NOTES BY LAMEA TALHA KHAN

SOLUTIONS
A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances. The substance present in smaller amount in the solution
is known as the solute. And the substance present in larger amount is known as the solvent.

EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS

1. mass percentage: It is the amount of solute in grams dissolved per 100g of solution.
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
Mass percentage = x 100
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

2. volume percentage: It is defined as volume of a solute dissolved per 100ml of solution.

𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
Volume % of a solute = x 100
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

3. mass by volume percentage: It is defined as the mass of solute dissolved per 100ml of solution. It is commonly
used in medicine and pharmacy.
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
Mass % of solute = x 100
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

4. parts per million [ppm]: It is defined as the amount of substance in grams present in 106g of solution, e.g.,
10ppm of SO2 means 10cm3 of SO2 present in 106cm3 of air. Parts per million can be expressed both in terms of
weight and volume.

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴
ppmA = x 106
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

5. mole fraction [𝒙𝒙]: It is the ratio of the number of moles of a particular component to the total number of moles
of all components.
𝜂𝜂𝐴𝐴
mole fraction of a component ‘A’ = 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 =
𝜂𝜂𝐴𝐴 +𝜂𝜂𝐵𝐵

where ‘𝜂𝜂𝐴𝐴 ′ and ‘𝜂𝜂𝐵𝐵 ′ are number of moles of ‘A’ and ‘B’ respectively.

6. Molarity [M]: it is expressed as the number of solutes dissolved per litre of solution.

𝜂𝜂𝐵𝐵 𝑊𝑊𝐵𝐵 𝑋𝑋 1000

M= x 1000 or M=
𝑉𝑉 𝑀𝑀𝐵𝐵 𝑋𝑋 𝑉𝑉
Where ‘WB’ is the amount of solute, ‘MB’ is the molecular weight of solute, V is the volume of solution in ml, ‘𝜂𝜂𝐵𝐵′
is the number of moles of solute.

7. Molality [m]: it is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per 1000g or 1kg of solvent.
𝜂𝜂𝐵𝐵 𝑊𝑊𝐵𝐵 𝑋𝑋 1000
M= x 1000 or M =
𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴 𝑀𝑀𝐵𝐵 𝑋𝑋 𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴

Where ‘WA’ is weight of solvent in grams.

8. Relationship between mole fraction of solute [𝒙𝒙B] and Molality [m]:

𝑚𝑚
𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵 = 1000
𝑚𝑚+
𝑀𝑀𝐴𝐴
NOTES BY LAMEA TALHA KHAN

SOLUBILITY
It is defined as the amount of solute dissolved in 100g of solvent to form saturated solution.
Factors for solubility:
i. Lattice energy: It is the amount of energy required to separate 1mole of crystal into constituent
particles.
ii. Hydration energy: It is the amount of energy released when ions formed by 1 mole of compound get
hydrated.
iii. Temperature: Solubility often increase with increase in temperature.

Solubility of a solid in a liquid

Ionic compounds are soluble in polar solvents, i.e., in water because they ionize in aqueous solution. Ionic
compounds are insoluble in organic solvents because they do not ionize in organic solvents.

Sugar, glucose, alcohol, urea is soluble in water because they can form H-bonds with water. Naphthalene,
anthracene, camphor and CCl4 do not dissolve in water because they are non-polar. These compounds are
soluble in organic solvents like benzene, toluene, etc.

Effect of temperature: the solubility of solid in liquid increases with increase in temperature if dissolution is
endothermic. If dissolution is exothermic, the solubility of solid in liquid decreases with increase in temperature.

Effect of pressure: the solubility of solid in liquid is not affected significantly by pressure because solids and
liquids cannot be compressed.

Solubility of gases

i. Gases are completely miscible with each other.

ii. They can also be dissolved in liquids and solids. For eg., oxygen is sufficiently soluble in water to allow
survival of aquatic life in lakes, rivers and oceans.

Factors affecting solubility of gas in liquid:

i. Nature of gas: easily liquifiable gases are more soluble. Eg: CO2,
ii. Nature of liquid: gases that can form ions in water[polar]. Eg: HCl gas in water.
iii. Temperature: solubility decreases with rise in temp. [gases will escape in evaporate form when heated]
iv. Pressure

HENRY’S LAW: It states that the partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase [p] is proportional to the
mole fraction of the gas [𝑥𝑥 ] in the solution.

If we use mole fraction of the gas in the solution as a measure of its solubility, then:

the partial pressure of the gas α Mole fraction of gas in solution

p α 𝑥𝑥

p = KH . 𝑥𝑥

where ‘KH’ is Henry’s law constant and ‘𝑥𝑥’ is the mole fraction of gas in a solution. Different gases have different
KH values at the same temperature. It means KH depends upon the nature of the gas.
NOTES BY LAMEA TALHA KHAN

Effect of temperature: The value of KH increases with increase in temperature which indicates that the solubility
of gases decreases with increase in temperature. Hence aquatic animals are more comfortable in cold water
than in warm water due to greater solubility of O2 in cold water.

APLICATIONS OF HENRY’S LAW:

i. To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks and soda water, the bottle is sealed under high pressure.

ii. When scuba divers dive deep into the sea, pressure increases. As a result of which the solubility of
oxygen in blood increases due to Henry’s law which implies that solubility of gases in liquid increases
with increase in pressure.
When the divers get back to the surface, pressure decreases, and the dissolved oxygen releases in the
blood forming bubbles. This painful condition is known as Bends. In order to minimize this condition,
oxygen diluted with less soluble helium gas.

iii. At high altitudes the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at ground level. This leads to low
concentration of oxygen in blood and tissues of people at high altitudes or climbers due to Henry’s law
which implies that solubility of gases in liquid decreases with decrease in pressure. Low blood oxygen
causes climbers to become weak and unable to think, resulting in a condition known as anoxia.

RAOULT’S LAW:

According to Raoult’s law, for a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of each component of the
solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction present in solution.

p1 = p10 𝑥𝑥1

where p10 is the vapour pressure of pure component 1, 𝑥𝑥1 is its mole fraction.

Similarly, for component 2,

p2 = p20 𝑥𝑥2

where p20 represents the vapour pressure of the pure component 2.

According to Dalton’s law of partial pressures, the total pressure (Ptotal) over the solution phase in the container
will be the sum of the partial pressures of the components of the solution and is given as: Ptotal= p1 + p2

∴ substituting the values of p1 and p2, we get:

Ptotal = p10 𝑥𝑥1 + p20 𝑥𝑥2

= [1-𝑥𝑥2 ] p10 + p20 𝑥𝑥2

= p10 + [p20 - p10] 𝑥𝑥2

CONCLUSION:

i. Total vapour pressure over the solution can be related to the mole fraction of any one component.
ii. Total vapour pressure over the solution varies linearly with the mole fraction of component 2.
iii. Depending on the vapour pressures of the pure components 1 and 2, total vapour pressure over the
solution decreases or increases with the increase of the mole fraction of component 1.
iv. In a solution of gas in a liquid, the gas is volatile component and its solubility is given by Henry’s Law:

P = KH 𝑥𝑥
NOTES BY LAMEA TALHA KHAN

In both cases, partial pressure of volatile component is directly proportional to its mole fraction in solution. Only
the proportionality constant KH differs from p10. Thus, Raoult’s Law is a special case of Henry’s Law.

VAPOUR PRESSURE OF SOLUTIONS OF SOLIDS IN LIQUIDS

The pressure exerted by the vapours over the liquid surface is called
vapour pressure [fig a]. it increases with increase in temperature.

The pressure exerted by the vapours of solvent and solute in equilibrium

with the liquid phase is called the vapour pressure of solution. The vapour
pressure of a component ‘A’ in a solution of ‘A’ and ‘B’ is called partial
vapour pressure of component ‘A’.

Lowering of vapour pressure: the vapour pressure of a solvent in a solution is less than that of pure solvent. The
lowering of vapour pressure depends only on the concentration of solute and is independent of its nature. If pA
is vapour pressure of solvent in a solution, pA0 is vapor pressure of pure solvent and 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 is mole fraction of
solvent then, pA = pA0 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
where 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴 =
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠+𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

the decrease in vapour pressure by adding non volatile solute into solvent is shown in fig b`.

IDEAL AND NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS

Ideal solutions:

Those solutions which obey Raoult’s Law are called ideal solutions. When the
forces of attraction between A—A, B—B is similar to A—B, then A and B will
form ideal solution. There are three specific properties of an ideal solution:

i. Raoult’s law is obeyed, i.e., Ptotal= p1 + p2

ii. ∆𝐻𝐻 mix = 0, ie., there should not be enthalpy change when components
of ideal solutions are mixed.
iii. ∆𝑉𝑉 mix = 0, i.e., there should not be any change in volume in mixing.
For eg., n-hexane and n-heptane, ethyl bromide and ethyl iodide,
benzene and toluene, chlorobenzene and bromobenzene form ideal
solutions.
NOTES BY LAMEA TALHA KHAN

Non-ideal solutions:

Those solutions which do not obey Raoult’s Law. When the forces of attraction between A—A, B—B is different
from A—B then ‘A’ and ‘B’ form non-ideal solutions. For these solutions:

i. Raoult’s law is not obeyed.

ii. ∆𝐻𝐻 mix ≠ 0
iii. ∆𝑉𝑉 mix ≠ 0

For example: ethanol and water, chloroform and acetone, ethanol and cyclohexane are a few examples of non-
ideal solutions.

The vapour pressure of non-ideal solution is either higher or lower than that predicted by Raoult’s law. If it is
higher, the solution exhibits positive deviation and if it is lower, it exhibits negative deviation from Raoult’s law.

i. Positive deviation: The cause for these deviations lies in the nature of interactions at the molecular
level. In case of positive deviation from Raoult’s law, A—B interactions are weaker than those between
A—A or B—B, i.e., in this case the intermolecular attractive forces between the solute-solvent molecules
are weaker than those between the solute-solute and solvent-solvent molecules. This means that in
such solutions, molecules of A (or B) will find it easier to escape than in pure state. This will increase the
vapour pressure and result in positive deviation.
Eg: Mixtures of ethanol and acetone behave in this manner. In pure ethanol, molecules are hydrogen
bonded. On adding acetone, its molecules get in between the host molecules and break some of the
hydrogen bonds between them. Due to weakening of interactions, the solution shows positive deviation
from Raoult’s law.

ii. Negative deviation: In case of negative deviations from Raoult’s law, the intermolecular attractive
forces between A—A and B—B are weaker than those between A—B and leads to decrease in vapour
pressure resulting in negative deviations.
Eg: This type is a mixture of phenol and aniline. In this case the intermolecular hydrogen bonding
between phenolic proton and lone pair on nitrogen atom of aniline is stronger than the respective
intermolecular hydrogen bonding between similar molecules. This decreases the escaping tendency of
molecules for each component and consequently the vapour pressure decreases resulting in negative
deviation from Raoult’s law.
NOTES BY LAMEA TALHA KHAN

Azeotropes which are binary mixtures having the same composition in liquid and vapour phase and boil at a
constant temperature. In such cases, it is not possible to separate the components by fractional distillation. There are two
types of azeotropes called minimum boiling azeotrope and maximum boiling azeotrope.
The solutions which show a large positive deviation from Raoult’s law form minimum boiling azeotrope at a
specific composition. For example, ethanol-water mixture. The solutions that show large negative deviation from Raoult’s
law form maximum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition. For example, nitric acid and water.

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

Those properties of solutions which depend on the number of solute and solvent particles [molecules or ions] but not
on the nature of solute are called colligative properties, e.g.,

a) Relative lowering of vapour pressure

b) The elevation of boiling point
c) The depression in freezing point
d) The osmotic pressure

a] Relative lowering of vapour pressure: The relative lowering of vapour pressure for a solution is equal to the
mole fraction of solute when solvent alone is volatile.
p𝐴𝐴 °−𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴
= 𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵
𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴 °

where 𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴 ° is vapour pressure of pure ‘A’ [solvent], pA is vapour pressure of solution, 𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵 is mole fraction of solute.

b] Elevation of the boiling point: The temperature at which vapour pressure of liquid becomes equal to
atmospheric pressure is called boiling point. The vapour pressure of a solution is lower than the vapour pressure
of the pure solvent. It means the boiling point of the solution will be higher than the boiling point of pure solvent.

The difference in boiling points of solution Tb and pure solvent Tb° is called
elevation of boiling point which is directly proportional to number of moles
of solute in a given amount of solvent. i.e., molality.

∆𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 = Tb - Tb°

Also, ∆𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 ∝ m
𝑊𝑊𝐵𝐵 1000
∆𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 = Kb m = Kb x x
𝑀𝑀𝐵𝐵 𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴

𝑊𝑊𝐵𝐵 . 𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏 .1000

MB =
∆𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 . 𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴

where Kb = boiling point elevation constant / ebullioscopic constant / molal

boiling point elevation constant

Wb = mass of solute, MB = molar mass of solute, WA = mass of solvent in grams

Ebullioscopic constant is equal to elevation in boiling point of 1 molal solution, i.e., 1 mole of solute is dissolved in
1kg of solvent. The unit of Kb is K/m or K kg mol-1. [m is molality].
NOTES BY LAMEA TALHA KHAN

c] Depression of Freezing Point: The freezing point of a substance may be defined as the temperature at which
the vapour pressure of the substance in its liquid phase is equal to its vapour pressure in the solid phase. A
solution will freeze when its vapour pressure equals the vapour pressure of the pure solid solvent.

According to Raoult’s law, when a non-volatile solid is added to the solvent its vapour pressure decreases and
now it would become equal to that of solid solvent at lower temperature.
Thus, the freezing point of the solvent decreases.

Let Tf° be the freezing point of pure solvent and Tf be its freezing point when
non-volatile solute is dissolved in it. The decrease in freezing point [∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 ] is
called depression in freezing point.

∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 = Tf° - Tf

Depression of freezing point [∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 ] for dilute solution (ideal solution) is

directly proportional to molality, m of the solution. Thus,

∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 ∝ m

∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 = Kf m

The proportionality constant, Kf, which depends on the nature of the solvent is known as Freezing Point
Depression Constant or Molal Depression Constant or Cryoscopic Constant. The unit of Kf is K kg mol-1
𝑊𝑊𝐵𝐵 1000
∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 = Kf m = Kf x x
𝑀𝑀𝐵𝐵 𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴

𝑊𝑊𝐵𝐵 . 𝐾𝐾𝑓𝑓 .1000

MB =
∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 . 𝑊𝑊𝐴𝐴

OSMOSIS AND OSMOTIC PRESSURE

When a solution is separated from the solvent by a semi-permeable membrane which allows the passage of
solvent molecules but does not allow solute particles to pass through it, there is net flow of solvent molecules
from the solvent to the solution which is called osmosis. It takes place because vapour pressure of solvent is
higher than the vapour pressure of solution.

A semi-permeable membrane is a membrane which allows a selective passage of chemical species. Eg.,
cellophane, parchment paper. They allow solvent molecules to pass through them but not solute molecules.

OSMOTIC PRESSURE may be defined as the extra pressure that must be applied to the solution side to prevent
the flow of solvent into solution through a semi permeable membrane.
NOTES BY LAMEA TALHA KHAN

It is also a colligative property because it depends upon the number of moles of solute and obeys ideal gas
equation.

𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = nRT
𝑊𝑊𝐵𝐵
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = x RT
𝑀𝑀𝐵𝐵

𝑛𝑛
𝜋𝜋 = RT
𝑉𝑉

𝜋𝜋 = C RT, C is the molarity

where ‘𝜋𝜋’ is osmotic pressure, ‘V’ is volume of solution in litres, ‘n’ is the number of moles of the solute, ‘T’ is
absolute temperature, ‘R’ is gas constant, ‘WB’ is mass of solute, ‘MB’ is molar mass of solute.

This is known as van’t Hoff equation for dilute solution.

ISOTONIC SOLUTION:

Two solutions are said to be isotonic when they exert the same osmotic pressure because they have the same
molar concentration. All intravenous injections must be isotonic with body fluids.

The osmotic pressure associated with the fluid inside the blood cell is equivalent to that of 0.9% (mass/ volume)
sodium chloride solution, called normal saline solution and it is safe to inject intravenously. On the other hand, if
we place the cells in a solution containing more than 0.9% (mass/volume) sodium chloride, water will flow out of
the cells and they would shrink. Such a solution is called hypertonic. If the salt concentration is less than 0.9%
(mass/volume), the solution is said to be hypotonic. In this case, water will flow into the cells if placed in this
solution and they would swell.

REVERSE OSMOSIS AND WATER PURIFICATION

The direction of osmosis can be reversed if a pressure larger than the osmotic pressure is applied to the solution
side. That is, now the pure solvent flows out of the solution through the semi permeable membrane. This
phenomenon is called reverse osmosis.

Reverse osmosis is used in desalination of sea water. [Refer fig]

When pressure more than osmotic pressure is applied, pure water is squeezed out of the sea water through the
membrane. A variety of polymer membranes are available for this purpose. The pressure required for the reverse
osmosis is quite high. A workable porous membrane is a film of cellulose acetate placed over a suitable support.
Cellulose acetate is permeable to water but impermeable to impurities and ions present in sea water.
NOTES BY LAMEA TALHA KHAN

ABNORMAL MOLAR MASSES

When the molecular mass, calculated with the help of colligative property, is different from theoretical molecular
mass, it is called abnormal molar mass, which is due to either dissociation or association.

When a number of solute particles are less than the expected number, then molecules of solute are said to
associate, eg: Molecules of ethanoic acid dimerize in benzene due to hydrogen bonding due to which molecular
weight calculated from depression in freezing point is double than the actual weight.

When the number of solute particles is more than the expected number, then solute molecules are said to
dissociate, eg: KCl will dissociate into K+ and Cl- ions. The molecular mass calculated from depression of freezing
point will be less than the true value.

Such a molar mass that is either lower or higher than the expected or normal value is called as abnormal molar
mass. Van’t Hoff introduced a factor i, known as the van’t Hoff factor, to account for the extent of dissociation
or association. This factor i is defined as:
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
i=
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

or
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
i=
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

or
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
i=
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

Inclusion of van’t Hoff factor modifies the equations for colligative properties as follows:

a) Relative lowering of vapour pressure:

b) Elevation of boiling point, ∆𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 = i Kb m
c) Depression of Freezing point, ∆𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 = i Kf m
d) Osmotic pressure of solution, 𝜋𝜋= i n2 RT / V