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Brief contents
Online resources
Preface to the third edition
ATLAS.ti key terms
Introduction
1 Overview of the process of computer-assisted analysis
2 Getting to know ATLAS.ti
3 Embarking on the journey – data and project management
4 Technical aspects of coding
5 Creating a coding scheme
6 Querying the data and further steps in the analysis process
7 Recognizing and visualizing relationships – working with networks
8 Compiling the final report – the last phase of the writing process
9 Teamwork
Epilogue
References
Index

8
Contents
Online resources
Preface to the third edition
ATLAS.ti key terms
Introduction
For whom did I write the book?
overview
Sample projects
Further reading
1 Overview of the process of computer-assisted analysis
Phase 1: description of the data – creation of a code system
Phase 2: querying data – finding answers – identifying
relationships
The analytic process
Does my methodological approach fit a computer-assisted
analysis?
Further reading
2 Getting to know ATLAS.ti
Skills training 2.1: starting the program and importing the
sample project
Skills training 2.2: getting to know the user interface
The ATLAS.ti ribbon
The navigation panel
Description of entities that you are going to work with in
ATLAS.ti
Skills training 2.3: working with the entity managers
Skills training 2.4: working with docked and floated windows
Skills training 2.5: loading documents
Skills training 2.6: creating tab groups
Skills training 2.7: simple data retrieval
Skills training 2.8: looking at a network
Skills training 2.9: previewing the Query Tool
Review questions
3 Embarking on the journey – data and project management
Data preparation
Text documents
PDFs

9
 Audio and video files
Multimedia transcripts
Image files
Excel files (survey import)
File size and document length
Language support
Collecting data with the ATLAS.ti mobile app
Transcription guidelines
Guidelines for interview transcripts
Guidelines for focus group transcripts
About data file names
Project management in ATLAS.ti
Skills training 3.1: setting up a project
Creating a new project
Adding documents
Commenting your data and keeping track of analytic
thoughts
Saving the project
Skills training 3.2: organizing project documents
Creating groups in a manager
Creating groups in the Group Manager
Deleting a group
Renaming a group
Skills training 3.3: managing your project
Removing documents from a project
Renumbering documents
Deleting a project
Skills training 3.4: exporting projects for project transfer or
backup
Skills training 3.5: creating project snapshots
Skills training 3.6: changing the default location for ATLAS.ti
project data
Skills training 3.7: preparing and importing survey data
Preparing survey data
Importing survey data
Inspecting the imported data
Working with survey data
Skills training 3.8: importing reference manager data for a
literature review
Skills training 3.9: writing memos in the early stages of analysis

10
 Creating a memo
When to use comments and memos in ATLAS.ti
Skills training 3.10 exploring your data – creating word clouds
Skills training 3.11: keyword in context search
Review questions
Further reading
4 Technical aspects of coding
Skills training 4.1: coding with a new code
Quotation reference
Code reference
Skills training 4.2: coding with two or more codes
Skills training 4.3: list coding
Skills training 4.4: coding via drag and drop
Skills training 4.5: replacing a code
Skills training 4.6: resizing the length of a quotation
Skills training 4.7: unlinking and removing codes
Skills training 4.8: writing quotation comments
Skills training 4.9: coding with in-vivo codes
Skills training 4.10: further coding-related options
Creating new codes
Renaming codes
Adding a color attribute to codes
Deleting codes (and other entities)
Writing code definitions
Merging codes
Skills training 4.11: importing a list of existing codes
Skills training 4.12: exporting the code list for reuse in another
project
Skills training 4.13: focus group coding
Coding focus group data
Handling other media types
Skills training 4.14: coding a PDF document
Skills training 4.15: working with audio and video files
Adding audio/video files to a project
Display of video documents
Zooming the timeline
Creating an audio or video quotation
Display of video quotations
First steps in analyzing video data
Making use of quotation names and comments

11
 Adding codes
Skills training 4.16: coding an image
Skills training 4.17: working with geo data
Adding a geo document
Creating a geo quotation
Coding geo quotations
Review questions
Further reading
5 Creating a coding scheme
Let’s do a puzzle so you remember how good you are at
categorizing
Skills training 5.1: noticing and collecting – coding data for
content
Discussion of the coding exercise
How to add more structure to your exploration
More on code word labels, quotations and numbers
The ‘right’ length for quotations
What to do with repeated occurrences
The ‘right’ number of codes
More on categories and subcategories
Do I need to code everything?
Building an efficient code system
Skills training 5.2: retrieving all quotations of a code
Skills training 5.3: developing subcategories
Skills training 5.4: building categories from descriptive labels
Skills training 5.5: defining categories on the ‘right’ level
Skills training 5.6: comparing thematic to interpretive coding
Advantages of a well-sorted and structured code list
Using syntax to distinguish between distinct levels and
types of codes
Moving on
Skills training 5.7: writing research-question memos
Recommendations for organizing research-question memos
Review questions
Further reading
6 Querying the data and further steps in the analysis process
Skills training 6.1: getting to know the operators
Boolean operators
Proximity operators
Semantic operators

12
 Exploring the data terrain further – the journey continues
Skills training 6.2: creating and working with smart codes
Creating smart codes
Editing smart-code queries
Skills training 6.3: getting to know the Code Co-occurrence
Table
For anyone interested in the mathematics behind the c-
coefficient
Skills training 6.4: getting to know the Code-Document Table
Skills training 6.5: creating queries in the Query Tool
Starting simple: building a query using set operators
Creating a report
Building a query using proximity operators
Building more complex queries
Skills training 6.6: learning about code queries in combination
with document attributes
Skills training 6.7: creating smart groups
Skills training 6.8: working with global filters
Global filters in the Code Co-occurrence Table
Global filters in the Code-Document Table
Reflections on the use of code groups
Reflections on the use of numbers and how perfect does the code
system need to be?
Review questions
Solutions
Skills training 6.1: understanding Boolean operators
Skills training 6.5: step-by-step instruction to answer RQ6
Further reading
7 Recognizing and visualizing relationships – working with networks
Skills training 7.1: learning terminology
Skills training 7.2: using networks for conceptual-level analysis
Exploring code co-occurrences in networks
Case-based analysis in networks
Using networks to develop the storyline for your research
report
Using networks to discuss findings with your adviser or
colleague(s)
Using networks to present findings
Illustrating results from the Schwarzenegger project
Illustrating results from a media analysis of the financial

13
 crisis
Using networks in publications
Skills training 7.3: creating and working with networks
Learning how to link
Relation properties
Exploring the links
Linking multiple nodes simultaneously
Adding nodes
Removing nodes
Moving nodes
Accessing data behind nodes
Layout options
Routing
Network view options
Skills training 7.4: working with the Relations Editor
Opening the Relations Editor
Modifying an existing relation
Creating a new relation
On the use of networks for structural purposes
Dealing with case-based networks
Hyperlinks in ATLAS.ti
Examples of using hyperlinks
Skills training 7.5: working with hyperlinks
Linking quotations
Linking across tab groups
Browsing hyperlinks
Visualizing hyperlinks
Overview of all code–code links and hyperlinks
Review questions
Further reading
8 Compiling the final report – the last phase of the writing process
Contents for the method chapter
Contents for the result chapter
Skills training 8.1: exporting memos for reports
Skills training 8.2: how to quote data segments in reports
Skills training 8.3: exporting networks for reports
Contents for the appendix
Skills training 8.4: creating a code book
Skills training 8.5: exporting the document with codes in
the margin

14
 Review questions
Further reading
9 Teamwork
Decide who is going to be the project manager
Checking user accounts
Common tasks of project managers
Skills training 9.1: merging projects
Housekeeping
Common tasks of team members
Importing project bundle files
Overview of team project tasks
Scenario 1 – analyzing a common set of documents
Scenario 2 – analyzing different sets of documents
Scenario 3 – joint development of a coding frame
Scenario 4 – team projects for the classroom
Overview of the tasks for classroom projects
Scenario 4a – the teacher-guided classroom project
Scenario 4b – the teacher-guided project with more student
autonomy
Scenario 4c – for a two-semester qualitative method course
Scenario 5: inter-coder agreement
To the critics
Why reliability matters
Reliability and validity
Requirements for coding
Development of semantic domains
Multi-valued coding
Common mistakes
Measuring inter-coder agreement
Krippendorff’s family of alpha coefficients – from the
general to the specific
Other methods for analyzing inter-coder agreement
Decision rules
Skills training 9.2: analyzing inter-coder agreement
Project set-up
Performing inter-coder agreement analysis
Interpreting results
Relevance
Agreement on the presence or absence of semantic domains
Domain identification

15
 Agreement in coding within a semantic domain
Violation of mutually exclusive coding
Qualitative comparison of the codings of different coders
Epilogue
References
Index

16
Qualitative Data Analysis – online
resources

Qualitative Data Analysis with ATLAS.ti, third edition, is supported by a

wealth of online resources for students and researchers, which are
available at https://study.sagepub.com/friese3e

For students
Step-by-step Mac instructions empower Mac users to get to grips with
ATLAS.ti and learn the necessary skills for successful data analysis.

Links to video tutorials offer easy-to-follow guidance to help you master

the software at your own pace.

ATLAS.ti support links provide trusted advice straight from the experts
about doing research with the software.

Student workbooks help you revise and reflect on your learning with a
series of carefully curated further-reading resources, review questions and
more.

Sample projects give you hands-on experience of working with data in

17
ATLAS.ti and allow you to practice the full range of software techniques
like coding, linking and building networks.

Glossary flashcards help you feel confident defining specialist software

terms and understanding key concepts in qualitative analysis.

For instructors
PowerPoint slides with key topics, themes and visuals from the book are
available for you to customize and use in your own teaching.

18
Preface to the third edition

Computers, like every technology, are a vehicle for the

transformation of tradition.

Winograd and Flores (1987)

In the epilogue of the second edition of my book I wrote the following:

CAQDAS is transforming our ways of collecting, handling and

analyzing qualitative data. Trying to apply traditional manual
techniques within a software environment is similar to mounting a
dialing plate on a smartphone. I am advocating that qualitative data
analysis traditions need to be transformed – not because technology
forces us, but because it enhances the research process and allows us
to gain insights that otherwise could not have been achieved.

Another transformation you are likely to see has to do with the types
of data that will be collected, for example induced by mobile devices
and apps like ATLAS.ti mobile. Computers will become more and
more a hybrid of traditional desktop and Web-based applications
with constant access to the Internet and the World Wide Web that you
can use for communication and data collection. It is already common
practice to send text, image, audio and video messages. If CAQDAS
goes mobile, the collection of multimedia data for qualitative analysis
can be expected to follow suit. Future versions of the software are
likely to become available as both desktop and Web-based
applications. The latter will facilitate real-time cooperative work
across the globe.

Since June 2018 ATLAS.ti Cloud has been available. When this book is
published, real-time collaboration could already have been implemented.
As a Web-based application, the ATLAS.ti Cloud opens up new
possibilities for data analysis.

The cloud version is not covered in this issue of the book because (1) it is

19
still a beta version and its functionality is limited, and (2) I have to work
with a new version of the software before I can write about how best to
deal with it analytically. It takes some time to find a new workflow when
working with new software. That’s also why I did not write the third issue
of this book right after version 8 was released.

In 2010, I wrote the first edition of this book. That is now eight years ago,
and I have since continued to work on my methodological interest in how
to implement qualitative data analysis computer-aided. For example, I
have written several articles and book chapters on how to implement
different methodological approaches with ATLAS.ti. So far, these have
been ‘thematic analysis’ and ‘grounded theory’. At the most basic level,
they can be thought of as a translation process. On one side is the
methodology and on the other the software and its functionality. Filling the
void is not always easy, especially if you have to learn both. This book
contains new exercises that will help you to see which features you can use
for which methodological tasks.

I start this edition with a general description of the process of computer-

aided analysis. If ATLAS.ti is completely new to you, you will learn about
the user interface and general operation in the second chapter. The third
chapter has been expanded to include not only data and project
management topics but also explanations of how to begin the data analysis
process, including the initial data exploration and writing of memos. The
topics in Chapters 4 and 5 have been expanded – they concern the
technical and methodological aspects of coding. Chapter 4 introduces a
new section on working with focus group data, and Chapter 5 introduces a
new exercise on interpretive analysis and coding. Chapter 6 deals
exclusively with the various analysis tools. Unlike in the previous edition,
writing memos for the advanced analysis process is discussed in Chapter 5.
Several reviewers expressed the wish that I write a chapter on the
preparation of a research report: in this issue, you will find a chapter
entitled ‘Compiling the final report – the last phase of the writing process’.
This chapter is not about writing per se, because writing is part of the
analysis and is ongoing throughout the analysis process. It’s about which
parts of your ATLAS.ti project can be used in a thesis, research report or
paper. The last chapter is about teamwork, including the analysis of inter-
coder agreements. It was put at the end of the book because it is not
relevant to all readers. It does, however, refer to much of what you have
learned before, so it only works in conjunction with all the other chapters.

20
If you are a Mac user, you will find all instructions for ATLAS.ti 8 Mac on
the companion website. As ATLAS.ti offers a native Mac version so that
Mac users feel more ‘at home’, the Mac interface has menus and not
ribbons. In addition you will find some native features, like the inspector
on the right-hand side of the screen, that are not available on Windows
computers.

Throughout the book, we will be working with a sample project on

children and happiness, which I have successfully used in my workshops
over the last few years. It’s about whether children make you happy or not.
Since almost every person at some point in their lives thinks about whether
he/she wants to have children, this is an issue that works well for training
purposes worldwide and across cultures. It is also very entertaining to code
the data. In addition to this data set, you will find five other sample
projects on the companion website that cover various topics and data
types. All example projects are described in the introductory chapter.

In terms of usability for teaching, I have labeled all practical hands-on

sessions as ‘skills training’, and at the beginning of each chapter you will
find the learning objectives and a list all the skills training sessions.

In preparing the third edition, I am thankful for the continuous support of

the team at SAGE publications. Special thanks go to my editor, Alysha
Owen, who prepared the way for writing this edition, asked reviewers to
provide feedback and continuously encouraged and supported me
throughout the writing process. Further, I am grateful for the work done by
Charlotte Bush as Editorial Assistant, the Production team under Ian
Antcliff, be it copy-editing or laying out the final book, and for the work
done by Susheel Gokarakonda in marketing the book. Finally, a big ‘thank
you’ to the five anonymous reviewers who provided valuable feedback at
the various stages of writing the book.

21
ATLAS.ti key terms

ATLAS.ti: ATLAS.ti stands for ‘Archiv für Technik, Lebenswelt und

Alltagssprache’ [Archive for Technology, the Life World and Everyday
Language]. The extension ‘ti’ stands for ‘text interpretation’.

The ATLAS Project (1989–92) at the Technical University of Berlin was

the ‘birthplace’ of an early prototype of the software.

Code: Keywords linked to quotations.

Code book: A table that contains the code label, the code definition and
the code group(s). The code book may be sorted in alphabetical order, by
categories and their subcategories, or by code groups. I recommend the
second option. The code book can be exported as a report by ATLAS.ti
from the Code Manager.

Code comment: While coding, you can write notes in the code comment
field to explain what you mean by this code and how you want to use it. In
the course of the analysis, these comments should be extended to
comprehensive code definitions.

Code Co-occurrence tools: The Code Co-occurrence Explorer allows you

to explore which codes you have applied in an overlapping manner. The
Code Co-occurrence Table can be used for a cross-tabulation of selected
codes. Thus, you should already have an idea which codes you want to
relate to each other. The results can be exported as an Excel table.

Code definition: A code definition describes the meaning of a code and

how it has been or should be applied to the data. It can contain a coding
rule and an example of a typical data segment coded with this code.

Writing code definitions helps to improve the methodological rigor of a

study. It forces the researcher to think about the meaning of a code in
comparison to other codes. While going through the list of codes and
writing code definitions, you may notice that the codes have different
labels but no distinct meaning. Those codes can then be merged under one
common label – or you change the definition in such a way that the codes
become distinct. The aim should be that all codes can be applied

22
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 or notches are not gilt.
¾ real size—Norway.

Fig. 884.—Shield
boss. ⅓ real size.
Found in round
tumulus with a
spear-head, &c.—
Norway.

The shield of Bragi Boddason, presented to him as a gift by the

famous Ragnar Lodbrók, seems to have been divided into four
sections, each containing a separate subject:—Sörli and Hamdir
killing Jórmunrek and avenging Svanhild;[104] Gefjon ploughing
Selund out of Sweden;[105] Thór fishing the serpent (Midgardsorm);
the everlasting fight between Högni and Hédin, which last is as
follows:—

“King Hédin, son of Hjarrandi, took Hild, daughter of King Högni,

away while he was absent from home. When Högni heard this he
pursued him, and found him on Háey (Hoy, High Island), one of the
Orkneys. Hédin offered him much gold as indemnity, but Högni said:
‘Thou offerest peace too late, for now I have drawn the sword
Dáinsleif, which was made by the Dvergar, which causes a man’s
death every time it is unsheathed; the wounds cut by it are never
healed.’ Hédin said: ‘Thou boasteth of thy sword, and not of victory;
I call every sword good which is faithful to its master’ (owner). Then
they began the battle called Hjadninga-fight, and they fought all that
day, and at night went to their ships. During the night Hild went to
the field of the slain, and with witchcraft called all the dead to life
again. The next day the kings went to the battle-field, and all those
who had been killed the day before fought with them. Day after day
the battle went on, and all the slain and all the weapons in the
battle-field and the armour changed into stones. But at daybreak all
the dead men rose and fought, and all their weapons could be used.
It is told in songs that the Hjadnings shall remain thus till ragnarök
(the last fight of the gods)” (Later Edda, Skaldskaparmál, ch. 50).

Fig. 885.—Shield,
Gokstad ship; about 3
feet in diameter.

Fig. 886.—Front view of

shield handle of bronze,
found by the side of a
skeleton.—Skogsby, Öland.
½ real size.

From some passages in the Sagas it seems that some of the shields
were so large that men could be laid on them, and that some were
oblong, as represented in wood-carvings and on the Bayeux
tapestry.

“Then the king made ready and went along the valley; he selected a
resting-place for the night where all his men came together and lie
in the open air under their shields” (St. Olaf’s Saga, ch. 219).

“When Olaf was in the Syllingar (Scilly Islands) a hermit prophesied

to him ‘that he would get severely wounded in a fight, and be
carried on a shield on board his ship; that he would be cured in
seven nights, and then be baptized;’ and this proved to be true”
(Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga (Heimskringla), ch. 32).

Brynja, or ring coats-of-mail, are often alluded to, and the benches
in Odin’s hall were covered with them. We have seen from the finds
that Brynjas were used at a very early period, probably even before
the Christian era. They were made long and short—some, in fact,
were so short as not to cover the stomach. Only in two instances is
the spanga-brynja, or plate coat-of-mail, mentioned. Occasionally
brynjas are described as being made of gold. We read that the loss
of the famous battle of Stamford Bridge by Harald Hardradi was
attributed to his men having left their coats-of-mail on board their
ship. Many coats-of-mail are described as being impervious to
weapons, owing, no doubt, to their wonderful workmanship and the
hardness of the rings.
Some of the poetical names given to brynjas are:—
The woof of spears.
War-woof.
Ring-shirt.
Tent of Hlokk.
Shirt of Gunnar.
Shirt of Odin.
Grey clothes of Odin.
Cloak of kings.
Blue shirt.
Battle-cloak.

From the following account we see that some of these coats-of-mail

were made thicker than others:—

“Hjálmar said: ‘I want to fight Angantyr, for I have a brynja in which

I have never been wounded; it is set with fourfold rings’” (Orvar
Odd’s Saga, ch. 14).
In the sea-fight between Olaf and Svein jarl—

“The latter had more men, but the king had picked men on his ship,
and they were so well equipped that every one had a brynja; and on
this occasion they did not get wounded” (St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 47).[106]

Fig. 887.

Fig. 888.

Bronze plates, with raised figures, found

in Öland. ¾ real size. Frey’s boar. The
horned helmet similar to one in the
British Museum.

Helgi Hardbeinsson, was told by his herdsman that he had seen

many armed men, who had come to kill him, and he thus described
the war-dress of one of them, as they sat in a circle taking their
morning meal (day-meal):—

“He had on a coat of plate-mail[107] and a steel cap, the brim of

which was as wide as a hand’s breadth, and a shining axe on his
shoulder, the edge of which seemed to be two feet long. He had
black eyes, and was very viking-like in appearance” (Laxdœla Saga,
c. 63).
Helmets (hjálm) are often mentioned; they were generally gilt, or of
gold. On the front of them was a herkumbl (war-mark). From several
bronze plates we see that they were sometimes made in the shape
of animals. The Saga says of King Adils that he had a helmet called
Hildigölt (war-boar). In the finds they are extremely rare; one of
silver has been found, and a fragment of another inlaid with gold,
and one or two of iron.

The viking Framar is thus described: “He wore a helmet on his head,
and was girt with a sword; had a gold-enamelled gull-smeltr shield,
and a spear in his hand” (Sturlaug Starfsamis Saga, ch. 11).

Fig. 889.—Helmet of iron, ¼

real size, found in the
decayed remains of a small
ship buried in the Ultuna
mound not far from Upsala.

Olaf Haraldsson, when he was about to fight the battle at Ness

against Svein jarl:

“Had on his ship one hundred men, and they had on ring coats-of-
mail and Welsh (foreign) helmets. Most of his men had white
shields, and on them was the holy cross in gold, but some were
painted with red or blue; he had painted crosses in white on the
front of all helmets. He had a white standard which was a serpent”
(St. Olaf’s Saga, c. 47).[108]
 CHAPTER VII.
WAR CUSTOMS.

Marking and choosing the battle-field—The war arrow—Peace

and war shields—Age when called to arms—The guest
expected to fight for his host—War horses—Formation of an
army—Standards—War booty—Chivalry in war.

To such warlike people, well-regulated laws or customs in regard to

war were necessary. It seems to have been the right, from very
ancient times, of the chief whose land was invaded to choose the
battle-field[109] where the conflict was to take place. The battle-field
was marked with poles, and no plundering was allowed before the
end of the decisive battle. The messengers who brought the
summons for the conflict, and those who afterwards came to
announce that the combatants were ready, were protected.

“King Hakon sent word to the sons of Eirik (Blood-axe), and asked
them to go ashore, as he had enhazeled a field for them at
Rastarkalf; there are level and large plains, on the top of which is a
long but low hillside. Then Eirik’s men left their ships” (Hakon the
Good’s Saga, c. 24; Heimskringla).

After the declaration of war the war-arrow was sent, to summon the
warriors, when all who were able to carry arms had to turn out,
whether thralls or free men. The sending of the war-arrow seems to
imply that the message should be carried swiftly.
“When a man carries war-news he shall raise an iron arrow at the
end of the land. That arrow shall go with the lendirmen, and be
carried on a manned ship both by night and by day (i.e., never stop)
along the high road (on the sea). Those who drop that arrow are to
be outlaws. A wooden arrow shall go into the fjords from the high
road, and be carried with witnesses, and each man shall carry it on
to the other. The one who drops it must pay a fine of three marks.
When it comes where a woman lives alone, she must procure ships
and food and men if she can. But if she cannot, the arrow shall be
carried onwards. Every man in whose house the arrow comes is
summoned within five days on board a ship. If any one sits quiet he
is outlawed, for both thegn and thrall shall go”[110] (Earlier Gulathing
Law, c. 312).

“When news came to Einar Thambarskeltir about King Olaf’s journey,

he at once took a war-arrow and sent it in four directions,
summoning thegn and thrall with full war-dress to come and defend
the country against the king. The arrow summons went to Orkadal,
and then to Ganlardal, and all the host gathered together”[111] (St.
Olaf’s Saga, c. 37).

Every warrior went to battle combed and washed, and after having
eaten well.
There were peace and war shields, the former white and the latter
red; when the first was hoisted on a ship it was a sign for a
cessation of the conflict, while the appearance of the later on the
masthead, or in the midst of a body of men, was a sign of hostility.
Another sign was the throwing of a spear or shooting of an arrow
over the host. The battles always began by the blowing of the horns.
The horn seems to have been the earliest instrument known. No
horns belonging to the iron age have been found, though so often
mentioned in the Sagas, from which we must suppose that, unlike
those of the bronze age, they were of wood.
When the Volsungs approached to attack the sons of Hunding with
their fleet, and neared the shores, and were asked what they came
for,
Sinfjötli replied—
Hoisted up to the yard
A red shield;
The rim was of gold.

(Helgakvida Hundingsbana, i. 33.)

Their standards stood by the leaders, and were protected by a shield

burgh, that is, surrounded by a circle of men armed, besides their
offensive weapons, with shields.

“King Magnus Barefoot went from Vikin with some of his lendirmen
to procure the submission of Sveinki, a powerful bondi, who resided
near the Gauta river. When they came ashore they saw Sveinki
coming from his bu with a host of well-equipped men. The
lendirmen raised a white shield, and when Steinki noticed this he
stopped his band, and they met” (Magnus Barefoot, c. 8).[112]

“As the host of Snorri passed below by the mountain-side, Steinthor

threw a spear over the host of Snorri, according to ancient custom,
for the sake of good luck” (Eyrbyggja, c. 44).

It seems that the age at which the youth of the country were called
to bear arms was fifteen years, when they became of age. If the
country was in great peril they could be called out at the age of
twelve; but from eighteen upwards seems to have been the age
when young men were most appreciated.
 A short time the king
Waited for a fight
When he was
Fifteen winters old
He slew
The hard Hunding,
Who long ruled over
Lands and men.

The guest, like the hostage, was expected to fight and help his host.

“Next spring Half was twelve winters old, and no man was as tall or
as strong as he. Then he made ready to go on warfare, and had a
new and well-outfitted ship. In Hördaland there was a Jarl named Alf
the old. He was married to Gunnlöd, daughter of the Berserk
Hromund, sister of the hersir Hámund the valiant. They had two
sons, both named Stein. The elder was then eighteen winters old.
He was at that time the advice-giver of King Half. No one could go
on expeditions who was younger or more youthful than he. A large
stone lay in the yard, and no one was allowed to go who could not
lift it from the ground; nor could any one go who was not so hardy
that he never was afraid, or who spoke words of fear, or drew back
his lips (changed countenance) on account of wounds.”
“Stein the younger, Gunnlöd’s son, was not able to go on account of
his age, for he was only twelve winters old” (Half, and Half’s
Champions’ Saga, c. 10).

Horses used for war could not be less than three years old, except in
cases of great danger, when they could be taken at the age of two
years.
One of the formations of an army was that of “Svinfylking” (swine-
array), or a triangle. This array was adopted in the Bravalla battle,
[113]
where it is said to have been introduced by Odin himself, thus
showing its great antiquity.
Sigmund Brestisson, the famous champion of the Faroes, in the time
of Hakon Jarl made a raid into Sweden. One of the chiefs of the King
of Sweden, by name Björn, gathered a numerous host and cut
Sigmund off from his ships. One day when they saw the host of the
land, the men of Sigmund talked of what they should resolve to do.
Sigmund said:

“‘There are yet many good chances, and very often the more
numerous host does not gain the victory, if there are fearless men
against them. Now we will make a resolve to arrange our host in
swine-array. We kinsmen, I and Thorir, will be foremost, and then
three and five white shielded men shall stand on the flanks; and I
think it our best plan to rush at their array, and see if we can thus
get through it, and the Swedes will not stand firmly on the field.’
This they did, rushed at the array of the Swedes, and broke through
it” (Flateyjarbok, i., p. 140).

It seems the shieldburg was at the apex of the triangle.

“If thou art in a battle on shore, and hast to fight on foot, and art at
the point of the svin-fylking, then it is very important in the earlier
part of the battle that good care is taken that the locked shieldburgh
be not broken or opened” (Konung’s Skuggsja, p. 85).

They had their army formations like trained soldiers.

The hosts, when in order of battle, were divided into sveitir
(detachments), and a number of these formed a fylking; the
strength of each probably varied according to the number of men
who took part in the war.

“King Olaf made the following speech to his host before the battle of
Stiklastadir:—‘We have a large and fine host. Now I will tell you how
I want to array my men. I want to let my standard move forward in
the middle of the host, and my hird and gestir shall follow it,
together with those who joined me from Upplönd and Thrándheim.
To the right of my standard Dag Hringsson shall stand, and the men
with whom he joined us. He shall have another standard. To the left
of my fylking shall stand the men from the King of Sweden and all
those who joined us in Sviaveldi. They shall have the third standard.
I want my men to form detachments, and friends and kinsmen shall
stand together, for then each will defend the other best, and they
will know each other.
“‘We shall mark all our men by making a war-sign on our helmets
and shields, namely, paint on them the holy cross in white.
“‘When we come forward into battle we shall all have the same
watchword: “Forward, forward, Christ-men, cross-men, king’s men.”
We must have thin arrays if we have fewer men, for I do not want
them to surround us.
“‘Now form sveitir. Then the sveitir shall be put together to form
fylkings, and each man must then know his place and mind in what
direction he stands from the standard to which he belongs. We will
keep our fylking and be fully armed day and night till we know
where we meet the bœndr.’ When he had spoken they arrayed
themselves, and arranged as the king had told them” (St. Olaf’s
Saga, c. 216).

“The chief Kalf Arnason raised his banner, and placed his huskarls
and Harek of Thjotta and his men round it. Thorir Hund with his host
was in front of the host, and in front of the standards” (St. Olaf’s
Saga, ch. 233).

Standards, often very elaborately worked, were used both on sea

and land; some of these had great reputations, and picked warriors
were always chosen to carry them, each fylking having one. The
poets or scalds seem to have stood close to them in the shieldburg.
“He, Egil Ullserk, was an old bondi who had been a great warrior,
and for a long time carried the banner of Harald the Fairhaired. He
said: ‘I feared for some time, while this great peace lasted, that I
should die from old age on my bench, and I wished rather to fall in
battle with my chief; now it may happen so’” (Heimskringla, Hakon
the Good, c. 23).

“One summer the Scotch Jarl Finnleik staked out with hazels a
battle-field for Sigurd at Skidamyri on an appointed day. Sigurd went
to consult his mother, who knew many things. He told her that there
would be against him not less than seven to one. She replied: ‘I
would have raised thee in my wool chest if I had been certain that
thou wouldst live for ever. Better is it to die with honour, than to live
in shame. Take this merki (standard), which I have made with my
best skill, and which I believe will be victorious for those before
whom it is carried, but deadly to him who carries it.’ The standard
was made with great hard-work and renowned skill. It was in the
shape of a raven, and when the wind blew on it it seemed as if the
raven spread his wings. Sigurd Jarl became very angry at his
mother’s words, and gave the Orkney islanders their odals to help
him; he went against Finnleik Jarl at Skidamyri, and both arrayed
their men. When the fight began, the Scots slew the standard-bearer
of Sigurd Jarl; he appointed another to carry it, but after a while he
fell; three standard-bearers were slain, but the Jarl was victorious”
(Flateyjarbók, vol. i.).

War booty.—The regulations about the spoils, which were very strict,
were divided into shares by lot or choice. It was the custom after the
battle, before the division took place, to carry the plunder to a pole
fixed in the ground, where it was counted and valued.

“Then the king (Sverrir) lay at Höfudey; he had the booty carried up
on a plain in the south of the island, and divided into four parts.
Then a Husthing (house thing) was summoned by blowing horns,
and he spoke to his men. Thereupon he made them go under a pole
(stöng); it was scored (i.e., an incision was made for every twenty
men) to show how many men he had; they were more than 40
hundred (4,000)” (King Sverri’s Saga, c. 136).

“In the spring the foster-brothers made ready to leave home with
fifteen ships; Beli steered the dragon which Slisa-Úti had owned; it
was costly; its beaks were carved and much gilded. King Beli got the
dragon, for it was the best thing of the booty they got from Úti, and
it was their custom that Beli always got the best of what they took
as booty” (Thorstein Vikingsson’s Saga, c. 21).

While reading the Sagas which speak of the most ancient events, we
find a great and chivalrous spirit animating the warriors, champion
fought against champion when others were looking on, man was
against man. It was not manly to attack a champion that was
fighting with another. We have several examples of men challenging
to fight with an equal number of ships.
It is only in the later part of the pagan era that this high-minded
spirit disappears.

“Thorstein asked the Viking: ‘Who is talking to us?’ ‘His name is Ljót,’
he replied. Thorstein said, ‘For a long time I have been looking for
thee.’ Ljót answered: ‘What dost thou want from me? I have never
seen thee, though I have heard of thy renown.’ Thorstein added:
‘Short is my errand to thee; I want to make a division of property
with thee, on the condition that thou shalt go ashore with thy
weapons and clothes, but thy men only in shirts and linen breeches.’
Ljót said: ‘An unequal condition does that seem; but is there any
other?’ ‘The other,’ Thorstein added, ‘is that we shall fight.’ Ljót
asked where were his warriors that he made such a challenge. ‘My
equipment,’ Thorstein replied, ‘is ten ships.’ Ljót arose and said: ‘Too
unequal does this seem to me, and I will rather fight thee than thus
shamefully leave my property.’ ‘Then put forward all your ships,’
Thorstein replied, ‘against mine.’ Ljót said: ‘I will not agree to that
condition, to have more ships in the battle than thou, for that I have
never done; but I have had fewer ships and yet always been
victorious.’ Thorstein replied: ‘Thou needest not spare me thus.’ Ljót
said: ‘I will not put forward more; but if thou clearest one vessel, I
will put another instead.’ ‘So be it,’ Thorstein said” (Svarfdæla Saga,
c. 5).

Among the laws of the Vikings, and one that was most honourably
observed, was the compact made not to plunder a country or attack
a man where there was fridland[114] (peaceland), or a kind of asylum
where men could come at all times on their way from one country to
another, or going and coming from an expedition, or for some other
reason.

“Gunnlaug was once with Sigurd jarl of Western Gautland, and

messengers came there with gifts from Eirik jarl, Hakon’s son, of
Norway. When questioned who of the two jarls was the more
famous, Gunnlaug in a stanza decided for Eirik. The messengers told
Eirik this when they came back to Norway. The jarl thought that
Gunnlaug had shown courage and friendship towards him, and said
that he should have peace-land in his realm” (Gunnlaug Ormstunga’s
Saga, c. 8).

“It is said that King Gorm and his son Harald disagreed when Harald
was of age. Gorm therefore resolved to give him some ships, and
thus get rid of him. Every summer he went far on Viking expeditions,
but every winter he was in Denmark and had peace-land there”
(Flateyjarbók, vol. i., p. 104).

The Viking customs point to a high code of honour, though there

seem to have been general laws acknowledged by all. Special
regulations were enacted by particular bodies of men or by different
chiefs.

The Jomsviking Laws.—“After this (the building of Jómsborg),

Pálnatóki, with the advice of wise men, made laws in Jómsborg, in
order that their strength might increase. No man older than fifty and
younger than eighteen winters could be received in the following of
Pálnatóki; they were all to be between these two ages. No man
could be received there who would run (in fighting) from one equally
able and equipped. Every man who entered their following had to
make a strong vow that each would avenge the other like a food-
companion or brother. Not a man was to kindle slander among them.
Also, though news was heard there, no man was to be so rash as to
tell it, for Pálnatóki first had to tell all tidings. Any one who
committed what has now been forbidden and broke these laws was
to be cast out and driven from their community. Also if one had been
received who had slain a brother or father or very near kinsman of a
man who was there before him, and it was found out after his
reception, then Pálnatóki should judge this. No one should have a
woman within the burgh, or be absent from it more than three
nights (days) unless with the permission of Pálnatóki. Everything
that they got in war they were to carry to the poles, larger and
lesser things and all kinds of property. If it was proved that any one
had not done this he had to leave the burgh, whether it was much
or little which he had kept back. No man there should utter a word
of fear or apprehension, however hopeless matters looked. Nothing
could occur within the burgh over which Pálnatóki should not have
full power to rule as he liked. If men who were not in the community
wished to enter, ties of friendship or kinship should have no
influence. Even though the men of the commonwealth asked that
others might enter, it would not help. They now sat in the burgh in
good peace and kept their laws well. Every summer they went out
and made war in different countries, got high renown, and were
looked on as the greatest warriors; hardly any others were thought
their equals at this time, and they were always, after this, called
Jomsvikings” (Jomsvikinga Saga, c. 23, 24).

Fridthjof’s Laws.—Fridthjof, after being outlawed from Norway, for

causing the burning of Baldr’s temple, went on Viking expeditions.

“He obtained much property and honour wherever he went; he killed

criminals and Vikings, but bœndr and traders he left in peace. He
was then again called Fridthjof the bold” (Fridthjof’s Saga, c. 11).

“It has been the custom (shortly before the time of Harald Fairhair,
800 A.D.) for powerful men, kings, or jarls, or equals, to be in
warfare, and acquire property and honour; and that property must
not be inherited, nor son get it after his father, but be placed in their
mound with themselves. Though their sons got the lands (powerful
men, kings, or jarls), they could not uphold their position, even if
they got dignity with them (the lands), except they placed
themselves and their men in danger and warfare, thus earning
property and honour one after another, and thus stepping into the
footprints of their kinsmen. I suppose that the laws of warriors are
unknown to thee, and I could teach thee them; as thou now art
come to such an age that it is time for thee to try what luck will
grant thee” (Vatnsdœla Saga, c. 2).

Hjalmar’s and Orvar Odd’s Laws.—“Hjalmar said: ‘I will have no

other Viking laws but those I have had hitherto.’ Odd replied: ‘When
I hear them I will know how I like them.’ Hjalmar said: ‘First I will
never eat raw food, nor shall any of my men, for it is the custom of
many men to squeeze meat under their clothes and then call it
cooked; that is acting more like wolves than men. I will never rob
traders or bœndr except when I must make a raid upon land for my
men when in need, and then I will pay full value. Never will I rob
women, though we find them on land with much property, nor shall
women be brought on board against their will; if a woman can show
that it has been done against her will, the man shall lose his life for
it, whether he is powerful or not’” (Orvar Odd’s Saga, c. 9).
King Half’s Laws.—so named after this mighty king. Of him it is said:
The valiant land-defender
Did not enjoy his life
In deeds of renown
As he ought to have;
The king went on warfare
When twelve winters old;
He was thirty when he died.

We had all
A host of hawk-men[115]
Wherever the wise-minded one
Tried his fame;
With grey helmets
We went through
Nine folk-lands
All full large.

I saw Half hewing

With both hands;
The chief had not
A sheltering shield before him;
No man will find,
Though he journey widely,
A nobler heart,
Or a bolder one.

Men say,
Who do not know,
That Half’s renown
Was the result of folly;
The one who attributed
Strength of folly
To the Halogaland king
Knows him not.

He bade the warriors

Not to fear death,
Nor to utter
Words of fright;
No one should
Follow the king
Unless he followed
The fate of the king.
 The friends of the king
Must not groan
Though they get
Large wounds in battle;
Nor should they let
Their wounds be dressed
Before the next day
At the same time.

He bade in the host

Not to grieve men with fetters,
Nor do any harm
To a man’s wife;
He bade that every maid
Should be bought with mund,
With fine gold,
And the consent of her father.

(Half’s Saga).

“Many things were forbidden in their laws (Half’s champions) so that

they might become the greater champions. One law was, that no
one of them should have a sword longer than two feet, so close was
the fight to be; they had saxes made, so that their blows might be
heavier. No one of them had less strength than twelve average men
together. They never captured women or children. No one of them
should dress his wounds until one day had passed (from the time he
got it). No man of less strength or bravery than has been stated was
accepted. They made warfare widely about the country, and were
always victorious. King Half was eighteen summers on warfare, and
always gained the victory. It was their custom always to lie before
the capes; another of their customs was never to put up tents on
board, and never to reef the sail in a storm. They were called Half’s
Rekkar (champions), and he never had more than sixty on board his
ship” (Half’s Saga, c. 11).

Houses were frequently burnt as revenge with the enemy inside, but
it was the general custom to let women, servants, and also
individuals of the family, against whom no grudge was harboured, or
from whom no revenge was feared, get out of the house before it
was fired.
Flosi, an Icelandic chief, who had surrounded the house of Njál, and
was going to set fire to it, said to Njál:

‘I will not be reconciled to thy sons; and now it shall be fought out
with us, and I will not go away before they are all dead, but I will
allow women and children and húskarls (servants) to go out.’ Njál
went in and said to his people: ‘Now all who are allowed shall go
out. Go out, Thórhalla, Asgrim’s daughter, and all who are allowed
with thee.’ Thórhalla said: ‘Now Helgi and I part otherwise than I
thought for a while, but nevertheless I will urge my father and
brothers to avenge the men slain here.’ Njál said: ‘Thou wilt act well,
for thou art a good wife.’ Then she went out, with many others....
“Flosi said: ‘I will offer thee to go out, Njál bóndi, for thou deservest
not to be burnt.’ Njál said: ‘I will not go out, for I am an old man,
and little able to avenge my sons, but I will not live with shame.’
Flosi said to Bergthóra: ‘Go out, housewife, for I will by no means
burn thee.’ Bergthóra answered: ‘I was young when I married Njál,
and I have promised him to let the same overtake us both.’ Then
they both went in. Bergthóra said: ‘What shall we now do?’ ‘We will
go to our bed,’ said Njál, ‘and lie down. I have long been fond of
rest.’ She then said to the boy Thord Karason: ‘Thou shalt go out
and not be burnt with us.’ The boy answered: ‘Thou hast promised
me, grandmother, that we should never part while I wished to
remain with thee, and I like it much better to die with thee and Njál
than to live after you.’ She then carried the boy to the bed. Njál said
to his bryti (steward): ‘Now look where we lie down, and how I
make our bed, for I intend not to move from here, whether smoke
or flame pains me, then thou canst guess where our bones are to be
found’” (Njala, c. 129).
Here we have an account of the death of Thorólf, one of the
greatest blots on the character of Harald Fairhair.

“They (King Harald and his men) came to Sandnes (estate of Thorólf
Kveldulfsson) after sunset, and saw a tent-covered longship afloat in
front of the bæ, and knew that it belonged to Thorólf. He was about
to leave the country, and had let his parting-ale be warmed.[116]
“The watchmen of Thorólf sat inside drinking, and nobody was on
the watch. The king (Harald Fairhair) surrounded the hall with a
circle of men; then they raised a war-cry, and a blast was blown on
the king’s horn. When Thorólf and his men heard this, they rushed
for their weapons, for all the weapons of every man hung above his
seat. The king had proclaimed at the door of the hall that women,
young men, old men, thralls and bondmen should go out. Sigrid,
wife of Thorólf, the women who were inside, and the men who were
allowed, went out. Sigrid asked if the sons of Berdlukari were there;
they both stepped forward and asked what she wanted. ‘Follow me
to the king,’ she said. They did so; and as she came to him she
asked: ‘Is it of any use, lord, to try to reconcile you with Thorólf?’
The king answered: ‘If Thorólf will surrender unconditionally he shall
be spared, but his men shall be punished according to their guilt.’
After that Ölvir Hnufa entered the hall, and told Thorólf the terms of
the king. Thorólf replied quickly that he would accept no hard
conditions nor reconciliation from the king. ‘Ask him to give us leave
to go out, and let it then go as fate decides.’ Ölvir told the king the
answer of Thorólf. The king said: ‘You must set the hall on fire; I will
not lose my men in fighting against him outside, for I think he will
cause us a great loss of men if he gets out, though he has fewer
men than we.’ Then fire was set to the hall, and it burned quickly, for
the timber was dry and the walls tarred, and the roof was thatched
with birch-bark. Thorólf bade his men break off the wainscoting, get
at the gable-beams, and then break the weather-boards. When they
got hold of the beams, one of these was taken by as many men as
could get hold of it, and pushed out at the corner so strongly that
the clamps fell off outside, and the walls broke, leaving a large
opening. Thorólf went out first, then Thorgils gjallandi (loud-
speaking), and all, one after the other. A most severe fight began,
and for a while it was impossible to see who would win, because the
house protected their backs. Many of the king’s men were killed
before the house began to burn; then the fire attacked Thorólf’s
men, and many of them fell. Thorólf ran forward and dealt blows on
both sides, and there was little need to dress the wounds of those
whom he wounded. He pushed forward to where the king’s standard
was, and at that moment Thorgils gjallandi fell. When Thorólf came
to the shieldburgh he thrust his sword through the standard-bearer
and said: ‘Now I stepped three feet too short (I should have stepped
three feet longer forward).’ Swords and spears struck him, and the
king himself dealt him a fatal wound, and Thorólf fell down at his
feet. The king ordered that they should leave off killing the men,
which was done. He then made his men go down to the ships,
telling Ölvir Hnufa and his brother: ‘Take Thorólf, your kinsman, and
give his body a becoming preparation, and bury the others who have
fallen, and let the wounds of such as are likely to live be dressed.
Let nothing be taken hence, for it is all my property.’ He went down
to his ships, and with him most of his men, and they began to dress
their wounds, and the king walked about the ship and looked at
them. He saw where a man was dressing a slight wound, and
remarked that Thorólf had not given that, for his weapons bit quite
another way. ‘I think that few can dress the wounds he gave, and
the death of such men is a great loss’” (Egil’s Saga, c. 22).

“Odd went to his father Grim and said: ‘Now tell me of the viking
whom thou knowest to be the greatest one.’ Grim said: ‘You are
strong men and you seem to think that nothing can withstand you;
now I will tell you of two vikings of whom I know that they are the
greatest and best skilled in everything; one is called Hjalmar
Hugumstóri (the high-minded), and the other, Thórd Stafnglama.’
‘Where are they,’ said Odd, ‘and how many ships have they?’ ‘They
have fifteen ships,’ said Grim, ‘and one hundred men on each.’
‘Where have they peace-land?’ said Odd. ‘In Sweden there is a king
called Hlödver; they are with him during winter and lie on their war-
ships during summer.’ When they were ready they walked down to
their ships; Grim followed them down and bade his son farewell with
great love” (Orvar Odd’s Saga, c. 8).

“It is told that Odd sailed from Hrafnista when he got a fair wind,
and nothing is said of their journey before they came to Sweden,
where a cape ran out from the mainland into the sea; they put up
tents on their ships there. Odd went ashore for news; he saw that
fifteen ships lay on the other side of the cape and that war-tents
were ashore. He saw plays going on near the tents. Hjalmar and
Thord steered these ships. Odd went back to his ships and told this
news. Gudmund (his foster-brother) asked what they should do. Odd
said: ‘We will divide our men in two halves; you shall go with your
ships past the ness and raise a battle-cry against those who are
ashore; I will land with the other half and go along the forest and
there raise another battle-cry; then it may be that they get
somewhat startled; I think they will flee away into the forest and
that no more is needed.’ It is told of Hjalmar and his men that they
were not in the least startled when they heard the battle-cry of
Gudmund. When they heard another battle-cry upon land they
stopped the play while it lasted and then continued as before. Now
Odd and Gudmund went to the other side of the ness and met. Odd
said: ‘I know not for certain whether these men are so full of fear
whom we have found here.’ ‘What wilt thou now do?’ said Gudmund.
‘That is soon told,’ said Odd; ‘we will not steal at these men; we will
stay this night at the ness (cape) till morning.’ Next morning they
went ashore with all their men towards Hjalmar, who had his men
war-dressed when he saw them go up on land and went to meet
them. Hjalmar asked when they met who was the leader. Odd
answered: ‘There are more chiefs than one here.’ ‘What is thy
name?’ said Hjalmar. ‘My name is Odd, son of Grim Lodinkinni (hairy
cheek) from Hranfista.’ ‘Art thou the Odd who went to Bjarmaland
shortly ago, and what is thy errand hither?’ Odd said: ‘I wish to
know which of us is the greater man.’ ‘How many ships hast thou?’
asked Hjalmar. ‘I have five ships,’ said Odd, ‘and how many have
you?’ ‘We have fifteen ships,’ answered Hjalmar. ‘That is great odds,’
said Odd. ‘Ten ship-crews shall not take part in the battle,’ said
Hjalmar, ‘and man fight against man.’ Both made themselves ready
for battle, arrayed their men and fought all day. At night the peace-
shield was raised, and Hjalmar asked Odd how he liked the fight of
that day; Odd answered: ‘Well.’ ‘Wilt thou play this game oftener?’
said Hjalmar. ‘No other intention have I,’ answered Odd, ‘for I never
found better or hardier champions; we will begin the battle again in
full daylight.’ This was done; the men went to their war-booths and
dressed their wounds. Next morning both arrayed their men for
battle and fought all that day; when it began to grow dark a peace-
shield was raised. Odd asked how Hjalmar liked the fighting of that
day; he said: ‘Well.’ ‘Wilt thou,’ said Hjalmar, ‘try this game the third
day?’ Odd replied: ‘Then we shall fight it out.’ Thord said: ‘Can we
expect much property on your ships?’ ‘Far from that,’ said Odd, ‘we
have got no property this summer.’ ‘I think,’ said Thord, ‘I have
nowhere met more foolish men than here, for we only fight out of
pride and rivalry.’ ‘What wilt thou then?’ said Odd.” (Orvar Odd Saga,
c. 9).
 CHAPTER VIII.
ROCK-TRACINGS.
[117]

Great antiquity of the rock-tracings—A silent history of the

people—Their abundance on the Cattegat—Ships or boats,
fights, warriors, horses, cattle, camels, turtles, mystic signs,
etc., representing warriors with horned helmets—Similar
helmets found—The bas-relief of the temple of Medinet Habou
—Large size of rock-tracings—The peculiar rock-tracings of
Järrestad and Simris—Peculiar bowl-shaped hollows.

Among the interesting mementoes of the past which help us to get

an insight into the life of the earlier inhabitants of the peninsula of
Scandinavia are the “rock-tracings,”[118] which are of great antiquity,
long before the Roman period, large pictures engraved on the rocks,
which, like the pyramids and sphinxes of Egypt, bear witness to the
unwritten history of the people.
These illustrations are of different kinds and sizes: the most
numerous being the drawings of ships or boats, canoe-shaped, and
alike at both ends (with figures of men and animals), and of fleets
fighting against each other, or making an attack upon the shore. The
hero of the fight or the champion is generally depicted as much
larger than the other combatants, who probably were of one people,
though of different tribes, for their arms are similar, and all seem
without clothing, though in some cases they are represented as
wearing a helmet or a shield, in order to protect them against the
blows of their adversaries.
 Fig. 890.—Rock-tracing,
Tanum parish, Bohuslän;
large figure probably a
champion; numerous
small holes, and
footprints between the
champion and attacking
force. Height, 20 feet;
width, 15 feet.

On some rocks are representations of cattle, horses, reindeer,

turtles, ostriches, and camels, the latter showing that in earlier times
these people were acquainted with more southern climes; the
greatest number, and the largest and most complicated in detail of
the tracings, occur, especially in the present Sweden, on the shores
of the Cattegat, in Bohuslän, “the ancient Viken of the Sagas,” on
the coast of the peninsula washed by the Cattegat. They are also
found in Norway, especially in Smaalenene, a province contiguous to
that of Bohuslän, but more scarce in the north, though found on the
Trondhjem fjord.
 Fig. 891.—Rock-tracing—turtle, cuttle-fish,
dromedary, and another animal (possibly
a lion), ships, and a footprint. Height,
10½ feet; width, 15 feet.—Ryxö, Brastad
parish, Bohuslän.

Fig. 892.—Rock-tracing
representing reindeer,
and probably a horse in
a boat. Height, 5 feet;
width, 12½ feet.—
Massleberg, Skee parish,
Bohuslän.

Fig. 893.—Hill showing

rock-tracings.

In Bohuslän the tracings are cut in the quartz, which is the

geological formation of the coast: they are mostly upon slightly
inclined rocks, which are generally two or three hundred feet or
more above the present level of the sea, and which have been
polished by the action of the ice. The width of the lines in the same
representation varies from one to two inches, and even more; and
their depth is often only a third or fourth of an inch, and at times so
shallow as to be barely perceptible. Those tracings, which have for
hundreds, perhaps for thousands, of years been laid bare to the
ravages of the northern climate, are now most difficult to decipher,
while those which have been protected by earth are as fresh as if
they had been cut to-day; many seem to have been cut near the
middle or base of the hills, which were covered with vegetation, and
were in the course of time concealed by the detritus from above.

Fig. 894.—Part of rock-tracing,

Brastad parish, Bohuslän, with
numerous figures, nearly one
hundred in number, varying in
size from two inches to several
feet, and mystic or symbolical
footprints.

Fig. 895.—Rock-tracing
—men fighting with
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