maimed and the blind, and aided by
his accomplice Ilya Kousmitch, he not only pretended to
effect cures, but succeeded in making many more converts
among the lower-class women by declaring, as he had told
the society dames, that there was in him a portion of the
Divine with whom, as he put it, “all that would be saved
must be one in the flesh and in the spirit!”

At one of his reunions, held a week or so later at Madame

Litvinoff’s, there attended Madame Vyrubova, the handsome
leading lady-in-waiting at Court, and the chamber-
confidante of both Tsar and Tsaritza. Like the others, this
intriguing woman at once fell beneath the mock-monk’s
inexplicable spell. His new religion of the flesh appealed to
her erotic temperament, and she at once became one of his
most passionate devotees, a few days later introducing him
at Court with astonishing result.

The subtle intrigues of Madame Vyrubova were many.

As chamber-confidante of both Emperor and Empress she

had for a long time assisted in the spiritualistic séances
which were given in private at Tsarskoe-Selo by a Russian
monk named Helidor and his French friend, known as
“Philippe.” The young Tsarevitch was in a state of fast-
declining health, and Helidor, as a “holy man,” had, at
Madame’s suggestion, been called in to pray for him.
Spiritualistic practices followed in strictest secrecy, and the
credulous Empress first believed that the “holy man’s”
dealings with the unseen were resulting in a beneficial effect
upon the weakly lad.

At last, however, owing to. Court intrigue, Helidor fell out of

favour. It was just after this when Anna Vyrubova first met
and fell beneath the evil influence of Rasputin. Grichka was
a “miracle-worker,” and might, she thought, perhaps restore
the Tsarevitch to health! She knew that the Empress, a
shallow-minded, ephemeral woman, lived for one object
alone, namely, to secure for her son the crown of Romanoff.
But the physicians gave but little hope of this. In a year—
perhaps before—he must die, they had whispered. Helidor
had been dismissed. Would Rasputin be more successful?

Madame sought out the charlatan who was busy with many
“cures,” and suggested that he should accompany her to the
Palace, but with lordly disdain the drunken fisherman from
Pokrovsky declared that to him all men and women were
equal.

To a friend, a certain Madame Kovalenko, wife of one of the

high Court officials, Madame Vyrubova described this
interview. It took place in Petrograd at the house of a rich
merchant living in the Tavritsheskaya, opposite the gardens.
When the lady-in-waiting, who had, like so many others,
fallen beneath his spell, had made the suggestion that the
master should be introduced to the Court circle, he placed
his left hand behind his back, a favourite attitude of his,
drew himself up and began to address her in that strange
jargon which she hardly understood—quotations from the
“Lives of the Saints” jumbled up with lewd suggestions, high
phrases, and meaningless sentences. As conclusion to this
speech, however, the wily fellow added:

“I care nothing for the rulers of earth, but only for the Ruler
of Heaven, who has bestowed upon me His blessing, and
has led me into the path of honour, righteousness and
peace. The rulers, of earth worship in their chapels and
their tinsel cathedrals, but I worship everywhere, in the air,
in the woods, in the streets, and you, lady, worship with me
in body and in soul.” And he raised his cold eyes upward,
his right hand with its bulgy joints and broken dirty finger
nails being placed across his breast. Then he sighed, as he
added: “Ah! you do not yet understand! God has placed
within me the power to smite—as well as to heal.”
Madame Vyrubova, fascinated by his strange hypnotic
glance, fell upon her knees before the “Saint,” and kissing
his bulgy unclean hand begged of him again and again to
see the Empress.

But the artful scoundrel remained obdurate. He knew of

Helidor’s disgrace, and did not intend to hold himself at all
cheaply.

The result was that Madame Vyrubova sought him next day
and, handed him an autograph note from the Empress
inviting him to come to the Winter Palace and see the Grand
Duke Alexis. He read it, secretly much gratified, for he knew
that not only had his latest devotee prevailed upon the
Empress to seek the aid of another Russian monk to
succeed the degraded Helidor, but that the Pravoslavny
Church, the most powerful influence of State governance,
had also been responsible for the invitation he held within
his dirty fingers.

From that moment Rasputin’s power became assured—a

power he wielded for evil from that hour until the day of his
well-deserved end.

When that grey afternoon the unkempt libertine was

introduced to the small white-and-gold private salon of the
Empress, which overlooks the gardens and the Neva on the
northern wing of the palace, the Princess Obolensky,
Princess Orbeliani and Countess Hendrikoff, maids-of-
honour, were with Her Majesty, curious to see what manner
of man it was who could perform miracles, and whom so
many of the Society women in Petrograd and Moscow now
acknowledged and addressed as “Master.”

Upon the threshold the mock-monk halted, and in that

dramatic attitude, struck in order to impress his hearers, he
stood with his left arm behind him, erect, with his unkempt
head thrown back, his face stern and relentless, his grey
eyes sharp and piercing.

For some moments he remained there in statuesque

silence, well-knowing how women were impressed by that
pose. The hypnotism of those grey eyes few of the opposite
sex could withstand. His conquests, or “conversions” as he
termed them—were in every direction, and in every city.
The Cult of the Naked Believers had rapidly spread
everywhere. He was besieged by female disciples eager to
hold meetings, for without the actual presence of the Saint
true worship of the erotic could not take place.

“Great Lady!” he exclaimed at last in his deep, heavy voice,

still that of the Siberian mujik, “you desire me here? I have
come!”

The Empress rose and stretching out her hand eagerly

welcomed the unholy charlatan into the Court circle, and
half-an-hour later introduced him to fully a dozen of the
highest-born women of the Empire, all of whom were at
once impressed by his affected piety and humility. But a
“dark force” had now entered the very heart of Russia, and
later that afternoon, in a luxuriously furnished bedroom the
miracle-worker was shown the poor little Heir to the Throne
lying upon his sick couch, he placed hands upon him, and
Her Majesty herself fell victim to that strange spell which
other women had found so indescribable and so
inexplicable.

“I will cure your son,” said Rasputin slowly, after he had

knelt beside him and looked long and earnestly into his eyes
without uttering a word.
Madame Vyrubova was present and exchanged glances of
relief with the Empress. To the latter, easily impressionable
as she was, though all believed her to be a staid mother of
a family, Rasputin became at once a Saint, a Divine agent, a
miraculous guide. He had cured the poor; why could he not,
if he willed it, cure her son?

Then in the days that followed “incidents” occurred in the

Palace. At select assemblies of one or two of the Empress’s
confidantes—parties, of course, arranged by Madame
Vyrubova, Rasputin expounded his shameless “religion.” His
jargon, the jumbled phrases of an illiterate peasant who
knew not the meaning of what he uttered, his exhortations
to commit sin so that it might be forgiven, his declaration of
self-divinity, and his odds and ends of scripture mixed with
the foulest vocabulary of Russian, was listened to with
bated breath. Why?

Because, strange though it may seem, the health of the

young Grand Duke Alexis had taken a sudden turn for the
better. Even his physicians were compelled to acknowledge
it!

Whether the latter were in any way under the influence of

Rasputin by means of money-payment—for the fellow had
by this time acquired a considerable fortune from his dupes
—has not yet been ascertained. One thing, however, is
shown in the documents before me, namely, that the mock-
monk’s “miracles” were often effected by means of secret
drugs of which he had quite a curious extensive knowledge.
How this was acquired is again a mystery, save that he was
very friendly with a certain student of Chinese and Thibetan
medicine, named Badmayeff, and that this person regularly
furnished him at high prices with certain little-known drugs
from the Far East.
With the gradual improvement of the health of the poor
little Grand Duke, Rasputin’s ascendancy over the Empress
rapidly increased. He had been introduced to the Emperor,
who, though regarding him with askance, tolerated him
merely because his beloved son was improving beneath his
daily prayerful treatment. Meanwhile, the canker-worm of
Rasputin’s religion had, fostered by the Empress’s favourite
lady-in-waiting, entered into the Court circle, and many
secret meetings were held in the Palace where under the
pseudo-religious cloak certain ladies of the Russian Court
became devotees of the “Holy Father,” and practised
abominations absolutely incredible.

Official reports contain both dates and names of those who

gave themselves into the unscrupulous hands of this man
who claimed the Divine right and thus worshipped as
“Believers.”

Rasputin was too clever a scoundrel to allow matters to

proceed quite smoothly. Several chance conversations with
the Emperor and with Stolypin convinced him that he might
ultimately share the same obscurity as Helidor. He therefore
one day pretended to be offended at some words of the
Empress—whom he now addressed by the familiar terms of
“thee” and “thou” which he used to his disciples, though
even the Grand Dukes and Duchesses would have hesitated
so to address the Empress—and after a dramatic farewell,
he took himself off to the wonderful and luxurious
monastery which, according to his statement to the
Empress, he had built at his native Pokrovsky with the
money he had collected upon his various pilgrimages.

To the female section of Petrograd society he had been

never tired of describing the beauties of this monastery
where his fellow-monks lived a life of severe asceticism and
constant prayer, therefore at his sudden resolve to leave,
the capital—or the better-class women of it—grew tearful
and the Empress most of all.

Within four days of his departure for Siberia the little

Tsarevitch was taken suddenly ill, and the Empress, beside
herself at having expressed any words of doubt concerning
the unkempt Saint who had so entirely entered into her life,
telegraphed wildly to him. This message, since unearthed
by the Revolutionary Party, which ran as follows:—

“I cannot bear your absence. Life is so grey and hopeless

without you, my dear comforter, my master. Alexis has been
taken ill. Do not take any notice of Kokovtsov. He is
responsible for my hasty words to you and shall suffer for it.
Forgive me. Return—for my sake and for the life of Alexis-
Alec.”

But the crafty mujik was not to be thus entrapped. He had

been guest of the Minister Kokovtsov, a week before, and
his host and his friends had made him roaring drunk. In his
cups he had made certain revelations. What they were the
Saint could not recollect. Hence he had absented himself
from Court, in order to maintain his Divine dignity—and to
plot further.

At this point it is necessary to make a critical remark.

For two years Rasputin had been speaking of his monastery

at Pokrovsky. In the salons and boudoirs of Moscow and
Kiev as well as in Petrograd, society spoke of the institute,
discussed it and declared that indeed Grichka was a holy
man. The Metropolitan with his rich robes and jewels, and
all the bishops were as common clay in comparison with the
“Holy Father” who could cure by the laying-on of hands,
who walked in humility and who devoted himself to good
works. Curiously enough it had occurred to nobody, not
even to the ever-ubiquitous police of Petrograd, to
investigate the story told by Rasputin regarding his
monastery at far-off Pokrovsky.

The world of Russia did not, of course, know that in that

Siberian village there still lived Rasputin’s peasant-wife with
her children, or that his life had been so evil, a career of
drink and profligacy which even in Siberia stood out in
letters of scarlet in the police dossiers of Tobolsk. It,
however, remained for a female spy of the Revolutionary
Party—a certain lady named Vera Aliyeff, from whose report
I am writing—to travel to that sordid Siberian village and
watch the Court charlatan in his home. I may here say that
to the untiring efforts of Mademoiselle Aliyeff is in a great
measure due the downfall and assassination of the terribly
sinister influence which cost the Tsar Nicholas his throne,
and hundreds of women their good name—as I shall
afterwards show.

But to relate matters in their proper sequence as history I

may here quote from the report of this patriotic woman-
revolutionary who travelled to Rasputin’s home in disguise,
because he knew her, and as she was good-looking, he had
already endeavoured to induce her to join the Cult of the
Naked Believers. She reports:—

“I found the great monastery of Pokrovsky to be a dirty

repellent hamlet of mujiks of the worst and most illiterate
type. There was no trace of the marble palace which
Rasputin had described as having erected as the main
building of the monastery. The latter was, I found, a large,
cheaply built, ordinary-looking house, three rooms of which
were given up to the ‘Saint’s’ peasant-wife, his son Dmitri
and the younger of his two daughters, while in the other
part of the house lived twelve women of varying ages—the
youngest being sixteen—who were his fascinated devotees
and who had given up their lives in Europe to enter the
seclusion of that sordid home and become his spiritual
brides.”

Here Mademoiselle Aliyeff had an interview with the woman

Guseva, and later on after an inspection of the police
records at Tobolsk and Tyumen, she returned to Petrograd
and reported the result of her visit to the Right Party in the
Duma.

Meanwhile, the Empress and also her favourite lady-in-

waiting telegraphed to Rasputin urgently imploring him to
return to Petrograd. But the verminous libertine was in too
comfortable quarters with his dozen devotees to stir out far
from his nest, and while going about the village standing
drinks to all and sundry and ingratiating himself
everywhere, he at the same time treated his old and ugly
wife with brutal unconcern, and refused even to reply to the
Imperial demand.

At last he grew weary of his retirement—for, truth to tell, he

usually retired there whenever he disappeared upon his
many pretended pilgrimages in Russia—whereupon he one
day sent a telegram to the Empress saying that he had at
last been directed by a Divine call to again return to the
bedside of the Tsarevitch. This message was received with
the greatest joy at Tsarskoe-Selo, where it set a-flutter
hearts in which beat the noblest blood of Russia.

“The Holy Father is on his way back to us!” Such was the
message whispered along the long stone corridors of the
Winter Palace, the many windows of which look out upon
the grey Neva. The Empress went to her son’s bedroom and
told him the glad news, laying a tender hand upon the poor
lad’s brow.
And Madame Vyrubova meeting the Emperor as he came
out of his private cabinet chatting with the Duke of
Mecklenburg-Strelitz and the Minister Protopopoff,
whispered the news into his ear.

The Tsar smiled happily. Little did His Majesty dream that by
that return of the unwashed scoundrel whom the most
delicately nurtured women worshipped, he was doomed to
lose his throne.

On Rasputin’s arrival some intensely dramatic scenes

ensued—scenes that would be deemed fantastic if any
modern novelist had dared to describe them even as fiction.

But from these voluminous reports and the dossier before

me I shall attempt to describe them.
 Chapter Two.
Scandals at the Winter Palace.

The rascalities of Rasputin were unparalleled, even in

Russia.

The mock-monk, much against his will, returned to the

Winter Palace where the Court had gone for a few days and
only because of the Divine call, as he pretended. He treated
the distracted Tsaritza with utter disdain when early one
wintry morning he drove in from the Dvortsovy Square,
passed the Palace Guards, and ascended the wide black-
and-white marble staircase of the Great Hall, where she
stood eager to receive him.

“Ah! Forgive me! Forgive me, my Master!” implored the

Empress in a low agonised tone. “I was thoughtless and
foolish.”

“Take me to Alexis,” said the charlatan roughly interrupting

her. “He is ill—very ill—and God has sent me to him.”

Eagerly the Empress conducted him to the bedside of her

son, the little Tsarevitch. Madame Vyrubova, the mistress of
Rasputin, was awaiting him, together with two nurses and a
physician named Letchitzki.

With rough deep-voiced dismissal the unkempt profligate

sent everyone from the room, including the Empress
herself. He wished to pray by the sick lad’s bedside, he
explained.

This he did, Madame Vyrubova alone remaining. When the

door was closed the blasphemous rascal quickly bent over
the Heir to ascertain that he was sleeping, then he raised
his own dirty hands for Madame to kiss, crossing himself at
the same time, and whispering “The drug? It seems to have
acted well—eh? Where is it?” She slipped a tiny green-glass
phial from her cream silk blouse and handed it to him,
saying: “Yes, Badmayeff was right! Each time I gave it to
him in his milk, he grew worse.”

“Ah!” laughed the verminous fellow, his sensuous face

bearded and blotchy with drink. “Now that I have returned
Divine Providence will restore him. He will not get his six
drops each day!” The dastardly charlatan and poisoner of
Russia’s heir concealed the Thibetan drug in the folds of his
ample habit, and whispering in his rough uncouth peasant
way, “Now let the fools in again!” he threw himself upon his
knees by the bedside commencing a fervent prayer.

“O God—the Great! the Merciful! the Giver of all Bounties,

the Creator, and the Death-giver—the Maker of Kings and
the Destroyer of Nations—to Thee we pray—and of Thee we
ask—”

And as he uttered those blasphemous words the favourite

lady-in-waiting opened the long white-and-gold door to
admit the Imperial mother of the poor half-conscious elder
son of the great House of Romanoff—the boy whose life was
being trifled with by the administration of those pernicious
drugs which, at any moment, when “Rasputin” willed, might
cause death from haemorrhage.

The fellow Novikh, the low-born thief and blackmailer from

the far-off wilds of Siberia, had planted himself in the
Winter Palace as a divinity to be worshipped. The Court
circle of silly women in search of sensation, and headed by
the Empress herself, had fallen entirely beneath his baneful
influence, believing that only by first practising his
disgusting rites could they offer prayers to the Almighty.
Another of the Empress’s intimates who had joined the
Palace circle of Believers was Countess Ignatieff, who had
also become a most devout follower of Rasputin and who
exerted all her great influence in officialdom for his benefit
and protection.

War had broken out, and while the newspapers of the Allies
were full of Russia’s greatness and the irresistible power of
her military “steamroller,” the world was in utter ignorance
that the Empress was actually educating her own daughters
to enter the secret cult of the “Believers,” a suggestion
which they eventually obeyed! Such was the truly horrible
state of affairs at Court. Thus in a few brief months that
unmasked thief whom the workers of Petrograd
contemptuously called “Grichka,” and whose very name
Rasputin meant “the ne’er-do-well” had, by posing as a holy
man, and a worker of mock “miracles,” become a power
supreme at Court.

Daily at eleven each morning this verminous libertine,

whose weekly reunions were in reality orgies as disgraceful
as any organised by the Imperial satyr Tiberius, knelt at the
bedside of the poor little Tsarevitch to drone his
blasphemous appeals to God, while the Empress, always
present, knelt humbly in a corner listening to that jumble of
exhortations, threats, and amazing assertions of his own
divine right as high-priest of the Believers. The Empress
had fallen completely beneath the hypnotism of the grey
steely eyes, the hard sphinx-like countenance that never
smiled, and those long dirty knotted fingers, the nails of
which were never cleaned. To her, filth, both moral and
personal, was synonymous with godliness.

Then, after each prayer, Madame Vyrubova would assist the

mock-monk to rise and declare—
“The Holy Father is, alas! tired,” and then lead him off into
the adjoining ante-room overlooking the Neva where a silk-
stockinged flunkey stood ready to serve the scoundrel with
his usual bottle of Heidsieck monopole—the entire contents
of which he would quickly empty and smack his lips over in
true peasant manner.

Mademoiselle Sophie Tutcheff, governess of the Tsar’s

daughters, very quickly perceived a change in the
demeanour of her charges. They were no longer the
charming ingenuous girls they were before. She had
overheard whispered conversations between the Grand
Duchess Tatiana and her sister, Marie. Rasputin, moreover,
had now been given luxurious apartments in the Palace,
close to the rooms occupied by Madame Vyrubova, and
each day he came to the schoolroom in which the three
younger Princesses, Tatiana, Marie and Anastasia were
prosecuting their studies.

It did not take Mademoiselle Tutcheff long to discern the

true state of affairs. The monk one day used the most lewd
language while chatting with the three young Grand
Duchesses, whereupon Mademoiselle, who belonged to one
of the highest families in Russia, went off to the Empress in
disgust and indignation. Her protests were, as may be
imagined, met with withering scorn.

“I am Empress and the Holy Father is our guest in the

Palace,” exclaimed the Tsaritza, who was taking tea with
two ladies of the Court who were her fellow-Believers.
“What you have said is an insult to him. You are dismissed
in disgrace.”

And an hour later poor Mademoiselle left the Palace without

her pupils being allowed to bid her farewell.
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