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STARCHES FOR
FOOD APPLICATION
Chemical, Technological and
Health Properties

Edited by

MARIA TERESA PEDROSA SILVA CLERICI

University of Campinas, School of Food Engineering,
Campinas, SP, Brazil

MARCIO SCHMIELE
Federal University of Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys,
Institute of Science and Technology,
Diamantina - MG, Brazil
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright
by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional
practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety
and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or
editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a
matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any
methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-12-809440-2

For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at

https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Andre Gerhard Wolff

Acquisition Editor: Nina Rosa de Araujo Bandeira
Editorial Project Manager: Billie Jean Fernandez
Production Project Manager: Nilesh Kumar Shah
Cover Designer: Matthew Limbert
Typeset by TNQ Technologies
 From Maria Teresa P.S. Clerici:
I dedicate this book to my son, Rafael P.S. Clerici, and my students,
because they motivate me to always move on.

From Marcio Schmiele:

I dedicate this book to the food science, chemistry, and technology professionals.

From Teresa and Marcio:

We dedicate this book to all the authors quoted within it, both those who contributed
directly to the writing of their chapter and those who contributed indirectly,
through the literature cited.
CONTRIBUTORS

Edith Agama-Acevedo
Centro de Desarrollo de Productos Bióticos del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Yautepec,
Mexico
Luis Arturo Bello-Perez
Centro de Desarrollo de Productos Bióticos del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Yautepec,
Mexico
Yaiza Benavent-Gil
Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA-CSIC), Valencia, Spain
Fabiano Pagliosa Branco
Catholic University (UCDB), Tamandaré, # 6000, Campo Grande, MS. 79117-900
Vitor Hugo Brito
Center of Technology and Agribusiness Analysis - Catholic University (CeTeAgro/
UCDB), Campo Grande, Brazil; EMBRAPA/Vegetables, Brasília, Brazil
Marney Pascoli Cereda
Center of Technology and Agribusiness Analysis - Catholic University (CeTeAgro/
UCDB), Campo Grande, Brazil
Maria Teresa Pedrosa Silva Clerici
University of Campinas, School of Food Engineering, São Paulo, Brazil
Ana Carolina Corrêa
National Nanotechnology Laboratory for Agribusiness, Embrapa Instrumentation, São
Carlos, Brazil
Denilson de Oliveira Guilherme
Center of Technology and Agribusiness Analysis - Catholic University (CeTeAgro/
UCDB), Campo Grande, Brazil
Fabiana dos Santos
Laboratory of Green Materials, Food Engineering, Institute of Science and Technology,
University of Jequitinhonha and Mucuri, Diamantina, Brazil
Danielle Cristine Ferreira
Laboratory of Green Materials, Food Engineering, Institute of Science and Technology,
University of Jequitinhonha and Mucuri, Diamantina, Brazil
Pamela Celeste Flores-Silva
Centro de Desarrollo de Productos Bióticos del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Yautepec,
Mexico
Paula Thamara Goecking Gomes
Federal University of Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys, Institute of Science and
Technology, Diamantina, Minas Gerais, Brazil

xi
xii Contributors

Cleber Junior Jadoski

Catholic University (UCDB), Tamandaré, # 6000, Campo Grande, MS. 79117-900
Xiangli Kong
College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
Ludmilla Batista Louzada
Laboratory of Green Materials, Food Engineering, Institute of Science and Technology,
University of Jequitinhonha and Mucuri, Diamantina, Brazil
Nuno Rodrigo Madeira
EMBRAPA/Vegetables, Brasília, Brazil
Luiz Henrique Mattoso
National Nanotechnology Laboratory for Agribusiness, Embrapa Instrumentation, São
Carlos, Brazil
Francys Kley Vieira Moreira
Department of Materials Engineering, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
Selime Mutlu
Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Sakarya University, Esentepe,
Sakarya, Turkey
Carina Elisei de Oliveira
Catholic University (UCDB), Tamandaré, # 6000, Campo Grande, MS. 79117-900
Serpil Öztürk
Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Sakarya University, Esentepe,
Sakarya, Turkey
Maria Teresa Pedrosa Silva Clerici
University of Campinas, School of Food Engineering, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
Franciele Maria Pelissari
Laboratory of Green Materials, Food Engineering, Institute of Science and Technology,
University of Jequitinhonha and Mucuri, Diamantina, Brazil
Cristina M. Rosell
Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA-CSIC), Valencia, Spain
Ulliana Marques Sampaio
University of Campinas, School of Food Engineering, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
Marcio Schmiele
Federal University of Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys, Institute of Science and
Technology, Diamantina, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Olivier François Vilpoux
Center of Technology and Agribusiness Analysis - Catholic University (CeTeAgro/
UCDB), Campo Grande, Brazil
PREFACE

As the editors of this book, we would like to thank all the authors who
collaborated with us and their respective institutions, as this contribution
allowed us to prepare a book of high quality, easy to understand and read.
This book may be useful to students and practitioners in the field of
food science, chemistry, and technology, beginners or not, as we approach
the study in a growing form of knowledge from the introductory part
(Chapters 1 and 2) with key concepts and methods of starch analyses.
As a distinction, in our presentation of cereal (Chapter 3) and tuber
(Chapter 4) starches, a chapter on a case study (Chapter 5) is included, in
which the respective authors present the efforts for the industrialization of
arrowroot, which is a starch source little exploited. It is worth checking out
how the project was developed and the new equipment that was proposed
for the farmer, who still works on a semi-industrial scale.
Chapter 6 deals with the physical methods of extracting starch,
demonstrating the great advances in this area and the increasing importance
of new physical methods, since in addition to the health appeals for GRAS
starch consumption, the desire for environmental sustainability has focused
on preventing or decreasing the generation of effluents, resulting in nature-
friendly processes.
In all chapters, whenever possible, we address the importance of
methods of obtaining and analyzing slowly digestible and/or resistant
starches, with chapters devoted entirely to these subjects (Chapters 7 and 8).
It is worth emphasizing that although starch is a great power supply with
fundamental importance for humans, it can lead to the development of
diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and other disorders when consumed in
high concentrations, so the demand for slowly digestible starches and
resistant starches has been intense, since they may be used in food products,
leading to health benefits.
In the last two chapters, we present some applications of starches, for
gluten-free products (Chapter 9) or the formation of films and edible
coverings (Chapter 10). These two different applications have advanced a
lot in the past decades and the products are within the quality standards
considered suitable for commercialization, which has already happened in
the area of bakery items and packaging.

xiii
xiv Preface

Throughout the book, the reader can note the great change in starch
concepts that began at the end of the past century; once starch was
considered only as an energetic source of rapid glucose release, but it is now
recognized that when boiled, three major nutritional forms are developed,
including rapidly digestible starch, slowly digestible starch, and starch
resistant to digestion by the human digestive system.
Possibly, new methods of genetic, enzymatic, and/or physical modifi-
cation will be capable of developing starch with a controlled release of
glucose, providing the beneficial effects such as the arrival of glucose to the
brain, retina, and labyrinth, without causing the malignant effects of
increased blood glucose and consequently insulin, allowing a better quality
of life among the population.
Finally, we thank Billie and Nina for their understanding throughout
the preparatory process of this book.
CHAPTER 1

Basic Principles: Composition

and Properties of Starch
Marcio Schmiele1, Ulliana Marques Sampaio2,
Maria Teresa Pedrosa Silva Clerici2
1
Federal University of Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys, Institute of Science and
Technology, Diamantina, Minas Gerais, Brazil; 2University of Campinas, School of
Food Engineering, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil

Contents
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Obtaining Starch 3
1.3 Chemical Composition of Starch 8
1.4 Properties 12
1.4.1 Gelatinization and Retrogradation 14
1.4.2 Ability to Undergo Changes 17
1.5 Conclusion 18
References 19
Further Reading 22

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Until recently, starch was considered the main energy source
for human food; however, its nutritional role has expanded,
because it also represents a source of dietary fiber. The
evolution of the genetic, chemical, and technological fields
has led to the production of starches with changes in di-
gestibility and resistance to the enzymes of the digestive system
(Fuentes-Zaragoza et al., 2010; Jane, 2004; Goni et al., 1997;
Eerlingen and Delcour, 1995).
Today, there is an increasing demand for healthier products,
without changing the sensory properties of the processed
Starches for Food Application
ISBN 978-0-12-809440-2 © 2019 Elsevier Inc.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809440-2.00001-0 All rights reserved. 1
2 Starches for Food Application

products, and a variety of modified starches are available to meet

these criteria.
Starch can be produced by conventional or family farming
and is a source of subsistence for many farmers. The major starch
sources are cereals, such as corn, and tubers and roots, such as
potatoes and cassava. Starches are used for different purposes in
food, including the production of glucose and/or fructose
syrups, or as thickening agents and fat substitutes, among others
(Fig. 1.1). In other areas, starch has been increasingly used in
several industries, such as paper, textiles, pharmaceuticals, cos-
metics, packaging, and steel, among others, as stated by Whistler
and Paschall (1965), Wurzburg (1989), Eliasson (2004),
BeMiller and Whistler (2009), and Bertolin (2010).
This great improvement may completely change the concept
that starchy products are among the main causes of obesity, type
2 diabetes, and other chronic noncommunicable diseases
(Escott-Stump et al., 2013). In the future, starch may be
consumed as a source of slow release of glucose, which is
essential for the brain, retina, labyrinth, and nervous system.
With optimized starch use, there will be no excess glucose in
the blood vessels, thus reducing fatty acid conversion, which,
when in abundance, is harmful to the human body.
With the great variety of modified starches and new modi-
fication techniques, in the future, engineering aimed solely at
obtaining a specific starch for each human need may be a reality.
Today, modification processes have been developed according
to purpose, for example, the type IV resistant starches, which
are modified chemically to resist the enzymes of the digestive
system and innumerable processing conditions, including high
temperatures, high pressure, and acidic pH, among other
aggressive conditions, especially for those foods subjected to
sterilization.
This chapter will address the basic principles to familiarize
the reader and facilitate the understanding of the following
chapters.
 Basic Principles: Composition and Properties of Starch 3

Figure 1.1 Production of starch and its various applications.

1.2 OBTAINING STARCH

Starch and similar molecules can be found in plants, bacteria,
and algae. In animals, glycogen, formed by glucose molecules, is
present in muscle and liver in small amounts for maintaining
4 Starches for Food Application

essential activities in the body. In bacteria and algae, studies

have found new sources of carbohydrates for human con-
sumption (Eliasson, 2004; BeMiller and Whistler, 2009).
Economically, the starch of plant origin is the one with major
importance for the food industry.
In plants, starch is stored inside plant cells in the form of
energy, found in both chloroplasts (chlorophyll-containing
plastids) as a transitory starch, being synthesized during photo-
synthesis and consumed at night by the plant, and amyloplasts,
in which the synthesis and degradation occur at separate times,
with accumulation of starch at high concentrations in the
reproductive structures (grains), vegetative structures (tubers,
stems), fruits (banana, wolf fruit, and others), and roots (cassava,
taro), to be used in other phases (germination, budding, fruit
ripening, and others) (Eliasson, 2004; BeMiller and Whistler,
2009).
For extraction and industrial processes, the starch stored in
the amyloplasts has the greatest economic viability.
Starch extraction methods are well established for com-
mercial cereals and roots, but should be adapted to the new
sources of starch, such as leaves, fruits, rhizomes, stems, le-
gumes, nuts, and plant shoots, among others (Eliasson, 2004).
Although these new sources have technological properties
different from those already commercialized, many are still in
the research phase, without studies of economic viability for
industrial use.
The selection of the extraction method depends on many
factors, including origin, location in the plant, presence of nu-
trients, perishability after harvest, etc., which can vary from
physical processes to the use of chemical reagents and enzymes.
The principle of separation is based on the fact that starch is
insoluble in cold water and has a proximate density of
1.5 g mL
1, which ensures its decantation when mixed with
 Basic Principles: Composition and Properties of Starch 5

water (Eliasson, 2004). Therefore, processing plants for starch

extraction and purification use great volumes of water and
usually generate coproducts and wastes that require biological
treatments. Further details will be discussed in Chapter 4.
In some cases, starch is the main extraction product, as in the
case of corn, cassava, and potatoes, but it is also considered a
coproduct, for example, in the extraction of vital wheat gluten,
which generates great amounts of starch rather than gluten, but
with lower added value.
The major goal of the extraction process is obtaining starch
with a high degree of purity, while other nutrients (minerals,
proteins, and lipids) should be at concentrations below
1.5 g  100 g
1. When starch meets the purity requirements, it
is ready to be used in the native state or modified for use in the
food processing industries (Tester et al., 2004).
When starch is impure, the modifications will not be as
effective, because other nutrients, such as proteins and lipids, are
more reactive to chemical agents and physical processes than the
starch itself, and impair the activity of amylolytic enzymes and
reagents. Thus, in such cases, the modification technique re-
quires an in-depth study to determine whether the reaction
occurred with starch and/or another nutrient and whether the
reaction led to changes in the protein crosslinking, the forma-
tion of toxic compounds, the formation of free radicals, or the
Maillard reaction, among others.
After extraction and purification, starch can be visually
characterized as a fine white powder, insoluble in cold water,
alcohol, ether, and other solvents, and soluble in dimethyl
sulfoxide (DMSO). One way of identifying the presence of
starch in food products is by the use of indicator dye, glycerin,
or Lugol’s iodine, which will color in the blueered range
(Brasil, 2010).
6 Starches for Food Application

The identification of the source of extracted starch can be

made by optical microscopy, since the starch granule presents
distinct characteristics, such as birefringence under polarized
light and presence of the Maltese cross, among others (Brasil,
2010).
When viewed under an optical microscope, starch appears in
the form of granules of varying sizes, shapes, and stratifications.
The starch granule consists of a hilum (point of origin of the
ring structure) and lamellae or striations (light and dark areas).
The starch characteristics, including the spherical, ovoid,
polyhedral, piriformic, and ellipsoid forms and size, can be
detected by microscopic analysis, and a central point known as
the hilum is observed in polarized light, which can be punctate,
starry, linear, etc., followed by branching, forming the Maltese
cross ( Jane, 2004, 2006). The form, granule size, and type of
hilum or Maltese cross are good parameters to identify the most
common starches from cereals, roots, and tubers, as can be seen
in Table 1.1. Another important factor is that extracted starch
can present different types of distribution (unimodal, bimodal,
or trimodal). Table 1.1 shows an example of the bimodal dis-
tribution of the granule size in wheat, which may have different
technological properties. When separated and analyzed alone,
B starches (15%e20%) have a 2- to 15-mm diameter, while
A-starch granules (80%e85%) are 20e35 mm, as reported by
Jane et al. (1997).
The formation of starch granules starts at the hilum and can
be of three distinct kinds within the plastid, as follows:
• simple: granule formed within the plastid, for example,
potatoes, wheat, rye, etc.;
• composite: more than one granule inside the plastid, for
example, cassava, hazelnut, sweet potato, sago;
• semicomposite: two or more simple granules, joined by the
deposition of layers (Zobel and Stephen, 1996).
Table 1.1 Characteristics of some starches
Starch Origin Size (mm) Morphology Distribution
Maize Cereal 5e30 Spherical/polyhedral with Unimodal
porous surface
Wheat Cereal 20e35 (A) Lenticular (A type), Bimodal
2e10 (B) spherical
(B type)
Rice Cereal 3e8 Polyhedral Unimodal

Basic Principles: Composition and Properties of Starch

Potato Tuber 5e100 Lenticular Unimodal
Cassava Root 4e35 Spherical/lenticular Unimodal
Barley Cereal 2.3 (A)
7.5 (B) Lenticular/spherical Trimodal
20 (C)
Waxy barley Cereal 10.2e13.6 (A) Lenticular/spherical Bimodal
2.1e3.1 (B)
Durum Cereal 13.9 (A) Lenticular/spherical Bimodal
4.06 (B)
Adapted from Tester, R.F., Karkalas J., 2002. Polysaccharides. II. Polysaccharides from eukaryotes. In: Vandamme, E.J., De Baets, S.,
Steinbuchel, A., (Eds.), Starch in Biopolymers, sixth ed. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, pp. 381e438; Tester, R.F., Karkalas, J., Qi, X.,
2004. Starch-composition, fine structure and architecture. Journal of Cereal Science, 39, 151e165; BeMiller, J.N., Whistler, R.L.,
2009. Starch: Chemistry and Technology, third ed. Academic Press, New York; Dendy, A.V.D., Dobraszczyk, B.J. (Eds.), 2001.
Cereals and Cereal Products: Chemistry and Technology, An Aspen Publication, Gaithersburg.

7
8 Starches for Food Application

1.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STARCH

As a fine powder, cereal starch contains about 10%e12%
moisture, while tuber starch has 14%e15%. Maintaining this
moisture value and using packaging to protect against variations
in relative humidity are important factors for a longer storage of
starch (years). The other nutrients should be in concentrations
below 1.5%e2.0% in starch, as can be seen in Table 1.2. They
occur in starches as follows:
• Lipids in cereal starch granules may be internal, such as lyso-
phospholipids and free fatty acids (FFAs), and external, as tri-
glycerides, phospholipids, and FFAs, which may be from the
amyloplast membrane; in other starches such as oat starch,
the lipids may be complexed to amylose (Tester et al., 2004).
• Proteins (max. 0.6%) may also be on the surface or internal as
membrane proteins and enzymes responsible for the synthesis
and degradation of starch (Tester et al., 2004).
• Mineral salts are mainly represented by phosphorus, which
may be phospholipids, monoesters, and inorganic phosphate.
Native starches generally contain small phosphorus levels
(0.1%). In the case of rootstocks, phosphorus is covalently
bound to starch (Hogde et al., 1948), whereas in cereal
starch, this mineral occurs mainly as phospholipids (Lim
et al., 1994). As an example, the amount of phosphate
groups in potato starch is in the range of 1 phosphate group
per 200 to 400 glucose units, while the other starches have
lower values (Swinkels, 1985).
Pure starch is formed by glucose monomers linked by
glycosidic bonds, being a homopolysaccharide. The way the
glucose molecules are joined can be:
• By a-1,4 glycosidic bonds with few a-1,6 branching points,
forming the amylose molecule, which is essentially linear,
with a molecular mass between 105 and 106 Da. Amylose
has a great ability to form complexes with lipids due to its
helical structure, and it may be free or complexed with lipids.
Table 1.2 Chemical composition of some starches, in percentage
Starch Carbohydrate Lipid Protein Ash Phosphorus
Corn
Regular 98.9 0.60 0.35 0.10 0.015

Basic Principles: Composition and Properties of Starch

Waxy 99.5 0.20 0.25 0.07 0.007
High amylose 99.4e98.7 0.40e1.10 e 0.20 0.070
Wheat 98.6 0.80 0.40 0.20 0.060
Rice 98.3 0.80 0.40 0.50 0.010
Potato 99.5 0.05 0.06 0.40 0.080
Cassava 99.6 0.10 0.10 0.20 0.010
Adapted from BeMiller, J.N., Whistler, R.L., 2009. Starch: Chemistry and Technology, third ed. Academic Press, New York; Tester,
R.F., Karkalas, J., Qi, X., 2004. Starch-composition, fine structure and architecture. Journal of Cereal Science, 39, 151e165;
Eliasson, A.C., Gudmundsson, M., 2006. Starch: physicochemical and functions aspects. In: Eliasson, A.C. (Ed.), Carbohydrates in
Food. CRC Press, New York, pp. 392e470.

9
10 Starches for Food Application

• By a-1,4 glycosidic bonds with a large number of a-1,6

bonds, forming a branched structure, so-called amylopectin,
with a molecular mass from 107 to 109 Da. Amylopectin unit
chains are relatively short compared with amylose molecules,
with a broad distribution profile. They are typically 18e25
units long on average.
• By glycosidic bonds forming a small amount of intermediate
material, from 5% to 7%, where the glucose molecules are in
short or long branches, exhibiting different properties from
amylose and amylopectin (Eliasson, 2004; BeMiller and
Whistler, 2009; Bello-Perez et al., 2010).
Amylose and amylopectin are radially arranged in the starch
granule with their terminal reducing groups oriented toward
the center or hilum, in which the deposition of these polymers
takes place (Swinkels, 1985). These molecules are linked by
hydrogen bonding, which maintains the integrity of the granule
and establishes the physical strength and solubility, presenting
differences in solubility and paste formation (gel), as can be seen
in Table 1.3.
When the starch granule is analyzed by X-ray diffraction,
amorphous regions and semicrystalline regions are observed,
which are characteristic of amylose and amylopectin, respec-
tively. The elucidation of how these molecules are organized in
the granule allowed advances in the studies on starch modifi-
cations, due to the difference in the reactivities of individual
starch granules (Donald et al., 2001).
The amylose and amylopectin contents vary according to
the origin of the granule (Table 1.4). With the advances in the
area of genetics, new modified starches can be obtained with
the introduction of waxy genes, wx (recessive) and Wx
(dominant), and ae genes (high amylose) into the plant. In this
way, many plants present conventional starches and also waxy
starches (above 85% amylopectin) and high amylose content
(above 40% amylose). While the waxy starch is brittle, the
Table 1.3 Amylose and amylopectin characteristics
Characteristic Amylose Amylopectin
5 6
Molecular weight 10 e10 107e108
Degree of polymerization 1500e6000 3  105 to 3  106
Dilute solutions Unstable Stable

Basic Principles: Composition and Properties of Starch

Solubility Variable Soluble
Complex formation Favorable Unfavorable
Gel Stiff, irreversible Soft, reversible
Films Coherent d
Iodine color Blue Red-purple
Iodine affinity 19%e20% 1%
Diffraction Crystalline Amorphous
Digestibility (b-amylase) 100% 60%
Adapted from Ciacco, C.F., Cruz, R., 1982. Fabricação de amido e sua utilização. Secretaria de Estado da Indústria Comércio,
Ciência e Tecnologia, São Paulo and Zobel, H.F., 1988. Molecules to granules: a comprehensive starch review. Starch/Starke, 40,
44e50.

11
12 Starches for Food Application

Table 1.4 Amylose and amylopectin content of starches

Starch Amylose (%) Amylopectin (%) Examples
Normal 20e35 70e80 Cereals
18e25 75e82 Tubers
Waxy <8% 92e100 Waxy corn, waxy
potato, waxy rice
High 50 50 High-amylose
amylose corn (resistant
starch)
Based on: BeMiller, J.N., Whistler, R.L., 2009. Starch: Chemistry and Technology,
third ed. Academic Press, New York.

high-amylose starch resists the activity of amylases and is diffi-

cult to gelatinize (Tester et al., 2004; Wurburg, 1989; BeMiller
and Whistler, 2009).

1.4 PROPERTIES
Raw starch is insoluble in water, has no thickening properties,
and tends to settle while in solution. To exhibit the properties
of a thickening agent, as a stabilizer, moisture retainer, gel
former, or binder, it must undergo modification processes prior
to use or during food processing (Eliasson, 2004). Table 1.5
shows some starch applications.
To select a starch for addition to food formulations, its
nutritional function as an energy source or dietary fiber and/or
esthetic function (texture, flavor retention, appearance) should
be taken into account. In this way, knowing the process of food
production and its intrinsic factors is very important for selec-
tion of the starch, for example, type of processing, type of
product, conservation method, pH, moisture content, shelf life,
and ingredients that can interact with starch, among other
factors.
Table 1.5 Application of starch in foods and food packaging
Product Starch function Some articles
Mayonnaise Emulsifier/thickener Alimi et al. (2013)
Salad dressing Stabilizer, fat replacer Bortnowska et al. (2014)
White sauces Freezing and thermal stability Sanz et al. (2016)
White sauces Gluten free Bortnowska et al. (2016)
Dairy products Stabilizer Tasneem et al. (2014)

Subaric et al. (2010)

Basic Principles: Composition and Properties of Starch

Ice cream Fat and sugar replacer
Freezeethaw stability Liu et al. (2015)
Candy from black raspberries Controlled release of phytochemicals Gu et al. (2015)
Bakery products Fat replacer in muffins and cookies Lee and Puligundla (2016)
Fat replacer in cakes and cookies Serinyel and Öztürk (2017)
Bread Fat replacer Balic et al. (2017)
Gluten-free bakery products Gluten substitute Mancebo et al. (2016)
Martinez and Gomez (2017)
Yogurts, cream cheese Thickener Klemaszewski (2011)
Packages Biocomposite, sustainable packages Roy et al. (2011)
Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al. (2003)
Films Biodegradable, edible Durango et al. (2006)
Mali et al. (2004)

13
14 Starches for Food Application

When starch plays a nutritional function, it may be in the

following forms (Singh et al., 2010; Fuentes-Zaragoza et al.,
2010):
• inaccessible to digestion when raw, acting as a resistant
starch, or when modified by a physical, chemical, or genetic
process leading to the formation of starch with high amylose
content; corresponds to undigested starch within 120 min of
digestion, which is defined as the total starch minus the
amount of glucose released; classified into five types, as
demonstrated in Chapter 8;
• slowly digestible starch, when retrograded or in the presence
of fiber; corresponds to a high amount of glucose released
between 20 and 120 min of in vitro digestion;
• easily digested starch, being a source of energy when cooked,
suffering amylase attack; corresponds to a high amount of
glucose released in the first 20 min of digestion.
The greater nutritional function of starch is as a source of
energy, since commercial resistant starches are still costly.
The replacement of the usual fibers, such as celluloses and
hemicelluloses, by resistant starch in food is done because
resistant starch does not affect the color, odor, and flavor of the
food product, other than contributing to the texture and
resisting thermal processing for a prolonged time, depending on
the type of starch used (Fuentes-Zaragoza et al., 2010).
During gelatinization, raw starch undergoes changes,
allowing hydrolysis by amylolytic enzymes and providing
pasting properties, with thickening function, in the food
product. The production of pregelatinized starches, with good
solubility, thickening properties, and cold paste formation, has
been one of the main starch modifications, being widely used in
instant powders as thinning agents (Powell, 1965).

1.4.1 Gelatinization and Retrogradation

In the conventional gelatinization method, the starch granules
are slowly heated with little stirring in the presence of water,
 Basic Principles: Composition and Properties of Starch 15

which promotes imbibition, swelling, and release of amylose

and amylopectin polymers over a prolonged period (Leach,
1965), such as in the preparation of cooked rice, porridge, and
cereal and tuber soups. Owing to the cost and time to prepare
starch products, various methods have been successfully used,
such as extrusion, roller drying, drum drying, microwaving,
dryer ovens, thermoplastic extruders, high-pressure processing,
and many others, which promote rapid starch gelatinization
followed or not by drying, thus obtaining pregelatinized
starches that can be used as cold thickeners.
Starch gelatinization is a physical process, in which the
granule swells and breaks when heated in water, releasing
amylose and amylopectin, forming a thick solution due to the
numerous hydrogen bonds with water. The starch gelatiniza-
tion process depends on the starch origin and physical and
chemical characteristics; type of damaged starch; amylose/
amylopectin ratio; whether native or modified; composition of
the food to be added; presence of sugars, salts, fats, fibers; and
the processing conditions, including the rate of temperature
rise, agitation of the medium, and process type (Leach, 1965).
Table 1.6 shows some examples of starch paste from cereals and
tubers, with some important differences such as paste clarity and
texture.
After starch gelatinization, with paste formation and the
amylose and amylopectin molecules forming hydrogen bonds
with the water and cooling of the paste, retrogradation and
syneresis take place, that is, there is a new organization of the
molecules, with an increase in viscosity of the medium and
water release (Leach, 1965). This process occurs during cooling
of cereal-based porridges, such as oats and corn, with the for-
mation of surface layers, which is less noticeable in cassava- and
potato-based porridges, due to their slow retrogradation rate
and syneresis.
Starches with higher amylose content retrograde in the first
hours of cooling, while waxy starches show little increase in
 16
Starches for Food Application
Table 1.6 Pasting properties of native starch *
Retrogadation
Agitation Speed During
Starch Hot Viscosity Texture Clarity Resistance Cooling
Corn Medium Short Opaque Medium High
Waxy Corn Medium High Long Clear Low Medium to Low
Wheat Medium to Low Short Opaque Medium Medium High
Sorghum Medium Short Opaque Medium High
Rice Medium to Low Short Opaque Medium High
Potato Very High Long Clear Medium to Low Medium
Cassava High Long Clear Low Low
Sweet Potato High Long Clear Low Medium
* Adapted from Swinkels (1985), Whistler and BeMiller (1997)
 Basic Principles: Composition and Properties of Starch 17

viscosity during cooling and freezing; thus they are preferred for
frozen products (Swinkels, 1985).
Many modification processes aim at altering the gelatiniza-
tion and retrogradation, since these properties are unique to
starch, thus impairing its application in the native form as a
substitute for sugar, fat, and protein in foods.

1.4.2 Ability to Undergo Changes

According to Light (1990), modified starch can be used in food
for three main reasons:
• to provide functional attributes in food applications that nor-
mally native starches cannot provide, for example, pudding
mix, salad dressing;
• to be one of the most available nutrients for modifications;
• to provide economic advantages in many applications that
use more expensive additives, such as gums.
The first starch modification is the enzymatic modification
that occurs naturally in plants, during the synthesis and degra-
dation processes. In grains, the germination process increases the
amylase activity, leading to starch hydrolysis. In human con-
sumption, the gelatinized starch undergoes hydrolysis by the
salivary and pancreatic amylases of the digestive system,
releasing smaller molecules, which will be easily hydrolyzed
(Escott-Stump et al., 2013).
The enzymatic modification of starch has become
commercially important since the production of enzymes at the
industrial scale, such as germinated cereals (malting process) or
the production of amylases by bacteria and fungi, meeting the
high demand for starch-derivative products.
The advantages of using enzymes are the specificity of the
reaction, which occurs under mild conditions of temperature,
pH, and agitation, in addition to the low generation of efflu-
ents. The enzyme concentration is much lower than that of the
starch, and the reaction may be interrupted with small variations
in the reaction medium. Enzyme-modified starch is considered
18 Starches for Food Application

GRAS (generally recognized as safe). Glucose/fructose syrups

and alcoholic drinks such as whiskey and beer are examples of
products that undergo enzymatic activity using starch as the
starting substrate (Dendy and Dobraszczyk, 2001).
The physical modifications can be smooth and come from
the extraction process, leading to the formation of damaged
starch, or as drastic as gelatinization or the formation of dextrins
by pyroconversion, among others (Wurzburg, 1989). All these
processes are considered GRAS.
Chemical modification is directly associated with the side
hydroxyl groups of the amylose and amylopectin molecules,
which are capable of going through hydrolysis, oxidation,
etherification, esterification, and crosslinking (Wurzburg, 1989).
The resulting modified starch exhibits different properties
compared with the native starch, and the degree of modifica-
tion may vary according to the chemical reagent, process time,
and temperature. In this case, starch should be modified
following the specific legislation and within the amount limits
for use in food products. For example, phosphate in the form of
phosphorus in starch molecules may not constitute more than
0.5% for potato or wheat and cannot be more than 0.4% for
other phosphate starches (Hamilton and Pascall, 1967).
Many combined methods have been used to reduce the
chemical reagents and the generation of effluents. Many modified
starch processes are protected by patents, since the large industries
have always searched for modified starches for new applications
or to improve the technological quality of the existing ones.

1.5 CONCLUSION
As a key ingredient of human nutrition, starch presents great
industrial importance, since it is a product of easy availability
and characterization. However, small modifications in the
granule can lead to great changes in the technological proper-
ties, and thus studies in this area are in constant expansion.
 Basic Principles: Composition and Properties of Starch 19

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Balic, R., Miljkovic, T., Ozsisli, B., Simsek, S., 2017. Utilization of
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Bello-Pérez, L.A., Rodriguez-Ambriz, S.L., Sanchez-Rivera, M., Agama-
Acevedo, E., 2010. Starch macromolecular structure. In:
Bertolini, A.C. (Ed.), Starches Characterization, Properties, and Appli-
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BeMiller, J.N., Whistler, R.L., 2009. Starch: Chemistry and Technology,
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Bertolini, A.C., 2010. Starches: Characterization, Properties, and Applica-
tions. CRC Press, New York.
Bortnowska, G., Balejko, J., Schube, V., Tokarczyk, G., Krzemi nska, N.,
Mojka, K., 2014. Stability and physicochemical properties of model
salad dressings prepared with pregelatinized potato starch. Carbohydrate
Polymers 111, 624e632.
Bortnowska, G., Krudos, A., Schube, V., Krawczy nska, W.,
Krzemi nska, N., Mojka, K., 2016. Effects of waxy rice and tapioca
starches on the physicochemical and sensory properties of white sauces
enriched with functional fibre. Food Chemistry 202, 31e39.
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Donald, A.M., Perry, P.A., Waigh, T.A., 2001. The impact of internal
granule structure on processing and properties. In: Barsby, T.L.,
Donald, A.M., Frazier, P.J. (Eds.), Starch: Advances in Structure and
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Dendy, A.V.D., Dobraszczyk, B.J. (Eds.), 2001. Cereals and Cereal Prod-
ucts: Chemistry and Technology. An Aspen Publication, Gaithersburg.
Durango, A.M., Soares, N.F.F., Benevides, S., Teixeira, J., Carvalho, M.,
Wobeto, C., Andrade, N.J., 2006. Development and evaluation of an
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Eerlingen, R.C., Delcour, J.A., 1995. Formation, analysis, structure and
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Publishingin Food Science and Tecnology. CRC press, New York.
Eliasson, A.C., Gudmundsson, M., 2006. Starch: physicochemical and
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Lim, S.J., Kasemsuwan, T., Jane, J.L., 1994. Characterization of phosphorus

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Zaritzky, N.E., 2004. Barrier, mechanical and optical properties of
plasticized yam starch films. Carbohydrate Polymers 56, 129e135.
Mancebo, C.M., Rodriguez, P., Gómez, M., 2016. Assessing rice flour-
starch-protein mixtures to produce gluten free sugar-snap cookies.
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potato starch biocomposites: physicomechanical and thermal properties.
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Sanz, T., Tárrega, A., Salvador, A., 2016. Effect of thermally inhibited
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Serinyel, G., Öztürk, S., 2017. Investigation on potential utilization of
native and modified starches containing resistant starch as a fat replacer
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Starch in Biopolymers, sixth ed. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, pp. 381e438.
22 Starches for Food Application

Tester, R.F., Karkalas, J., Qi, X., 2004. Starch-composition, fine structure
and architecture. Journal of Cereal Science 39, 151e165.
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Wurzbrug, O.B., 1989. Modified Starches: Properties and Uses. CRC
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Zobel, H.F., 1988. Molecules to granules: a comprehensive starch review.
Starch/Starke 40, 44e50.
Zobel, H.F., Stephen, A.M., 1996. Starch: structure, analysis and applica-
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cation. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 19e66.

FURTHER READING
Barrera, G.N., León, A.E., Ribotta, P.D., 2016. Use of enzymes to
minimize the rheological dough problems caused by high levels of
damaged starch in starch-gluten systems. Journal of the Science of Food
and Agriculture 96 (7), 2539e2546.
Chang, F., He, X., Huang, Q., 2013. Effect of lauric acid on the V-amylose
complex distribution and properties of swelled normal cornstarch
granules. Journal of Food Science 58, 89e95.
Evers, A.D., Stevens, D.J., 1985. Starch damage. Advances in Cereal Sci-
ence and Technology 7, 321e349.
Fannon, J.E., Hauber, R.J., Bemiller, J.N., 1992. Surface pores of starch
granules. Cereal Chemistry 69, 284e288.
FDA, 2016. Food and Drugs Administration. https://www.fda.gov/Food/
GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/
Allergens/ucm362880.htm#Gluten_Levels.
Han, X.Z., Campanella, O.H., Mix, N.C., Hamaker, B.R., 2002.
Consequence of starch damage on rheological properties of maize starch
pastes. Cereal Chemistry 79 (6), 897e901.
Huber, K.C., BeMiller, J.N., 2000. Channels of maize and sorghum starch
granules. Carbohydrate Polymers 41, 269e276.
Park, H., Xu, S., Seetharaman, K., 2011. A novel in situ atomic force
microscopy imaging technique to probe surface morphological features
of starch granules. Carbohydrate Research 346, 847e853.
Pomeranz, Y., 1988. Wheat Chemistry and Technology, vols. 1e2.
American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul.
Vamadevan, V., Bertoft, E., 2015. Structure-function relationships of starch
components. Starch/Stärke 67, 55e68.
Whistler, R.L., BeMiller, J.N. (Eds.), 1997. Carbohydrate Chemistry for
Food Scientists. American Association of Cereal Chemists. Minnesota,
St. Paul.
CHAPTER 2

Identification and Analysis of

Starch
Maria Teresa Pedrosa Silva Clerici1,
Ulliana
1
Marques Sampaio1, Marcio Schmiele2
University of Campinas, School of Food Engineering, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil;
2
Federal University of Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys, Institute of Science and
Technology, Diamantina, Minas Gerais, Brazil

Contents
2.1 Introduction 24
2.2 Identification of the Starch Grain 25
2.3 Physicochemical Characterization 29
2.3.1 Separation of Amylose and Amylopectin 30
2.3.1.1 Amylose 30
2.3.1.2 Amylopectin 33
2.3.2 Intermediate and Phytoglycogen Material 34
2.4 Morphological and Structural Characterization 36
2.4.1 Polarized Light Microscopy 36
2.4.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy 36
2.4.3 Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy 37
2.4.4 Atomic Force Microscopy 38
2.4.5 Differential Scanning Calorimetry 39
2.4.6 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 40
2.4.7 X-ray Diffraction 41
2.4.8 Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 43
2.5 Rheological Characterization 44
2.5.1 Empirical Rheology 45
2.5.2 Syneresis 51
2.6 Technological Characterization 52
2.6.1 Swelling Power and Solubility 52
2.6.2 FreezeeThaw Stability 54
2.6.3 Other Methodologies 55
2.7 Nutritional Characterization 56
2.8 Biodegradation of Starch-Based Packages 57
2.9 Future Trends 57
Starches for Food Application
ISBN 978-0-12-809440-2 © 2019 Elsevier Inc.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809440-2.00002-2 All rights reserved. 23
24 Starches for Food Application

2.10 Conclusion 58
References 58
Further Reading 69

2.1 INTRODUCTION
A number of methods with different purposes can be used to
characterize starch in foods, including identification; quantifica-
tion; assessment of purity degree; type of physical, chemical, and
enzymatic modifications; and interactions between starch and
other compounds. In addition, the nutritional characteristics of
starch, its stability under the processing and storage conditions, and
its interactions with the environment can also be assessed. In this
context, specific evaluation methods have been developed to
provide information to guide scientific development in the field of
starch granules.
The selection of analysis methods should fit with overall aims,
including time of analysis, operating costs, ease of execution, and
waste generation, in addition to meeting the common
requirements of a laboratory analysis, such as precision, accuracy,
repeatability, detection limit, and specificity. As an example, the
presence of raw starch in foods can be investigated by the simple
use of Lugol’s solution (iodine solution and potassium iodide), or
by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM),
and atomic force microscopy (AFM) methods, whose choice will
depend on the type of response desired.
Starch is composed of the three major elements, i.e., C, H, and
O; thus its quantification is quite complex, since these elements are
found in almost all organic compounds. For this reason, in many
food composition tables, the carbohydrate level, which includes
sugars, dietary fibers, and starch, is calculated by the sum of the
percentages of water, protein, minerals, and lipids subtracted
from 100.
 Identification and Analysis of Starch 25

This chapter will cover the main analysis methods of starch

granules in a didactic way, from the simplest to the most
sophisticated techniques.

2.2 IDENTIFICATION OF THE STARCH GRAIN

Starch granules can have specific requirements for food and
nonfood uses. The product specifications include the purity
degree, the origin, and whether it is native or modified starch,
which can be assessed by determining the moisture levels, ash,
pH, acidity, fiber, color characteristics, presence of sulfur
dioxide, particle size distribution, paste viscosity, phosphorus
content, and microbiological specifications, among others. All
methodologies can be easily found in books intended for food
analysis, such as those by the Association of Official Analytical
Chemists (AOAC) and American Association of Cereal
Chemists International (AACCI).
Many countries have their own legislation, aiming to establish
the conformity of starch with regard to commercialization. The
analysis method and the interpretation of the results should be well
established for those working with starch grains, since many
application and modification processes require high-purity starch,
without starch-based blends and microbial contamination.
Considerations regarding the interpretation of results will be
given in the following, because starch identification and
characterization are the first steps for scientific development in
the field of starch granules.
Raw starch, when purified and in the dry powder form,
should be white; odorless, with a characteristic flavor; and
insoluble in water when it stays below gelatinization
temperature. The Lugol solution can be used to quickly
identify raw or cooked starch, pure or not, which will color
red (glucose, low-molecular-weight dextrins) to blue (raw or
gelatinized starch).
26 Starches for Food Application

Starch is also insoluble in alcohol, ether, and other solvents,

and soluble in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), and has a density of
approximately 1.5 g/cm3 (Brasil, 2010), so the extraction and
purification processes are favored. According to Singh et al.
(2007), the starch solubility in DMSO can vary according to the
type of starch, particle size, amylose content, and modification
processes.
The starch color can be measured by the CIELab system, which
is represented by the color coordinates L*, representing luminosity
(0 ¼ black; 100 ¼ white); a* (þa ¼ redness; a ¼ greenness);
and b* (þb ¼ yellowness; b ¼ blueness), while the parameters
hue (hab) and chroma (C*) can be obtained from the a* and b*
values. The parameter hue is measured as an angle over a circle
divided into 100 parts, while C* is a measure of opacity (Giese,
2000; Minolta, 1994). It is also possible to use comparative color
systems, such as the Maerz and Paul color dictionary (1950), or
reflectance by using a reflectance meter that measures the intensity
of whiteness (Mishra and Rai, 2006).
Commercially, starch granules are white and opaque, but
when extracted under laboratory conditions and without the
use of oxidizing reagents or enzymatic inhibitors, they can
exhibit yellow to green tones due to the presence of pigments
or enzymatic browning, such as the starch from wolf fruit,
chestnut, and bamboo culm, as reported by Clerici et al. (2011),
Schmiele et al. (2015), and Felisberto et al. (2017), respectively,
as slightly colored starches (gray).
The identification of the starch origin is of paramount
importance and can be a simple task for raw starch. Although
optical microscopy allows the characterization of granule shape
and origin, the origin cannot be identified in gelatinized, very
broken, or micronized starch. The Maltese cross of raw starch
can be seen under polarized light and presents differences
according to the type of starch, birefringence, and shape
characteristics, which can be spherical, oval, polygonal, disc,
elongate, and others. Positive birefringence indicates a radial
 Identification and Analysis of Starch 27

orientation of the macromolecules, which is normal for the

growth rings and the surface of the granule, confirming that the
extraction process did not affect the granule structure, since,
according to BeMiller and Whistler (2009), the loss of bire-
fringence on heating is indicative of disordering processes.
The intrinsic viscosity is essentially a measure of the internal
friction or resistance to the displacement of polymer molecules
in solution. If properly used, it provides an excellent criterion of
relative molecular size (Islam et al., 2001). Starch grains from
different plant sources have different intrinsic viscosities, such as
those found by Rocha et al. (2008) for two Peruvian carrot
varieties, from 2.39 to 2.18, and by Franco et al. (1988) for
manioc starch and maize starch, with values of 2.30 and 1.83,
respectively.
Measurements of pH and acidity vary according to the type
of starch and the degree of impurities, including the presence of
minerals, free fatty acids, proteins, phenolic compounds, sulfites,
or others, which can affect the pH due to anion release in the
starch solution water. In addition, during the extraction process,
long-term dissolution can lead to fermentative and enzymatic
processes with the formation of acidic compounds. To avoid
this process, sulfur-containing compounds such as bisulfites can
be used; however, for some starches, no residual sulfur levels are
acceptable at the end of the process. Mishra and Rai (2006)
determined the pH values of maize, potato, and tapioca
starches, which were 6.2, 7.15, and 4.8, and correlated them
with the phosphorus content, since potato starch had the
highest phosphorus content (41 mg%), followed by corn
(23 mg%) and tapioca (7.54 mg%).
Demiate and Kotovicz (2011) analyzed the pH and acidity of
cassava starch, and found that the native starch presented a pH
value of 4.99 and acidity corresponding to 0.75 mL of 1 N
NaOH per 100 g, while the sour cassava starch presented low
pH (2.92e4.03) and high acidity values (3.10e8.63 mL of 1 N
NaOH per 100 g). These starch granules presented different
28 Starches for Food Application

expansion properties when dissolved in water and cooked, with

a greater expansion of the sour cassava starch, which is widely
used for gluten-free cookies in Brazil.
The cyanogenic glycosides (linamarin and lotaustralin) found
in cassava and other plants must be present in starch below the
limit of detection. The analyses can be performed by spectro-
photometric (Fukushima et al., 2016) or chromatographic
methods, as reported by Cho et al. (2013), who measured the
total cyanide by ion-exchange chromatography following acid
hydrolysis and distillation of cyanide ion collected in sodium
hydroxide. The major drawback of this analysis is the safety of
the method, due to the toxicity of the compound tested.
After the identification and evaluation of the degree of purity
for use in chemical and physical modifications, the analysis of
damaged starch can also be performed, since the damages
suffered during the extraction process can change the starch
characteristics, such as solubility, water swelling, and pasting
properties, in addition to increasing the susceptibility to
fermentative processes and enzymatic hydrolysis. Damaged
starch can be determined by extraction procedures (blue value),
dye staining procedures, near-infrared procedures, and enzyme
digestion procedures, as described by the AACCI (2010):
• Method 76-31.01, Determination of Damaged Starchd
Spectrophotometric Method: The damaged starch granules
are hydrated, followed by maltosaccharide hydrolysis and
limit dextrins by fungal a-amylase. Amyloglucosidase is
then used to convert dextrins to glucose, which is specifically
determined spectrophotometrically after glucose oxidase/
peroxidase treatment.
• Method 76-33.01, Damaged StarchdAmperometric Method
by SDmatic: The method measures the kinetics of iodine
absorption in a liquid suspension, using an amperometric probe.
This analysis was developed for wheat flour because damaged
starch increases the water absorption of flour, which is
important in the bread fermentation process.
 Identification and Analysis of Starch 29

Damaged starch is very important in wheat flour for use in

bakery products and pasta. In addition, Horstmann et al. (2017)
have shown that it is also important for the production of
gluten-free bread, since it can affect the water absorption
properties, solubility, dough fermentation rate, and color of the
final product.
Phosphate groups may be naturally present in starch granules, as
in potato starch (Mishra and Rai, 2006) or from phosphate bonds
(Seker et al., 2003) or in the form of natural phospholipids, as in
barleys (Song and Jane, 2000), or added (Ai et al., 2013), and can be
evaluated by the molybdenum blue spectrophotometric method
described by Smith and Caruso (1964) and by 31P nuclear
magnetic resonance (31P NMR) (Sang et al., 2007).
To avoid determination errors and the use of toxic reagents
for phosphorus analysis, Genkina and Kurkovskaya (2013)
proposed a method based on the chemical gelation of starch in a
starchephosphatidylcholine blend, using DMSO followed by
the quantification of phosphorus in the gel formed by 31P
NMR using tributyl phosphate as a standard.
The microbiological characterization, presence of toxins, and
degree of soiling depend on the specifications of each producer
country, as they indicate the hygienicesanitary safety of the
starch manufacturing processes, for example, the starch granules
used in enteral, parenteral, infant, and special formulas, which
must follow strict microbiological standards, including spore
counts. Starch extracted in the artisanal manner and sun dried
may be at higher risk for contamination.

2.3 PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION

Although the main starch fractions (amylose and amylopectin)
are composed of the same glycosidic monomer, glucose, they
exhibit totally different characteristics and performance. The
presence of both macromolecular components may interfere
with the physicochemical analysis; thus it is necessary to separate
30 Starches for Food Application

these fractions. Other compounds, such as lipid fractions, also

need to be removed.

2.3.1 Separation of Amylose and Amylopectin

Starch fractions can be separated using well-established meth-
odologies. The interference of amylopectin in the amylose
quantification, as well as the intermediate material, can be
minimized through the fractionation of the polymers. Better
fractionation and analysis conditions are obtained with the use
of free fatty starch granules. The degreasing process is usually
achieved by cold extraction using the Soxhlet system or by
immersing the sample in petroleum ether or hexane. After that,
the sample is solubilized in 90% DMSO solution at room
temperature and constant stirring, or in a heating bath using
6e10 M urea (to reduce the dielectric constant of the solvent),
or using an alkaline solution of NaOH or KOH at 2 M in a
heated medium (to promote starch solubilization at alkaline pH)
( Jane, 2009). At high pH levels, greater attention is required
with heating, as it may lead to alkaline starch degradation, thus
affecting the determination.
The more common technique for separation is the solubili-
zation of amylose that is complexed with 1-butanol. After total
starch gelatinization, the alcoholic reagent is added in the pro-
portion of 20% (v/v) and allowed to stand at room temperature
for 24e36 h to form the complex. The separation is performed
by centrifugation and the sample can be subjected to a further
amylose complexation step with 1-butanol to improve the
process efficiency (Schoch, 1942).

2.3.1.1 Amylose
The a-helix chain of amylose has the characteristic of complexing
with iodine, as the inner part of the helical conformation is
hydrophobic. The determination of the amylose content is
traditionally accomplished by the formation of amyloseeiodine
complexes, generating a blue color due to an electron relay of the
 Identification and Analysis of Starch 31

polyiodide ions (Jane, 2009). The main interference of this analysis

is the ability of amylopectin long chains to form complexes with
iodine, leading to a less intense blue staining, thus overestimating
the amylose content. The ability of lipids (especially free and
saturated fatty acids) to physically complex with the amylose
a helix may also occur, reducing the ability to complex with iodine
and leading to underestimation of the results. For this reason, the
amylose levels reported in the literature refer to the apparent
amylose. As an example, the native maize starch exhibited an
apparent amylose content of 26.38%, while the absolute amylose
was 19.94% for the same sample.
The interference of the amylopectin long chains was
observed in chestnut starch, with apparent amylose of 24.00%
and absolute amylose of 20.48%. The chestnut starch presented
11.12% amylopectin chains with a degree of polymerization
(DP) above 37 (whereas the highest chain detected presented a
DP of 76) and an average chain length of amylopectin of 19.60,
while maize starch presented only 7.45% amylopectin chains
with a DP > 37, with an average chain length of amylopectin
of 18.75 (Sehn et al., 2012; Schmiele et al., 2015). It is known
that a DP around 42 is a characteristic of the B2 chain, with
chain length belonging to two clusters.
The blue color formed by the amyloseeiodine complex is also
used for the determination of the blue value (absorbance of 1%
starch solution containing 2 mg iodine and 20 mg potassium
iodide at 680 nm). The greater the linear chain length and the
higher the amylose concentration, the more intense is the blue
color. The blue value of starch granules is considered a qualitative
test for amylose (Bertoft, 2004). Table 2.1 shows the blue values of
some starch granules.
The apparent amylose can also be measured by the iodine af-
finity, through potentiometric titration or with an automated
amperemeter. The technique is based on the affinity of the a helix
forming a blue complex with the iodine. On average, 20 mg
iodine complexes with 100 mg amylose; therefore the apparent
 32
Starches for Food Application
Table 2.1 Amylose content and corresponding blue value of various starches
Waxy Pueraria Sweet
Starch Rice1 rice1 Yam2 root3 Potato4 potato3 Corn4
Blue value 0.0594 0.004 0.530 0.399 0.310 0.447 0.400
Amylose 25.50 0.99 26.56 30.30 16.70 34.40 21.30
content (%)
1
Lii et al. (1995).
2
Ogunmolasuyi et al. (2017).
3
Liang et al. (2017).
4
Saibene et al. (2008).
 Identification and Analysis of Starch 33

amylose concentration is given by the multiplication of iodine

affinity by 5 (Takeda et al., 1987), since approximately 20 g of
iodine is bound per 100 g amylose (Song and Jane, 2000).
The determination of the apparent amylose may be affected by
the amylopectin long chains, resulting in a false positive; thus the
determination of absolute amylose can be performed as an
alternative. For that, the starch is suspended in DMSO, followed
by precipitation of amylopectin with lectin concanavalin A
(a glycoprotein capable of complexing with some carbohydrates).
After centrifugation, the amylose is hydrolyzed to glucose by the
amylolytic enzymes, and the monosaccharide is quantified using
the glucose oxidase/peroxidase reagent (GOPOD). Concanavalin
A should be used with caution because of its toxicity.
The absolute amylose can also be determined by fractionation
of the amylose and amylopectin and subsequent evaluation of
the iodine affinity of these fractions and the parent starch.
The final calculation is made by the following formula:
(Istarch  Iamylopectin)/(Iamylose  Iamylopectin)  100 (Song and
Jane, 2000), where "I" means the iodine affinity.
The most accurate techniques used for amylose quanti-
fication are based on high-performance size-exclusion chro-
matography (HPSEC), coupled to simultaneous refractive
index and low-angle laser light scattering detection, or gel-
permeation chromatography (GPC). However, in all these
procedures, the amylopectin fraction remaining in the sample
may be an interference factor. Thus, an alternative is the use of
debranched enzymes, which will promote the hydrolysis of
a-1,6 glycosidic bonds, releasing amylopectin short chains, and
consequently improve the separation of longer amylose
fractions.

2.3.1.2 Amylopectin
The quantification of amylopectin can be performed after the
amylose separation by enzymatic hydrolysis to release glucose,
followed by GOPOD quantification. However, this information
34 Starches for Food Application

does not provide the amylopectin chain length, which is critical

to the study of this fraction.
In this regard, the most suitable method for determining
amylopectin refers to the quantification of the number of chains
of this macromolecule. For that, after amylose separation, the
sample is subjected to total gelatinization and hydrolysis of the
glycosidic bonds using the enzyme isoamylase. Then, the linear
chains are quantified by high-performance anion-exchange
chromatography with pulse amperometric detection (Wong
and Jane, 1995; Moraes et al., 2013; Schmiele et al., 2015).
Linear chains can also be identified by GPC or HPSEC and
classified as A (DP 6e12), B1 (DP 13e24), B2 (DP 25e36), B3
(DP  37), and C (DP  100) chains (Hanashiro et al., 1996).
NMR spectroscopy may be an alternative technique to study
the amylopectin conformation, through the variations in 1H
and 13C NMR (Nilsson et al., 1996; Zhang and Xu, 2017). It is
a nondestructive technique; thus, it does not generate effluents
and does not require enzymatic treatment.

2.3.2 Intermediate and Phytoglycogen Material

In addition to amylose and amylopectin, starch granules also
contain intermediate materials called glucans. These materials
are more easily found in starch granules with high amylose
content, mainly from potato, barley, and corn, and some types
of peas, including those with a wrinkled appearance, in addition
to oat, normal corn, wheat, and rye. However, the intermediate
materials are not yet fully known and vary according to the
starch source. In addition, they are heterogeneous and have
structures similar to those of amylose, due to the iodine affinity
(Bertoft, 2004), and amylopectin, due to the high average
internal and external chain length (Han et al., 2017). Thus, the
intermediate materials can be defined as a polymeric material
formed by glycosidic linkages between glucose monomers, with
a branched structure similar to amylopectin and amylose chain
length (Li et al., 2008).
 Identification and Analysis of Starch 35

These intermediate materials probably originate from

immature clusters formed by the enzyme granule-bound starch
synthase, which is responsible for the formation of amylose
(Hanashiro et al., 2008), in synergy with the starch synthases and
starch branching enzymes and debranching enzymes (Wang
et al., 2017), resulting in the cleavage of the amylose chain and
the transfer of chains to an amylopectin molecule. However, this
phenomenon has not yet been confirmed experimentally
(Vilaplana et al., 2014).
The quantification of intermediate materials of cereal starch
was performed through the dispersion/solubilization of starch in
DMSO and subsequent separation of amylose and amylopectin.
This fractionation was obtained by the complexation phenom-
ena between amylose and the intermediate materials and thymol
(a phenolic compound belonging to the terpene group), with
precipitation and separation of amylopectin. Then, amylose was
reprecipitated in butanol, with the intermediate material
consisting of anomalous amylose and/or long-chain amylopectin
remaining soluble (Banks and Greenwood, 1967).
Similarly, the primary precipitation of amylose with
1-butanol was also carried out, followed by precipitation of the
intermediate materials with iodine from the amylopectin
fraction, showing that the higher the amylose content, the
higher the intermediate material concentration (Adkins and
Greenwood, 1969). To improve the separation of the
components, Wang et al. (1993) used GPC on Sepharose
CL-2B, and identified smaller branched components, rather
than amylopectin, at different concentrations depending on the
starch source.
A blend containing 6% 1-propanol and 6% isoamyl alcohol
can also be used to separate the amylose and amylopectin from
the intermediate material. These methods confirm that
although the intermediate materials have characteristics similar
to those of amylopectin, they are capable of precipitating with
1-butanol, like amylose. In addition, the regular branched
36 Starches for Food Application

structure of the intermediate materials may exhibit partial in-

hibition of enzymatic hydrolysis, thereby reducing the starch
digestion rate (Bertoft et al., 2000), for this characteristics the
starch digestion can be classified as rapidly digestible starch,
slowly digestible starch and resistant starch based on enzymic
digestion in vitro(topics that will be covered in more detail in
Chapter 8).
A water-soluble polysaccharide can also be found in the
starch fraction, especially in the sugarye1 mutants of maize and
rice endosperm. This component is called phytoglycogen and
presents glucose as a monomer and a DP of w10, with internal
branches with DP between 7.0 and 8.0 and extremely short
external branches with DP w3.0 (Jane, 2009).

2.4 MORPHOLOGICAL AND STRUCTURAL

CHARACTERIZATION
2.4.1 Polarized Light Microscopy
Optical microscopy allows the evaluation of starch characteris-
tics in relation to the shape, size, and distribution of the granule
from different plant sources (Van de Velde et al., 2002). When a
polarized lens is used, the Maltese cross can be seen under the
polarized light when starch has not undergone gelatinization. As
soon as the starch undergoes heating in the presence of water,
birefringence end-point temperature (BEPT) loss is observed.
This is a simple test with good sensitivity.
The loss of birefringence occurs over a wide temperature range
(10e15 C). However, there is a good relationship between
BEPT and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis for
starch granules from different plant sources (Biliaderis, 2009).

2.4.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy

Surface images are extremely important for studying starch gran-
ules. The first techniques involved scanning probe microscopy,
 Identification and Analysis of Starch 37

AFM, and scanning tunneling microscopy. The image resolution

was improved with the advent of SEM. Starch is a nonconduc-
tive material, which is a limiting factor; thus the use of metals
(gold or platinum) in coating the surface of biological material
minimizes this limitation. The technique is performed within a
vacuum chamber, which may partially modify the surface of the
starch granules, which can be prevented by using moderate
vacuum. This new method is called environmental SEM and is
widely used both for the study of plant genetic development
(Stabentheiner et al., 2010) and for high-moisture samples
(Roman-Gutierrez et al., 2002).
The SEM technique presents the best image resolutions of
dehydrated samples. When water removal is not possible or the
matrix can be altered by drying, the temporary immobilization
of the aqueous phase (freezing) is important to allow cryo-SEM
imaging. In this technique, although the image resolution is
lower, it is an alternative when studying the swelling power,
water absorption, amylose leaching, retrogradation phenomenon
(Matignon and Tecante, 2017), and stability of emulsions or
nanoemulsions using modified starch as emulsifiers (Zhang et al.,
2016; Chiu et al., 2017).
High-quality images can be obtained by low-voltage SEM,
as the onset of low-voltage electrical current promotes lower
heating rates (Pérez et al., 2009; Huang et al., 2017).
SEM also allows the study of the surface characteristics
(smooth or porous), particle size, and format (polyhedral, oval,
flattened, hexagonal) and whether the starch is unimodal,
bimodal, or trimodal.

2.4.3 Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy

Confocal microscopy allows the evaluation of the two-
dimensional (2D) or three-dimensional (3D) topography of
starch through high-resolution images using chromophore
compounds with fluorescence properties, allowing a detail
38 Starches for Food Application

evaluation of surface area and depth. In addition, it is possible to

identify how amylose is uniformly distributed in the starch
granule ( Jane, 2009).
The presence of other components is also possible through
the use of chromophores, also known as dyes or markers, which
form complexes with specific components of the material to be
evaluated, with proteins (3-(4-carboxybenzoyl)quinoline-
2-carboxaldehyde or fluorescein isothiocyanate), lipids (Nile
red, 5-hexadecanoylaminofluorescein, fluorescein octadecyl
ester), and carbohydrates (rhodamine B) (Han and Hamaker,
2002; Achayuthakan et al., 2012). A wide range of dyes have
also been used with promising results.
This technique has been widely used to evaluate the interaction
between starch granules and various components, including hy-
drocolloids such as xanthan gum (Gonera and Cornillon, 2002),
gum acacia, and dextran (Achayuthakan et al., 2012); proteins such
as gelatin, whey protein, and soy protein isolates; and lipids
(Davanço et al., 2007; Matignon et al., 2014).

2.4.4 Atomic Force Microscopy

AFM has been used to observe the nanoscale of the structure of
starch granules from different plant sources. Baldwin et al. (1996),
Baldwin et al. (1997), Baker et al. (2001), and Ridout et al. (2002)
observed a blocklet structure, which has been studied by Gallant
et al. (1997). AFM allows the observation that the size of the
blocklet structure can vary according to the starch granule. For
example, the surface of native wheat starch had small protrusions of
10e50 nm, while potato starch exhibited larger spherical
protrusions of 200e500 nm (Baldwin et al., 1996, 1997).
According to Ridout et al. (2002), the AFM images of the
growth rings and the blocklet structures of native potato and
maize starch, unstained starch, and unmodified starch were
affected by the embedding resin used. They authors also found
similar results and reported that the fixation techniques can lead
to possible unintended reactions with the embedding resin such
 Identification and Analysis of Starch 39

as epoxy resins or adhesives. Other authors reported modifi-

cations in obtaining the images, as follows:
• Szymonska and Krok (2003) performed AFM studies on
starch granules by high-resolution noncontact AFM, which
did not affect the sample surface, and observed the blocklet
model of potato starch granules subjected to multiple
freezing and thawing. They observed surface subparticles
that might correspond to single amylopectin side-chain
clusters bundled into larger blocklets packed in the lamellae
within the starch granule.
• Park et al. (2011) developed a novel AFM protocol, using starch
subjected to iodine vapor under humid conditions. They found
vertical fiberlike structures, which were extensions of the
glucan polymers from either amylose or amylopectin that
were free to complex with iodine in the presence of moisture.
In addition, they reported that the morphology and location of
the hairlike extensions were different in corn and potato
starches, likely reflecting the organization of polymers within
the granule.
The advancement of AFM images can provide new findings,
such as chemical, enzymatic, and physical modifications in the
native granule and interactions between starch granules and
other compounds, including the studies of:
• Dimantov et al. (2004), who studied films obtained with a
blend of pectin and high amylose maize starch by AFM,
and found increased roughness with the increase in starch
concentration in the films;
• Simão et al. (2008), who found growth rings in starch
granules during the ripening of mango.

2.4.5 Differential Scanning Calorimetry

DSC is a technique that evaluates the changes in starch granules
in relation to the molecular mobility and the ordering/dis-
ordering processes during heating and cooling. It is widely used
to evaluate several factors, including temperature, heating,
40 Starches for Food Application

degree of gelatinization, glass transition, structural organization of

starch, and melting and crystallization of starch components
(important for the retrogradation measurement), among others,
such as resistant starch type II (naturally present) and resistant
starch type V (amyloseelipid complex) (Pérez et al., 2009).
In general, the determination is made by measuring the
temperature difference between the sample placed in a her-
metically sealed container and an empty container referred to as
a reference. The lower the variation between the beginning
and the end temperatures of the thermal event, the greater the
organization of the starch structure. Then, the parameters
gelatinization temperature (Ton ¼ onset temperature), final
gelatinization temperature (Tend), temperature variation
(between Tend and Ton), and gelatinization enthalpy (area under
the curve; J g1) are obtained, as you can see in Fig. 2.1.
The glass transition is one of the most important parameters
for the study of the properties of amorphous or partially crys-
talline polymers, changes in the mechanical properties, the
behavior of the material during the processing, and the stability.

2.4.6 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

NMR is a qualitative and quantitative method, which shows
the shape and structure of the molecules, and its most important
application is in the study of hydrogen atoms in organic

Figure 2.1 Differential scanning calorimetry curve for maize starch.

 Identification and Analysis of Starch 41

molecules. The hydrogen atom is perhaps the easiest to

understand from the point of view of its physical properties
(Robinson, 1995). For starch analysis, the following isotopes are
used: 1H, most used and distinguishing H from a-1,4 and a-1,6
glycosidic bonds; 13C, distinguishing C associated with the
nonreducing endings; and 31P, indicating the phosphodiester
crosslinks in naturally occurring or chemically modified
starches.
NMR has been used to evaluate the formation and locali-
zation of new functional groups in modified starches, for
example, the carboxyl groups found in oxidation processes.
Teleman et al. (1999) showed that the hypochlorite oxidation
of potato starch occurred at positions C-2 and C-3 of a glucose
unit, and the introduced carboxyl groups caused ring cleavage
between carbons C-2 and C-3.
The authors studied anion-exchange chromatography after
enzymatic hydrolysis to isolate the pentamer and hexamer
containing one glucose unit, which was oxidized to a dicar-
boxyl residue, and further evaluated through 1H and 13C NMR
spectroscopy.
NMR has been used along with other techniques to evaluate
physical, chemical, and enzymatic modifications; type of
starch; behavior during cooking; and retrogradation, among
others.

2.4.7 X-ray Diffraction

X-ray diffraction has been used to determine the crystalline
structure and extent of starch granules, aimed at knowing their
plant origin. Starch granules are analyzed in the native form,
and the crystalline pattern may change or even disappear in
cases of modification reactions.
The degree of crystallinity of the native starch ranges from
15% to 45% (Cheetham and Tao, 1998) and it is directly related
to the amylopectin content and chain length, and inversely
proportional to the amylose content (Hoover, 2001).
42 Starches for Food Application

The X-ray diffraction patterns of starch granules are classi-

fied according to the packing of the double amylopectin
helices and present basically four types: A, B, C, and V. The
A-type structure is associated with cereal starches (maize, rice,
wheat, and oat), while the B type is associated with root and
tuber starches (potato, cassava), except for starch with high
amylose and amylopectin contents, and modified starches
(Cheetham and Tao, 1998; Eliasson, 2006). The C-type
structure is formed by the mixture of A and B types, repre-
senting legume starches (beans, peas) and some mutant
starches, with A type around the pericarp and A type in the
center of the bead (Buleon and Colonna, 2007). The C type
can also be subclassified into Ca, Cb, and Cc, according to its
similarity with A type and B type. The V type is associated
with lipid-containing gelatinized starches (Eliasson, 2006) or
emulsifiers, butanol, and iodine (Cheetham and Tao, 1998).
It is still possible to find the E-type structure in extruded
starch under different humidity and temperature conditions
(Vandeputte et al., 2003).
These crystallinity patterns can also vary according to the
size of the amylopectin chain; shorter chains (CL  19.7) favor
the formation of A-type crystals, longer chains (CL  21.6)
favor the B-type structure, while the association between the
intermediate chains leads to the formation of C-type crystals
(Hizukuri et al., 1983).
This behavior was also observed by Cheetham and Tao
(1998), who studied maize starch with different amylose and
amylopectin levels and found an increase in crystallinity with
increasing amylopectin content (Eliasson, 2006).
Diffraction methods and calculation of the crystalline region
have been reported by Srichuwong et al. (2005), Tester et al.
(2004), Nara and Komiya (1983), Rocha et al. (2008), and
Hayakawa et al. (1997).
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verlangen, sondern die Bezahlung ihrem eigenen Willen
anheimzustellen; sie begnügten sich aber mit dem blossen Danke.
Nun band er seine fette Katze in der Werkstatt an, und wenn ihn die
Kunden mit leeren Worten des Dankes verliessen, sagte er: "Katz,
das geb ich dir!" Die Katze verhungert, und der Schmied beschliesst,
es zu machen wie die anderen Handwerker.[17] S e u m e glaubte, die
Schnurre rühre von Ta u b m a n n her; denn er schreibt in seinem
Buche "Mein Leben", ziemlich gegen Ende: "so dass ich— — —weiter
nichts erntete, als ein freundliches 'Wir bleiben Euch in Gnaden
gewogen', wovon doch am Ende selbst Taubmanns Katze ihr Bischen
Geist aufgab".
[17] S. B a l t h a s a r S c h u p p i u s "Freund in der Not" (1657) S. 229, "der
Kurtzweilige Zeitvertreiber" von 1666, S. 41 und A b r a h a m a St. C l a r a "Huy
und Pfuy der Welt".
In den "Deutschen Rechtssprichwörtern" von Graf und Dietherr, 2. Ausg.,
Nördlingen 1869, S. 267 steht "vom Danke kann man keine Katze füttern" und in
der Anmerkung a: "von'n danke kan man keine katten futtern". Es ist also ebenso
möglich, dass W a l d i s seine Erzählung daraus herspann, wie, dass diese Worte
aus ihr entsprangen.—

Lehrstand, Nährstand, Wehrstand

wird bei Erasmus Alberus (1500-53) zum ersten Male angedeutet.
In seiner "Predigt vom Ehestand" aus dem Jahre 1546 (auf der
Königl. Bibliothek in Berlin) heisst es Bogen 6: "Der Priester muss
lehren, die Oberkeit wehren, die Bauerschaft nähren" und in seinem
"Buch von der Tugend und Weisheit, nämlich 49 Fabeln" (Frankfurt
a. M. 1550, Fabel 47, Morale):
"Fein ordentlich hat Gott die Welt
Mit dreien Ständen wohl bestellt.
Wenn die sich nur wüssten zu halten,
So liess Gott immerdar hin walten.
Ein Stand muss l e h r n, der andre n ä h r n,
Der dritt' muss bösen Buben w e h r n".
In Luthers "Tischreden", 1560, (B. 59, S. 207) heisst es:
"Amt eines treuen Seelsorgers".
 "N ä h r e n und w e h r e n muss in einem frommen, treuen Hirten und Pfarrherrn
beisammen sein . . . sonst wenn das W e h r e n nicht da ist, so frisst der Wolf die
Schafe desto lieber, da sie wohl gefüttert und feist sind. . . . Ein Prediger muss ein
Kriegsmann und ein Hirte sein. N ä h r e n i s t l e h r e n, und das ist die schwerste
Kunst; darnach soll er auch Zähne im Maule haben und w e h r e n oder streiten
können". In den "Tischreden" (ed. Förstemann, Abt. 3, S. 415) steht Kap. XXXVII,
§ 118: "Einem Lehrer gebührt, dass er gewiss lehre, nähre und wehre" und bei
Bindseil "Colloquia latina", V. p. 280: "Id eo ad Doctorem pertinet nehren und
wehren docere et confutare". "Nähramt, Wehramt" kommt bei Luther am Schluss
der Schrift "Ob Kriegsleute u. s. w." vor, und "Vom Nähr- und Lehrstande" u. s. w.
ist die Überschrift zu Sirach 39. Im W e n c e l S c h e r f f e r ("Geist- und Weltliche
Gedichte", Brieg 1652, S. 74) werden die drei Beine einer von den Herzögen zu
Liegnitz und Brieg erlegten dreibeinigen Bache auf die drei Stände: "den Regier-,
Lehr- und Nährstand" gedeutet und "Wehr-Lehr-Nähr-Her-Stand" betitelt Friedrich
von L o g a u einen seiner Verse (Salomons von Golau Deutscher Sinn-Getichte
drey Tausend. Breslau. In Verlegung Caspar Klossmanns. 1654 ersch. jedoch ohne
Jahresangabe. 2. Tausend 8. Hundert No. 21). Die drei Substantiva "Wehrstand,
Lehrstand, Nährstand" findet man in der Überschrift, welche W e i d n e r dem 3., 4.
und 5. Teile von Z i n c g r e f s "Apophthegmata" (1653-55) giebt. Z e l l e r erläutert
("Geschichte der Philosophie", II, 1, 764) die drei Stände in Platos "Staat" durch
diese deutschen Bezeichnungen.—
In der Schrift des E r a s m u s A l b e r u s "Ein Dialogus oder
Gespräch etlicher Personen vom Interim" (1548; Blatt Diiij) heisst es:
(Gehe hin, und) thu, das du nicht lassen kannst.
L e s s i n g wiederholt es in "Emilia Galotti" (1772), 2, 3; v. H i p p e l in den
"Lebensläufen nach aufsteigender Linie", I, 5 (1778) sagt: "Er thue, was er nicht
lassen kann"; in W i e l a n d s "Pervonte" (1778) heisst es von Vastola, als diese
den Pervonte küssen muss (2. Teil); sie "that was sie nicht lassen konnte";
S c h i l l e r in "Wilhelm Tell", 1, 1 lässt Tell sagen: "ich hab' gethan, was ich nicht
lassen konnte".—

Atlas
für "Landkartensammlung" führte Gerhard Mercator (Kremer;
1512-94) durch sein Werk ein "Atlas sive geographicae meditationes
de fabrica mundi et fabricati figura", (Atlas oder geographische
Betrachtungen über die Erschaffung der Welt und über die Gestalt
der erschaffenen Welt) Duisburg 1595.—

Der Pastor in Frankfurt a. O. Andreas Musculus (Mensel; 1514-

81) gab 1556 die Schrift heraus "Vom zuluderten zucht und
ehrerwegnen pluderichten Hosen Teuffel vermanung und warnung",
auf deren neuer Auflage v. J. 1629[18] der Hosenteufel bezeichnet
wird als "Dess jetzigen Weltbeschreyten verachten und verlachten
Al-modo Kleyder Teuffels Alt-Vatter". Dies sehen wir als die Quelle
des üblichen Wortes
Modeteufel
an (mit Julius L e s s i n g: "Der Modeteufel" S. 5; Berl. 1884.
"Volkswirtschaftl. Zeitfr." Heft 45).—
[18]Dieser nach des M u s c u l u s Tode erschienene Nachdruck fehlt in der Kgl.
Bibliothek zu Berlin, ist aber vorhanden in der reichhaltigen Costume-Bibliothek
des Freiherrn von Lipperheide in Berlin.

In Johann Fischarts (1547-89) "Gargantua" (S. 160) lesen wir:

"Duck dich Seel, es kommt ein Platzregen," was vielleicht die Quelle
des bekannten Wortes ist:
"Freue dich, liebe Seele, jetzt kommt ein Platzregen",
wie unter einer in den vierziger Jahren des 19. Jahrh. zu Berlin
erschienenen kolorierten Zeichnung steht, die einen dicken
schweisstriefenden Herrn darstellt, der, an einem Tisch sitzend, die
Hand nach einem vollen Glase Berliner Weissbier ausstreckt.—
F i s c h a r t verdanken wir auch den tief ins Volk gedrungenen Witz
Jesu-wider
(für "Jesuit", "Jesuiter"); denn er reimt in seinem "Jesuitenhütlein"
(1580, Kap. 4):
"Aber weil der Nam Wider Christ
Noch etlichen zuwider ist,
Welche doch noch zu gewinnen weren:
So that den Namen ich verkehren
Und setzt das förderst rechts darhinder,
Auff dass mans finden könt dest minder,
 Macht Christ Wider und Jesu Wider
Für Wider Christ, den sonst kennt jeder".—

Johannes Olorinus Variscus (Johann Sommer; 1559-1622) erzählt

in "Ethographia Mundi", (1609, 1. T., 17. Regel) unter andern
Lügengeschichten, dass jemand, ans Ende der Welt gekommen, dort
Die Welt mit Brettern vernagelt
oder, wie er sagt, "verschlagen" gefunden habe.—

Gas
ist ein von van Helmont (1577-1644) in Brüssel erfundenes Wort.
In seinen "Opera omnia", (ed. M. B. Valentini, 1707) heisst es S.
102, Sp. 12 § 14 nach Erwähnung des von ihm entdeckten Gases:
"Hunc spiritum, incognitum hactenus, novo nomine g a s voco"
(Diese bislang unbekannte Art Luft benenne ich mit dem neuen
Namen "Gas").—

Friedrich von Logau (1604-55) sang in seinen Sinngedichten

(Salomons von Golau deutscher Sinn-Getichte drey Tausend.
Breslau. In Verlegung Caspar Klossmanns ersch. 1654 jedoch ohne
Jahresangabe. 1. Tausend, 8. Hundert, No. 2) nach vollendetem
dreissigjährigen Kriege:
"Gewaffneter Friede".
"Krieg hat den Harnisch weg gelegt, der Friede zeucht ihn an,
Wir wissen was der Krieg verübt, wer weiss was Friede
kann?"
und (3. Tausend, 5. Hundert, No. 78):
"Der geharnischte Friede".
"Der Friede geht im Harnisch her, wie ist es so bestellt?
 Es steht dahin; er ist vielleicht die Pallas unsrer Welt".
Danach sagen wir:
ein bewaffneter Friede.—
Eben daher citieren wir (2. Tausend, 4. Hundert, No. 34):
"Der Mai".
"Dieser Monat ist ein Kuss, den der Himmel giebt der
Erde,
Dass sie jetzund seine Braut, künftig eine Mutter
werde".—
L o g a u s Sinngedichte ("Die Liebe". 2. Tausend, 4. Hundert, No.
14):
"Nenne mir den weiten Mantel, drunter alles sich verstecket;
Liebe thuts, die alle Mängel gerne hüllt und fleissig decket",
und (2. Taus., 9. Hundert) "Christliche Liebe":
"Liebe kaufte neulich Tuch, ihren Mantel zu erstrecken,
Weil sie, was durch dreissig Jahre Krieg verübt, soll alles
decken",
sind wohl unsere Quellen, wenn wir sagen, dass wir etwas
Mit dem Mantel der Liebe zudecken.
In Friedrich Wilhelm G o t t e r s "Gedichten" (I, S. 91; Gotha 1787)
heisst es in der Romanze "Die Trauer" (1774):
"Elise, die gern Thränen stillt,
Verirrte gerne leitet,
Und über kleine Schwächen mild
Der Liebe Mantel breitet".
Es sei hierbei erinnert an "Sprüche Salomonis" 10, 12: "Liebe decket zu alle
Übertretungen", an 1. Petri 4, 8: "Die Liebe decket auch der Sünden Menge" und
an das (nach dem "Corpus iuris canonici", Dist. 96, c. 8) dem Kaiser Konstantin
 zugeschriebene Wort: "er würde, wenn er mit eigenen Augen einen Priester oder
Einen im Mönchsgewande sündigen sähe, seinen Mantel ausziehen und ihn so
damit bedecken, dass Niemand ihn gewahre" ("chlamydem meam expoliarem et
cooperirem eum, ne ab aliquo videretur").—

Aus P a u l Gerhardts (1606-76) Kirchenliede "Nun ruhen alle

Wälder" ("Geistliche Lieder und Psalmen", Berlin 1653) stammt die
Frage:
Wo bist du, Sonne (ge)blieben?—
Auch citiert man die erste Zeile seines 1649 gedichteten Liedes vom
Folgenden abgelöst, also:
Wach auf, mein Herz, und singe!—

Ein Weihnachtslied von Johann Rist (1607-67) beginnt:

Ermunt're dich, mein schwacher Geist.—

Nürnberger Trichter
beruht auf dem Titel eines Buches von Harsdörffer (1607-58):
"Poetischer T r i c h t e r, die Teutsche Dicht- und Reimkunst, ohne
Behuf der lateinischen Sprache, in VI Stunden einzugiessen", das
1648 ohne Namen in N ü r n b e r g erschien.
Das Bild vom Trichter ist nicht seine Erfindung, da er sich in der
Vorrede auf "H. S c h i c k a r d s Hebreischen Trichter" (Tüb. 1627)
bezieht, und ein solcher Trichter schon in der lateinischen Komödie
"Almansor, sive ludus literarius" des Mart. H a y n e c c i u s (Lpz.
1578) 5, 5, genannt wird. Vrgl. Z i n c g r e f - W e i d n e r
("Apophthegmata", T. 3, Amst. 1653, S. 227): "Der Drechter
Almansoris, mit welchem man den Leuten ingegossen, ist lang
verlohren". "Mit einem Trichter eingiessen" steht bereits bei Sebast.
F r a n c k ("Sprichw." 1541, II, 107 b). "Eintrichtern" sagen wir jetzt.
Franz T r a u t m a n n gab 1849-50 in Nürnberg ein humoristisches
Blatt "der Nürnberger Trichter" heraus.—
 Philipp von Zesen (1619-89), wendete
lustwandeln
in "Der Adriatischen Rosemund" (1645) zum ersten Male für
"spazieren gehen" an. Mit seinen anderen, S. 366 daselbst
zusammengestellten Verdeutschungen drang er nicht durch; aber
"lustwandeln" erhielt sich, weil es den Spott ganz besonders
hervorrief. Christian W e i s e macht sich in dem satirischen Romane
(1672) "Die drei ärgsten Erznarren in der ganzen Welt", Kap. 11
darüber lustig, sowie G r i m m e l s h a u s e n in "Des weltberühmten
Simplicissimi Pralerey und Gepräng mit seinem Teutschen Michel
u. s. w." (o. O. u. J. Kap. 5 g. E.). Im obengenannten Verzeichnisse
bildete Zesen das Wort
Gottestisch (für Altar)
wohl mit Anlehnung an 1. Kor. 10, 21 "Teilhaftig sein des Herrn
Tisches".—

Samuel Rodigast (1649-1708) dichtete das evangelische

Gesangbuchlied:
Was Gott thut, das ist wohlgethan.—

Wenn in unfeinen Kreisen die Geliebte eines Menschen als seine

Charmante
(noch gemeiner: Schockscharmante) bezeichnet wird, so ist dieser
Ausdruck dem Französischen nicht unmittelbar entnommen, da "sa
charmante" einem Franzosen in diesem Sinne unverständlich ist.
"Charmante" ist vielmehr eine der Geliebten des Helden in Christian
Reuters (geb. 1665) die entarteten Simpliciaden geisselnden
Romane "Schelmuffskys Wahrhafftige, Curiöse und sehr gefährliche
Reisebeschreibung zu Wasser und zu Lande, in hochteutscher Frau
Muttersprache eigenhändig und sehr artig an den Tag gegeben von
E. S". (Hamburg 1696.)[19]—
 [19] S. die Anmerkung unter "Ente".

Das Ende der 2. Strophe im Liede Erdmann Neumeisters (1671-

1756): "Herr Jesu Christ, mein Fleisch und Blut" lautet:
Herr Jesu Christ! wo du nicht bist,
Ist Nichts, das mir erfreulich ist;
was geschmacklos umgestaltet wurde in:
Wo du nicht bist, Herr Organist,
Da schweigen alle Flöten.—

Als Bezeichnung Berlins findet sich

Spree-Athen
wohl zuerst in dem Gedichte des Erdmann Wircker zu Friedrichs I.
Lobe "An seiner königl. Majestät zu Preussen im Nahmen eines
andern", worin es heisst:
"Die Fürsten wollen selbst in deine Schule gehn,
Drumb hastu auch für Sie ein Spree-Athen gebauet".
(In dem Buche "Märkische neun Musen, welche sich unter dem
allergrossmächtigsten Schutz Sr. koenigl. Majestät in Preussen als Ihres
allergnädigsten Erhalters und ändern Jupiters bey glücklichen Anfang Ihres Jubel-
Jahres auff dem Franckfurtischen Helicon frohlockend aufgestellt" Erste Assemblée
verlegts Johann Völcker 1706. S. 59.)—

Bramarbas
für "Prahlhans" ist dem satirischen Gedichte eines nicht bekannten
Verfassers "Cartell des Bramarbas an Don Quixote" entnommen, das
Philander v o n d e r L i n d e (Burchard Menke 1675-1732) in der zu
seinen "Vermischten Gedichten", (Leipz. 1710) den Anhang
bildenden "Unterredung von der deutschen Poesie" mitteilt. Hiernach
gab G o t t s c h e d ("Deutsche Schaubühne", Leipz. 1741, III) dem
Lustspiele H o l b e r g s "Jacob von Tyboe eller den stortalende
Soldat" (oder der grosssprecherische Soldat), das er in der
Übersetzung D e t h a r d i n g s veröffentlichte, den Titel "Bramarbas
oder der grosssprecherische Officier", weil, wie er sich in der Vorrede
äussert, der Name Tyboe "in unserer Sprache keine Anmut gehabt
haben würde"; er setzt hinzu, dass er diesen Namen dem Philander
von der Linde entlehnt habe.—

Ein sorglos bei seinem Tagewerk Singender und überhaupt ein laut
Vergnügter wird gern
Johann, der muntre Seifensieder
genannt nach der Anfangs- und Schlusszeile des Friedrich von
Hagedornschen (1708-54) Gedichtes "Johann der Seifensieder"
("Versuch in poetischen Fabeln und Erzehlungen" 1. Buch, Hamb.
1738). Auch spricht man kurzweg von einem
muntren Seifensieder,
wie denn schon G l e i m ("An die Freude". S. Voss: "Musenalm." f.
1798; S. 88) dichtet:
"Alle muntren Seifensieder
Sind verschwunden aus der Welt!
Hagedorns und meine Lieder
Singt kein Trinker und kein Held!"
H a g e d o r n schöpfte den Stoff aus L a F o n t a i n e s ("Fables" VIII, 2) "Le
savetier et le financier", nur machte er aus dem "Schuhflicker" einen
"Seifensieder", indem er wohl "savetier" von "savon" ableitete. Die Moral der
Geschichte stammt aus Horaz (Epist. 1, 7, 95): "vitae me redde priori"; "gieb mich
meiner alten Lebensart zurück!"—

von Haller (1708-77) sagt in dem Gedichte "Falschheit

menschlicher Tugenden" im "Versuche schweizerischer Gedichte"
(1732 in Bern zuerst anonym erschienen):
"Ins Innre der Natur dringt kein erschaffner Geist;
 Zu glücklich, wann sie noch die äussre Schale weist".
Dieser Behauptung widerspricht G o e t h e heftig in den Gedichten
"Allerdings" (1820, 3. Heft der Morphologie) und "Ultimatum" (zuerst
in der Ausg. von 1827). Aus dem Ersteren citieren wir H a l l e r s
Wort also:
In's Innre der Natur
Dringt kein erschaffner Geist,
Glückselig! wem sie nur
Die äussre Schale weis't!—
In demselben Buche Hallers (S. 47) steht zu lesen:
"Unselig Mittelding von Engeln und von Vieh!
Du prahlst mit der Vernunft und du gebrauchst sie nie".
B r o c k e s trat in seinem "Irdischen Vergnügen in Gott" (1748; 133.
9, S. 344) diesen Gedanken breit, dem der Altonaer Goldschmied
Joachim Lorenz E v e r s die knappe Form gab:
Was ist der Mensch? Halb Tier, halb Engel.
So nämlich beginnt seine Nr. 369 der 1797 erschienenen
"Vierhundert Lieder", die "der geselligen und einsamen Fröhlichkeit
gewidmet" sind.
Bemerkt sei hier, dass H a l l e r s Verse wohl G o e t h e ("Faust", "Prolog im
Himmel", 43-44) zu den Worten des Mephistopheles über den Menschen anregten:

"Er nennt's Vernunft und braucht's allein,

Nur tierischer als jedes Tier zu sein".—

Sternwarte
ist ein von Popowitsch ("Untersuchungen vom Meere", Frankf. u.
Leipz. 1750, S. 89) geschaffener Ausdruck. Nicht H a l l e r bildete das
Wort, wie J a h n ("Deutsches Volkstum", VIII, 1, 6) angiebt.—
 Baumgarten (1714-62) hielt 1742 zu Frankfurt a. O. über die
Wissenschaft der sinnlichen Erkenntnis Vorlesungen, welche er unter
dem Namen "Aesthetica", Frankfurt a. O. 1750-58, herausgab.
Daraus entstand
Aesthetik.—

Gellerts (1715-69) Fabel "Der Tanzbär" (B. 1 der "Fabeln u.

Erzählungen", Lpz. 1746) liefert uns das Begrüssungswort für einen
Heimkehrenden:
Petz ist wieder da!
womit die Bären des Waldes sich freudig anbrummen, als der
Tanzbär zu ihnen zurückgekommen ist.—
Aus G e l l e r t s Erzählung (B. 1): "Die Widersprecherin" haben wir
uns zur Bezeichnung einer Widerspruch liebenden Frau das Wort:
Der Hecht, der war doch blau
zurecht gemacht, welches in dieser Form nicht darin vorkommt. Es
handelt sich in der Fabel darum, ob ein Hecht zu blau oder zu wenig
blau gesotten ist; dem Hausherrn ist er's zu wenig, der Hausfrau zu
sehr. Da Jener bei seiner Meinung beharrt, so fällt Ismene darob in
Ohnmacht, aus der sie Nichts zu erwecken vermag. Ihr Tod scheint
gewiss. Der tiefbetrübte Mann bricht in die Klage aus:
"Wer hiess mich dir doch widerstreben,
Ach der verdammte Fisch! Gott weiss, er war nicht blau!"
Den Augenblick bekam sie wieder Leben.
"Blau war er", rief sie aus, "willst Du Dich noch nicht
geben?"—
G e l l e r t s Erzählung "Der Greis" (B. 1) schliesst:
(Er ward geboren,)
Er lebte, nahm ein Weib und starb.
Hiermit ahmte Gellert des C h r. G r y p h i u s Epigramm nach
("Poetische Wälder". Anderer Teil. Bresl. u. Leipz. 1718, S. 439):
"Ein sechzigjähr'ger Mann ward unlängst beigesetzt;
Er kam auf diese Welt, ass, trank, schlief, starb zuletzt."—
Die Schlussworte aus G e l l e r t s Erzählung "Der sterbende Vater"
(1748; B. 2), worin der Vater dem ältesten Sohn ein
Juwelenkästchen, dem jüngeren nichts vermacht, heissen:
Für Görgen ist mir gar nicht bange,
Der kommt gewiss durch seine Dummheit fort.—
Aus G e l l e r t s Erzählung "Das junge Mädchen" (B. 2) wird citiert:
Vierzehn Jahr' und sieben Wochen,
womit dies heiratslustige Wesen eine irrige Angabe ihres Vaters
verbessert, als er ihre vierzehn Jahre als Einwand gegen einen
Eheschluss anführt. Es ist die Bearbeitung einer Anekdote im
"Kurtzweiligen Zeitvertreiber" von 1666, S. 351.—
Aus G e l l e r t s Erzählung "Der Bauer und sein Sohn" (B. 2) führen
wir an:
Die Brücke kommt. Fritz, Fritz! wie wird dir's gehen?
was auch umgestaltet wird zu:
Fritz, Fritz! Die Brücke kommt!—
Weit verbreitet ist eine geschmacklose Travestie des Beginns von
G e l l e r t s "Morgengesang" ("Geistliche Oden und Lieder" 1757):
"Mein erst Gefühl sei Preis und Dank!"—
Aus G e l l e r t s Liede "Zufriedenheit mit seinem Zustande" (a. a. O.)
sind die Verse:
Geniesse, was dir Gott beschieden,
Entbehre gern, was du nicht hast.
Ein jeder Stand hat seinen Frieden,
 Ein jeder Stand auch seine Last.
In dem folgenden Liede "Vom Tode" beginnt die zweite Strophe:
Lebe, wie du, wenn du stirbst,
Wünschen wirst, gelebt zu haben.
Vielleicht ist dieser Gedanke dem frommen Spruchdichter A n t o i n e
F a u r e (1551-1624) entlehnt, dessen Quatrain No. 48 (Ausg. v.
1612) lautet:
Puisque tu sais quel moyen il faut suivre
Pour vivre bien, pourquoi ne vis-tu pas
Pour bien mourir ainsi, qu'à ton trépas
Tu voudrais bien avoir su toujours vivre?
Faures Quatrains waren noch im 18. Jahrh. ein sehr verbreitetes
Spruchbuch. Doch mögen Faure und Gellert aus M a r c A u r e l
geschöpft haben, der (5, 29) lehrt: "Wie du beim Hinscheiden gelebt
zu haben wünschest, so kannst du jetzt schon leben" (Ὡς ἐξελθὼν
ζῆν διανοῇ, οὕτως ἐνταῦθα ζῆν ἔξεστιν). In des Christian
G e r m a n n aus Memmingen Stammbuch schrieb 1766 G e l l e r t zu
einem Todtenkopf die Worte:
"Fac ea, quae moriens facta fuisse velis".
(s. "Deutsche Stammbücher" der Brüder Keil. 1893 Nr. 1729).—

Lichtwer (1719-83) gab 1748 zu Leipzig "Vier Bücher

Aesopischer Fabeln" ohne Namen heraus. In der 22. Fabel des 1.
Buches "Die Katzen und der Hausherr" lautete, wie in der Ausgabe
von 1758, der 1. Vers der 2. Strophe:
Mensch und Tiere schliefen feste,
während in der zu Berlin und Stralsund 1762 mit Namen
erschienenen Ausgabe die Fabel umgeändert ist, mit den Worten
Tier' und Menschen schliefen feste,
beginnt und ferner die Worte
So ein Lied, das Stein erweichen,
Menschen rasend machen kann,
enthält, welche in den beiden früheren Auflagen gar nicht
vorkommen. Die Fabel schliesst:
Blinder Eifer schadet nur.—
Der Anfang von L i c h t w e r s Fabel (4, 24) "Die Kröte und die
Wassermaus":
"Von dem Ufer einer See
Krochen annoch Abends späte
Eine Wassermaus und Kröte
An den Bergen in die Höh"
begeisterte den Berliner Hofschauspieler R ü t h l i n g zu folgenden
Versen [20]:
"Eines Abends noch sehr späte
Gingen Wassermaus und Kröte
Einen steilen Berg hinan".
"Da sprach die Wassermaus zur Kröte:
Eines Abends es war schon späte
Gehen wir diesen Berg hinan".
"Da sprach zur Wassermaus die Kröte:
Eines Abends noch sehr späte
Gehen wir diesen Berg hinan!"
"Und so gingen Wassermaus und Kröte
Eines Abends noch sehr späte
Diesen steilen Berg hinan".
Hieraus hat sich das "geflügelte Wort" gebildet:
 Eines Abends spöte
Gingen Wassermaus und Kröte
Einen steilen Berg hinan . . . .
was dann verschieden fortgesetzt zu werden pflegt.—
[20] Zu finden in der Intendanturbibliothek des Berliner Kgl. Schauspielhauses
(Französischestr. 36) als Einlage im Souffleurbuch von "Richard's Wanderleben"
(Lustspiel in 4. Aufz. nach d. Englischen des John O. Keefe frei bearbeitet v. G.
Kettel), zuerst aufgeführt 1831.

Gleim (1719-1803) sagt in den "Fabeln", Berlin 1756 (anonym),

S. 9 am Schlusse der 4. Fabel: "Der Löwe, der Fuchs":
(Denn) was von mir ein Esel spricht,
Das acht' ich nicht.—
Im "Musenalmanach für das Jahr 1798", hrsg. von J. H. Voss, dichtet
G l e i m:
"Beim Lesen eines wizreichen Buchs".
"Wiz auf Wiz!
Bliz auf Bliz!
Schlag auf Schlag!
Ob's auch einschlagen mag?"
Hieraus entstammt unser:
Witz auf Witz! Schlag auf Schlag!
vrgl. R a u p a c h s "Schleichhändler" (1828)2, 9, wo der Bader Schelle sagt: "Und
so ging der Witz immer weiter, Schlag auf Schlag".—

Fr. K. von Moser (1723-98) schrieb an H a m a n n ein

"Treuherziges Schreiben eines Layen-Bruders im Reich an den
Magum im Norden
oder doch in Europa, 1762" (Mosers "Moral. u. pol. Schrift." Bd. 1,
Frankf. a. M. 1766, S. 503). Hamann adoptierte das Wort sofort und
nannte sich
Magus im Norden und Magus des Nordens.—

Anton Friedrich Büsching (1724-93) übersetzte "Geographie"

zuerst mit
Erdbeschreibung.
Der 1. Teil seiner "Erdbeschreibung" erschien 1754 in Hamburg.—

Klopstock (1724-1803) singt wiederholt in seiner Ode "der

Zürchersee" (1750), Dichterunsterblichkeit sei
des Schweisses der Edlen wert.—
Saat, von Gott gesäet, dem Tage der Garben zu reifen,
was K l o p s t o c k 1758 auf seiner Meta Grab in Ottensen bei Altona
setzen liess, was seine zweite Gattin 1803 ihm auf's Grab setzte, und
womit R ü c k e r t sein Gedicht "Die Gräber zu Ottensen" schliesst, ist
der 845. Vers des 11. Gesangs des "Messias" (1768). K l o p s t o c k
lehnt sich hier an Vers 5 und 6 des 125. Psalms an: "Die mit Thränen
säen, werden mit Freuden ernten. Sie gehen hin und weinen und
tragen edlen Samen und kommen mit Freuden und bringen ihre
Garben".—

Immanuel Kants (1724-1804)

kategorischer Imperativ
kommt zuerst in seiner 1785 zu Riga herausgegebenen
"Grundlegung der Metaphysik der Sitten" vor, wo es im zweiten
Abschnitt heisst: "Alle I m p e r a t i v e n gebieten entweder
h y p o t h e t i s c h oder c a t e g o r i s c h. Jene stellen die praktische
Notwendigkeit einer möglichen Handlung als Mittel zu etwas
Anderem was man will (oder doch möglich ist, dass man es wolle) zu
gelangen vor. Der categorische Imperativ wird der sein, welcher
diese Handlung als für sich selbst, ohne Beziehung auf einen andern
Zweck, als objektiv notwendig vorstellt". Weiterhin sagt K a n t:
"Dieser I m p e r a t i v mag der d e r S i t t l i c h k e i t heissen".—

Karl Wilhelm Ramlers (1725-98) Ode: "Der Triumph", worin er

Friedrich den Grossen feierte, beginnt:
Schäme dich, Kamill,
(Dass du mit vier Sonnenpferden
In das errettete Rom zogst),
weil der König am 30. März 1763 nach dem Friedensschlusse dem
festlichen Empfange der Berliner aus dem Wege gegangen war.—
Ja, Bauer! das ist ganz was Anders,
steht in R a m l e r s "Fabellese" (Berlin 1783-90), 1, 45 in der Fabel
"Der Junker und der Bauer", einer Umschmelzung der Fabel Michael
Richeys, welche in dessen "Deutschen Gedichten" (herausg. von
Gottfried Schütz in Hamburg von 1764-66) im 1. Bande unter dem
Titel "Duo quum faciunt idem, non est idem" (Wenn zwei dasselbe
thun, ist's nicht dasselbe) die einhundertneunzehnte Nummer der 4.
Abt. "Sinn- und Scherzgedichte" ist, und wo der entsprechende Vers
lautet:
Ja, Bauer, das ist ganz ein anders!
Die dort erzählte Geschichte ist alt.[21]—
[21] H a l l i w e l l "Dictionary of archaic and provincial words", Lond. 1844-1845,
führt die alte sprichwörtliche Redensart "The case is altered, quoth Plowden" (der
Fall ist ein anderer, sprach Plowden) auf diesen ausgezeichneten Juristen zur Zeit
der Königin Maria von England (1553-58) zurück. In "Tales and quicke Answeres",
(o. J. um 1535) wird sie von einem Bauer in Seeland erzählt; (Shakespeare Jest-
Boocks. W. Carew Hazlitt. Lond. 1860. Vol. I. 2. Abt. S. 134, No. 121); auch
E r a s m u s in "Ecclesiastae sive de ratione concionandi" (2. Ausg., 1536, S. 454)
nennt sie eine Seeländische Geschichte. Nach "Luthers Tischreden", Eisleben,
 1566, S. 612 erzählte sie L u t h e r 1546. Dort heisst es: "Da sprach der Schultes:
'War's meine Kuh? Das ist ein ander Ding'". In "B i d e r m a n n i ex societate Jesu
Acroamatum libri 3" wird in 3, 1, 13 sprichwörtlich "die Kuh des Praetor"
angeführt. Eine andere Geschichte, in der einem Bauer doppeltes Recht, das
zweite Mal mit den Worten: "Mein Bauer, das wär ein anders" in Aussicht gestellt
wird, erzählt G r i m m e l s h a u s e n im "Wunderbarlichen Vogelnest", 1, 6 (1672);
er wiederholt sie im "Deutschen Michel", 8.

Ach, wie ist's möglich dann,

Dass ich dich lassen kann
ist der Anfang eines um 1750-1780 entstandenen Volksliedes.
("Deutscher Liederhort" von Erk und Böhme, 1893, No. 548.) Zur
ersten Strophe sind zwei hinzugedichtet; diese drei bilden den jetzt
üblichen Text, den G e o r g S c h e r e r ("Volkslieder", 1868, No. 40)
mitteilt. Der neue Text ist komponiert von Moritz E r n e m a n n:
"Acht Lieder. Berlin 1825"; darin steht unter dem Texte: H e l. (mina)
v . C h é z y (1783-1856).
Die jetzt übliche Melodie hat F r i e d r i c h K ü c k e n (geb. 1810, † 1882)
komponiert. Die "Gartenlaube" machte Louis Böhmer ( † 1860) zum Dichter und
Komponisten des Liedes, was H o f f m a n n v o n F a l l e r s l e b e n "Unsere
volkstümlichen Lieder", 3. Aufl., Leipzig 1869, S. 159 eine Schrulle nennt. Erk
schrieb darüber an Büchmann: "Der Bummelante Böhner kann nichts dazu, dass
ihm unverständige Leute die Melodie zugeschrieben haben".—

Morgen, morgen! nur nicht heute![22]

(Sprechen immer träge Leute)
ist der Anfang des Liedes "Der Aufschub" von Christian Felix Weisse
(1726-1804) in dessen "Liedern für Kinder", 1766, verm. Aufl. Mit
neuen Melodien v. J. A. H i l l e r, (Leipz. 1769, S. 104-5). Laut
Vorrede sind die Lieder von S. 100 an hier neu hinzugekommen.—
[22] "Also das Eilige auf Morgen" sprach A r c h i a s lächelnd zu Pelopidas und
steckte den Brief zu sich, welchen ihm dieser als eilig überbrachte. Das "οὐκοῦν
εἰς αὔριον τὰ σπουδαῖα" wurde nach P l u t a r c h ("Pelopidas" c. 10) sprichwörtlich
in Griechenland.

Aus Gotthold Ephraim Lessings (1729-81) "Sinngedichten" (1753)

citieren wir den Schluss des ersten "Die Sinngedichte an den Leser":
 (Wer wird nicht einen Klopstock loben?
Doch wird ihn Jeder lesen?—Nein.)
Wir wollen weniger erhoben
Und fleissiger gelesen sein.
Geschöpft sind diese Verse aus M a r t i a l s (4, 49) Spottworten an
den Dichter Flaccus:
"Confiteor: laudant illa, sed ista legunt",
"Ja; dich preisen sie hoch, doch lesen thuen sie mich".—
Aus L e s s i n g s "Liedern" (1, 6) citiert man ungenau, aber
verbessernd den Schluss der "Antwort eines trunknen Dichters":
Zu viel kann man wohl trinken,
Doch trinkt man nie genug.
Im Text heisst es: "Doch nie trinkt man genug".—
Aus L e s s i n g s "Hamburger Dramaturgie", 101.-104. Stück, (1768)
stammt:
Seines Fleisses darf sich jedermann rühmen.—
Aus "Emilia Galotti" (1772) 1, 4 ist
Weniger wäre mehr
durch W i e l a n d s Vermittelung entstanden, welcher im
Neujahrswunsche der Zeitschrift "Merkur" von 1774 den Ausspruch
des Prinzen:
"Nicht so redlich, wäre redlicher"
folgendermassen umformte:
"Und minder ist oft mehr, wie Lessings Prinz uns lehrt".
(Siehe H e s i o d: "die Hälfte ist mehr als das Ganze" und C e r v a n t e s, in
dessen "Don Quijote" [1, 6 g. E.] der Pfarrer den "Schatz mannichfaltiger
Dichtungen" also kritisiert: "como ellas no fueran tantas, fueran mas estimadas",
"wären es nicht so viele, so hätten sie mehr Wert").—
Das oft wiederholte Wort aus "Emilia Galotti":
Raphael wäre ein grosser Maler geworden, selbst wenn er
ohne Hände auf die Welt gekommen wäre,
lautet in derselben Scene eigentlich also:
"Oder meinen Sie, Prinz, dass Raphael nicht das grösste malerische
Genie gewesen wäre, wenn er unglücklicher Weise ohne Hände
wäre geboren worden?"
(S e n e c a "De beneficiis", IV, 21: "Artifex est etiam, cui ad excercendam artem
instrumenta non suppetunt", "auch der ist ein Künstler, dem zur Ausübung der
Kunst die Werkzeuge mangeln").—
Aus "Emilia Galotti" 2, 7 u. 8 wird citiert:
Perlen bedeuten Thränen,
womit L e s s i n g einen Aberglauben wieder auffrischt, der bereits im
9. Jahrh. verbreitet war. Zu jener Zeit erschienen die "Traumlehren"
des A s t r a m p s y c h u s und des N i c e p h o r u s (her. v. Rigaltius.
Par. 1603), in denen es heisst: "οἱ μάργαροι (bei Niceph.:
"μαργαρῖται") δηλοῦσι δακρύων ῥόον", "Perlen bedeuten einen
Thränenstrom".—
Aus "Emilia Galotti" 4, 7 stammt:
Wer über gewisse Dinge den Verstand (5, 5: seinen
Verstand) nicht verliert, der hat keinen zu verlieren.
Gewiss kam der in spanischer Litteratur so bewanderte L e s s i n g
auf diese Wendung durch Baltazar G r a c i a n s Wort: "Muchos por
faltos de sentido, no le pierden"—"Viele verlieren den Verstand
deshalb nicht, weil sie keinen haben" ("Oraculo manual" § 35, 1637
zuerst erschienen, übersetzt von Arth. S c h o p e n h a u e r:
"Handorakel" 3. Aufl. 1877, S. 22).—
In "Emilia Galotti" 4, 7 heisst es ferner:
(Ha, Frau,) das ist wider die Abrede.
S c h i l l e r lässt in "Kabale und Liebe", 2, 3, Ferdinand, und im "Fiesco", 2, 9, den
Mohren diese Worte sagen. Fr. K i n d legt sie in der Wolfschluchtscene des
 "Freischütz" dem Jägerburschen Max in den Mund.—
"Emilia Galotti", 5, 2 steht:
Hohngelächter der Hölle;
und 5, 6:
Wer lacht da? (Bei Gott, ich glaub', ich war es selbst).—
Ebenda 5, 7 ruft Emilia, als sie die Rose zerpflückt hat, die ihrem
gemordeten Verlobten Appiani galt, und sie nun, den Dolch im
Herzen, niedersinkt:
Eine Rose gebrochen, ehe der Sturm sie entblättert.—
"Nathan der Weise" (1779) enthält 1, 2:
Es ist Arznei, nicht Gift, was ich dir reiche,
wobei L e s s i n g wohl an Romeos Worte in "Romeo und Julia", 5, 2:
Come cordial, not poison,
Komm Medizin, nicht Gift,
gedacht hat, und 1, 3 (ähnlich 3, 10):
Kein Mensch mnss müssen.—
Als Bekräftigung dient uns das in Lessings "Nathan" 1, 5 sechsmal
vorkommende Wort des Klosterbruders:
Sagt der Patriarch.—
Viel citiert werden auch die Worte Nathans 2, 5:
Nur muss der Eine nicht den Andern mäkeln,
Nur muss der Knorr den Knubben hübsch vertragen,
Nur muss ein Gipfelchen sich nicht vermessen,
Dass es allein der Erde nicht entschossen.—
Der Schluss vom 2. Akt des "Nathan" ist:
Der wahre Bettler ist
 (Doch einzig und allein) der wahre König!—
4, 2 steht dreimal:
Thut nichts, der Jude wird verbrannt.—
und 4, 4:
Es sind nicht alle frei, die ihrer Ketten spotten.—

Aus Christoph Martin Wielands (1733-1813) "Idris und Zenide",

3, 10 (1768) citieren wir:
Ein Wahn, der mich beglückt,
Ist eine Wahrheit wert, die mich zu Boden drückt,
was vielleicht dem Worte G r a y s aus "On the Prospect of Eton
College" nachgebildet ist:
Where ignorance is bliss,
't is folly to be wise.
Wo Nichtwissen Seligkeit,
Ist es Thorheit klug zu sein.—
W i e l a n d ist ferner durch seine Worte in "Musarion" (1768 B. 2, V.
142, in späteren Ausgaben, V. 135):
Die Herren dieser Art blend't oft zu viel Licht;
Sie seh'n den Wald vor lauter Bäumen nicht,
der Schöpfer der Redensart:
Den Wald vor lauter Bäumen nicht sehen
geworden, die er in seiner "Geschichte der Abderiten" (1774), V. 2
wiederholt. B l u m a u e r bestätigt diese Autorschaft Wielands durch
"Aeneis", B. 2, Str. 9:
Er sieht oft, wie Herr Wieland spricht,
Den Wald vor lauter Bäumen nicht.
Eigentlich aber hat Wieland nur ein älteres Wort "die Stadt vor lauter
Häusern nicht sehen" umgeändert, welches J. Eiselein
("Sprichwörter" S. 576) falsch auf Agricola zurückführt, und das
französischen Ursprungs ist.[23] Auch fühlt man sich erinnert an Ovids
(Trist. 5, 4, 9 und 10):
"Nec frondem in silvis, nec aperto mollia prato
Gramina, nec pleno flumine cernit aquas."
"Weder die Blätter im Wald, noch auf sonniger Wiese die
zarten
Gräser, noch im Fluthstrom weiss er das Wasser zu
seh'n."
und an des Properz (1, 9. 16): "Medio flumine quaerere aquam",
"mitten im Fluss das Wasser suchen".—
[23] Edouard Fournier "l'Esprit des Autres", 7. Ausg., S. 2 citiert ein Lied eines
poitevinischen Bauern:
La hauteur des maisons
Empêch' de voir la ville.
Dies Citat scheint aus der Luft gegriffen. Die Redensart steht vielmehr in "Les
bigarrures et touches du seigneur des Accords. Avec les Apophthegmes du Sieur
Gaulard. Et les Écraignes dijonnoises. Dernière édition, revue et beaucoup
augmentée. Paris. Jean Richter 1603". Der besondere Titel des zweitgenannen
Werkes ist: "Les contes facétieux du sieur Gaulard, gentilhomme de la Franche
Comté Bourguignotte" (sic!). (1. Ausg. 1582.) S. 21 heisst es: "Als er in Paris war
und durch die Strassen ging, sprach er: Jeder sagte mir, ich würde eine so grosse
und schöne Stadt sehen; aber man machte sich über mich lustig; denn man kann
sie nicht sehen wegen der Menge von Häusern, die den Umblick verhindern". Sam.
G e r l a c h teilt dann in "Eurapeliae" (Lübeck 1639), 3. Hundert, No. 7-29 närrische
Reden und Wendugen des M. Gaulard mit und erzählt No. 24 die eben erwähnte
Äusserung.—Z i n c g r e f - W e i d n e r ("Apophthegmata", 3. T. 1653 S. 55 und 5. T.
1655 S. 112) wiederholt die Geschichte und nennt den Erzähler (S. 118) Herrn
Gaulardt, Baron aus Burgundien.
In W i e l a n d s "Oberon" (1780) steht
1, 1:
Ritt in das alte romantische Land,
5, 30:
 Nichts halb zu thun ist edler Geister Art,
7, 75:
Ein einz'ger Augenblick kann Alles umgestalten.—
Aus W i e l a n d s Singspiel "Alceste", 4, 2 wird citiert:
Noch lebt Admet (in deinem Herzen).
1, 2 heisst es:
noch
Lebt dein Admet.—

August Ludwig von Schlözer (1735-1809) wurde in gerechtem

Zorn über die Hinrichtung der "Hexe" Anna Göldi aus Glarus zum
Schöpfer des Wortes
Justizmord.
Nämlich in seinen "Staatsanzeigen" (1782-93; 2. Bd., S. 273) steht
ein Aufsatz von ihm: "Abermaliger Justizmord in der Schweiz 1782".
In der Fussnote heisst es:
"Ich verstehe unter diesem neuen Worte die Ermordung eines Unschuldigen,
vorsätzlich, und sogar mit allem Pompe der heiligen Justiz, verübt von Leuten, die
gesetzt sind, dass sie verhüten sollen, dass ein Mord geschehe oder, falls er
geschehen, doch gehörig gestraft werde".
Von "assasins juridiques", Justizmördern, sprach übrigens schon
V o l t a i r e in einem Briefe an Friedrich II. (Apr. 1777).—

Aus Gottlieb Konrad Pfeffels (1736-1809) "Tobakspfeife" (1782

gedichtet, 1783 im Vossischen "Musenalmanach" S. 159 erschienen)
citiern wir:
Gott grüss Euch, Alter! Schmeckt das Pfeifchen?
und:
Ein andermal von euren Thaten!—
 In Gottlob Wilhelm Burmanns (1737-1805) "Kleinen Liedern für
kleine Jünglinge" (Berlin und Königsberg 1777) beginnt das Lied
"Arbeit" also:
Arbeit macht das Leben süss.—

Von Matthias Claudius (1740-1815) citieren wir:

Ach, sie haben
Einen guten Mann begraben;
Und mir war er mehr
aus seinem Gedichte "Bei dem Grabe meines Vaters" (I. und II. T. d.
"Wandsbecker Bothen", Hamburg 1775, S. 96); aus seinem 1775 im
Vossischen "Musenalmanach" auf das Jahr 1776 erschienenen, von
Joh. André ("Musikal. Blumenstrauss", Offenbach 1776)
komponierten "Rheinweinlied":
Am Rhein, am Rhein, da wachsen unsre Reben,
und aus seinem im Vossischen "Musenalmanach" auf das Jahr 1786
erschienenen Liede "Urians Reise um die Welt" die Anfangsverse:
Wenn jemand eine Reise thut,
So kann er was verzählen.—

Die Bezeichnung einer unmöglichen Existenz durch:

Messer ohne Klinge, an welchem der Stiel fehlt
gehört Georg Christoph Lichtenberg (1742-99), der im
Göttingenschen Taschen-Kalender von 1798 ein "Verzeichnis einer
Sammlung von Gerätschaften, welche in dem Hause des Sir H. S.
künftige Woche verauktioniert werden sollen", angeblich "nach dem
Englischen" mitteilt, in welchem Verzeichnis unser Wort den ersten
Auktionsartikel bildet.—
 Joh. Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) nannte (in der 1801 bis 1803
erschienenen "Adrastea", Bd. 3, im Artikel "Kunst-Sammlungen in
Dresden", S. 52-56) Dresden wegen seiner Kunstschätze ein
"Deutsches Florenz", woraus
Elb-Florenz
entstanden ist.—
Aus seinem Gedichte "Der gerettete Jüngling" (in der Sammlung der
Legenden, die Herder in seinen "Zerstreuten Blättern", 6. Sammlung,
Gotha 1797, S. 285-289 gab) wird citiert:
Eine schöne Menschenseele finden
Ist Gewinn.—
Aus H e r d e r s Gedicht "Der Gastfreund" wird
Nur über meinen Leichnam geht der Weg
nicht nach S c h i l l e r s Fassung ("Wallenst. Tod" 5, 7):
Erst über meinen Leichnam sollst du hingehn,
sondern nach K ö r n e r s ("Hedwig" 3, 10) also citiert:
Nur über meine Leiche geht der Weg.—
H e r d e r s Gedicht "Die wiedergefundenen Söhne" ("Adrastea" 2,
200-204, Lpz. 1801) bietet:
Was die Schickung schickt, ertrage!
Wer ausharret wird gekrönt.
Die erste Zeile stammt wohl aus S h a k e s p e a r e s (Heinrich VI., T.
3, 4, 3):
"What fates impose, that men must needs abide".—
Der von H e r d e r bearbeitete "Cid" (1805) beginnt:
Trauernd tief sass Don Diego.—
Im 28. Gesange heisst es:
 Rückwärts, rückwärts, Don Rodrigo!
- - - -
Rückwärts, rückwärts, stolzer Cid!—
Der 51. Gesang enthält:
"Auf ins Feld! Es geht zum Siege,
Krieger, gen Valencia!"
was wir nach Pius Alex. W o l f f s "Preciosa" (1821) 4, 12 in der Form
citieren:
Auf (denn)—nach Valencia!
R e i n h o l d K ö h l e r, "Herders Cid und seine französische Quelle", (Lpz. 1867)
hat nachgewiesen, dass mit Ausnahme von 14 Romanzen Herders Cid eine bald
mehr bald weniger treue metrische Übertragung einer namenlosen französischen
Prosabearbeitung der spanischen Cid-Romanzen in der "Bibliothèque universelle
des Romans", (1783, Juli) ist. Die 22 ersten Romanzen erschienen in der
"Adrastea" 5, 165-239, Leipz. 1803.—

Karl Arnold Kortum[24] (1745-1824) lässt in T. I, Kap. 19 der 1784

in Münster erschienenen "Jobsiade" bei den wunderlichen Antworten
des Examinanden stets die Verse wiederkehren:
Über diese Antwort des Kandidaten Jobses
Geschah allgemeines Schütteln des Kopfes.—
[24] Nicht: K o r t ü m.

In Trapps "Braunschweigischem Journal", 11. Stück, Novemberheft

1790, schlägt der Sprachreiniger Joachim Heinrich Campe (1746-
1818) auf S. 280-282:
Zerrbild
oder: "Zerr-gemälde" für "Karikatur" vor und für "Delicatesse" auf S.
282:
Zartgefühl,
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